1407:, but this is too reductive and not the case with the majority of scholarly work. In fact, most anthropologists who work in impoverished areas desire the same economic relief for the people they study as policymakers, however they are wary about the assumptions and models on which development interventions are based. Anthropologists and others who critique development projects instead view Western development itself as a product of Western culture that must be refined in order to better help those it claims to aid. The problem therefore is not that of markets driving out culture, but of the fundamental blind-spots of Western developmental culture itself. Criticism often focuses therefore on the cultural bias and blind-spots of Western development institutions, or modernization models that: systematically represent non-Western societies as more deficient than the West; erroneously assume that Western modes of production and historical processes are repeatable in all contexts; or that do not take into account hundreds of years of colonial exploitation by the West that has tended to destroy the resources of former colonial society. Most critically, anthropologists argue that
1941:
1975:
exporting region was ignored, as was its current role as a labour reserve for the South
African mines. Not wanting to deal with the apartheid South African regime, development agencies isolated the "independent" Lesotho from the regional economy in which it was entrapped in their project rationales and reports. Artificially taken out of this larger capitalist context, Lesotho's economy was described as "isolated," "non-market" and "traditional" and thus a proper target for aid intervention.
1458:. He argued that although the burdens of poverty were systemic and therefore imposed upon these members of society, they led to the formation of an autonomous subculture as children were socialized into behaviors and attitudes that perpetuated their inability to escape the underclass. In sociology and anthropology, the concept created a backlash, pushing scholars to abandon cultural justifications and negative descriptions of poverty, fearing such analysis may be read as "
2035:, in combination with producers of expert knowledge, construct "The Environment." This construction is viewed both in terms of the creation of an object of knowledge and a sphere within which certain types of intervention and management are created and deployed to further the government's larger aim of managing the lives of its constituents. This governmental management is dependent on the dissemination and
560:
1428:, was a critic of colonial rule. Gluckman refused to describe colonialism as a simple case of "culture contact" since it was not a case of cultures mutually influencing each other, but of the forced incorporation of Africans into a foreign social, political and economic system. The anthropologists of the Institute were core members of what came to be known as the "
1487:
development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Rostow's unilineal evolutionist model hypothesized all societies would progress through the same stages to a modernity defined by the West. The model postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages, of varying length:
1991:"Integrated development" served to strengthen the presence of a repressive government in an isolated and resistant area. Development projects are dependent upon local governments for implementation, and rarely challenge the nature of that government. The resources they supply frequently serve state needs more than local needs.
1772:'s development regime pursues funding projects that protect the environment and build needed infrastructure. They also aid the betterment of conditions supporting the development of private industries, and support reforms that function to liberalize countries' economies. Since its establishment in 1960, the
1559:. It argues that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "
1994:
It perpetuates the migrant labour system. The project neglected to look at
Lesotho in the regional economy with South Africa. Lesotho was a labour reserve for Apartheid-era South African mines. The men of Lesotho were not farmers, but unemployed workers and retirees. Real commercial farming was never
2042:
Work done by Arun
Agrawal on local forest governance in India, is an example of this method of analysis. He illustrates how the production of specific types of expert knowledge (the economic productivity of forests) coupled with specific technologies of government (local Forest Stewardship Councils)
1948:
At a critical juncture in the early nineteenth century the state began to connect itself to a series of groups "that in different ways had long tried to shape and administer the lives of individuals in pursuit of various goals" rather than simply extend the absolutist state's repressive machinery of
1974:
Ferguson points out that a critical part of the development process is the way in which the object of development is defined. In defining this object, it is severed from its historical and geographic context, and isolated as a "Less-Developed
Country." In the case of Lesotho, its history as a grain
1390:
Development anthropologists share a commitment to simultaneously critique and contribute to projects and institutions that create and administer
Western projects that seek to improve the economic well-being of the most marginalized, and to eliminate poverty. While some theorists distinguish between
1982:
Ferguson writes that it is not enough to note development's failures; even the project managers initially recognized it as a failure. If that was all
Ferguson had done, his book would not have had the influence it did. Asking if development is a failure is asking the wrong question; it ignores the
1978:
Ferguson underscores that these discourses are produced within institutional settings where they must provide a charter for governmental intervention. Any analysis which suggests the roots of poverty lie in areas outside the scope of government are quickly dismissed and discarded since they cannot
1970:
does it foster. He found that development projects which failed in their own terms could be redefined as "successes" on which new projects were to be modelled. The net effect of development, he found, was to "de-politicize" questions of resource allocation, and to strengthen bureaucratic power. In
1717:
the resources and mandate it required to address the issues of the poorest countries and their citizens. This institution served as a channel for the more economically stable nations of the world to assist those with less financial stability by providing long-term loans at no interest to the
1570:
Immanuel
Wallerstein's "world-systems theory" was the version of Dependency theory that most North American anthropologists engaged with. His theories are similar to Dependency theory, although he placed more emphasis on the system as system, and focused on the developments of the core rather than
1325:
perspective. The kind of issues addressed, and implications for the approach typically adopted can be gleaned from a list questions posed by Gow (1996). These questions involve anthropologists asking why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a
1987:
It's an "anti-politics machine"; it makes blatantly political decisions about the allocation of resources appear to be "technical solutions to technical problems". Important questions such as the reallocation of land to a limited number (leaving them relatively wealthy, and others in poverty) are
1965:
utilized the governmentality framework in "The Anti-Politics
Machine: "Development," Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho" (1990), the first in many similar explorations. Ferguson sought to explore how "development discourse" works. That is, how do the language and practices used by
2357:
Replenishment
Authorizations for the World Bank's International Development Association, the Asian Development Fund, and the African Development Fund: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on International Economic Policy, Export and Trade Promotion of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States
1486:
to self-sustaining growth. He argued that today's underdeveloped areas are in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of
2137:
Gow, David D. (1996) Review: The
Anthropology of Development: Discourse, Agency, and Culture Reviewed work: An Anthropological Critique of Development: The Growth of Ignorance by Mark Hobart and Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World by Arturo Escobar,
1979:
provide a rationale for state action. And since the capitalist economy is one such area which has been ideologically set outside the scope of governmental action, the discursive creation of a deformed 'native economy' creates the required opening for that intervention.
1326:
gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why is there such a lack of planned development?
1507:
As should be clear from the subtitle of his book, Rostow sought to provide a capitalist rebuttal to the unilinear Marxist growth models being pursued in the newly independent communist regimes in the second and third world; an effort that would lead to the
1532:
in other, non-economic social institutions such as kinship, religion and political relations. He therefore critiqued the formalist economic modelling of Rostow. He was the author of "Growth without development: An economic survey of Liberia" (1966, with
1563:" and hence poor countries will not follow Rostow's predicted path of modernization. Dependency theory rejected Rostow's view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and
2473:
Malette, Sebastien. (2009) "Foucault for the next century: ecoâgovernmentality" in Binkley, S. and Capetillo J. eds. A Foucault for the 21st Century: Governmentality, Biopolitics and Discipline in the New Millennium. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars
1957:" â analyzed the plurality of governing agencies and authorities who developed programs, strategies, and technologies that were deployed to optimize the health, welfare and life of populations. He referred to this process with the neologism, "
1601:. This book presents a "dynamic analysis embracing all types of primitive agriculture." Drawing on Boserup, the WID theorists pointed out that the division of labour in agriculture is frequently gendered, and that in societies practicing
1912:
had failed to obtain desired results. The specific failures lay in the decline in export prices coupled with the emerging restrictions on the import of African goods, done by some of the industrialized countries. The
2385:
Africa, the World Bank, and the IMF: an appraisal : hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, second session, February 23,
1411:
requires at the very least more inclusion of the people who the project aims to target to be involved in the creation, management and decision-making process in the project creation in order to improve development.
1961:" (governmental rationality). One of the last of these new applied sciences was the "development apparatus", the post-world war extension of colonial rule after the independence of third world states.
1749:
remains the single largest source of donor funding for social services at a basic level; including health, clean water, sanitation, education, and infrastructure to the world's impoverished nations.
2328:
World Bank and Poverty Alleviation: Hearing Before the Select Committee on Hunger, House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, Second Session, Hearing Held in Washington, DC, June 20, 1990
1722:'s concessional financing by 138 countries is mainly exclusive to countries that have a per capita income of $ 400 or less (no more than about $ 900) and lack the financial means to borrow from the
1995:
a possibility without large subsidies. The project thus served to preserve a pool of cheap labour for South Africa in a time when international sanctions against Apartheid were hitting its economy.
2027:
with the natural world. The concept of Ecogovernmentality expands on Foucault's genealogical examination of the state to include ecological rationalities and technologies of government. Following
1391:
the 'anthropology of development' (in which development is the object of study) and development anthropology (as an applied practice), this distinction is increasingly thought of as obsolete.
1650:
or Escobar argue that development projects are doomed to failure for the fundamental ways they privilege Western industry and corporations. Escobar's argument echos the earlier work of
526:
2208:
W.W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), Chapter 2, "The Five Stages of Growth-A Summary," pp. 4-16
1734:
carry maturity dates of 35 or 40 years from the date of issue, with a 10-year grace period on the principal repayment. In the fiscal year of 1989, total lending for the
1909:
1646:
Some scholars blame the different agents for having only considered a small aspect of the local people's lives without analyzing broader consequences, while others like
1589:
Women in development (WID) is an approach to development projects that emerged in the 1970s, calling for treatment of women's issues in development projects. Later, the
1387:) who are trying to modify the economic, technical, political or/and social life of a given place in the world, especially in impoverished, formerly colonized regions.
2039:
of knowledge/power among individual actors. This creates a decentered network of self-regulating elements whose interests become integrated with those of the State.
2043:
can bring individual interest in line with those of the state. This, not through the imposition of specific outcomes, but by creating frameworks that rationalizes
1605:, it is women who conduct most of the agricultural work. Development projects, however, were skewed towards men on the assumption they were "heads of households."
1528:
to economic anthropology, and to development issues. The substantivist approach demonstrated the ways in which economic activities in non-market societies were
1761:
1723:
1691:
1679:
1593:(GAD) approach proposed more emphasis on gender relations rather than seeing women's issues in isolation. The WID school grew out of the pioneering work of
519:
1741:
Per present day, more than 2.5 billion people, more than half of the developing world representing 79 countries, have the eligibility to borrow from the
2060:
1988:
rephrased as a "necessity for the sustainable commercial management of livestock." A large proportion of men are deprived of their retirement savings.
1424:
in 1937 to conduct social science research in British Central Africa. It was part of the colonial establishment, although its head, anthropologist
1629:
to keep control over the resources of its former colonies. Escobar shows that between 1945 and 1960, while the former colonies were going through
1567:
of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy and hence unable to change the system.
512:
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1983:"instrument effects" of what the projects DO do. In other words, we should ask what NON-economic functions does development serve? His answer:
1756:, therefore suffering from economic and political instability and an inability to afford development loans on the typical terms offered by the
1571:
periphery. Wallerstein also provided an historical account of the development of capitalism which had been missing from Dependency theory.
1921:
by enhancing its pursuit in its current development strategy proved insufficient in placing its nations on a secure path of development.
1971:
his analysis of a development project in Lesotho (South Africa) between 1978 and 1982, he examined the following discursive maneuvers.
1683:
1643:
2. create more prosperity for the West and its products by creating a global consumer demand for finished Western products abroad.
1446:
The term "subculture of poverty" (later shortened to "culture of poverty") made its first prominent appearance in the ethnography
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1901:
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1805:
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1746:
1742:
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1719:
1710:
1698:
1687:
1671:
305:
1272:
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82:
2071:"These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent
1637:. Development projects themselves flourished in the wake of WWII, and during the cold war, when they were developed to
352:
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2274:
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1209:
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374:
92:
1429:
2326:
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2301:
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The anthropology of development and globalization: from classical political economy to contemporary neoliberalism
2153:
The anthropology of development and globalization: from classical political economy to contemporary neoliberalism
1962:
1614:
358:
2142:
Vol. 69, No. 3, Healing and the Body Politic: Dilemmas of Doctoring in Ethnographic Fieldwork, Jul., pp. 165-173
1229:
1012:
24:
2581:
2231:
1262:
1252:
342:
2613:
2500:
2036:
1421:
1257:
850:
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lending for Fiscal Year 1989 (FY89) totaled at $ 4.9 billion in credits and broken down by region: 48% to
1776:
has lent $ 106 billion to 106 countries to fund the basic needs of billions of poverty-stricken peoples.
1112:
1027:
940:
447:
117:
2048:
1293:
1267:
910:
890:
818:
1432:" of anthropology noted for looking at issues of social justice such as apartheid and class conflict.
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have resulting growth and development beyond the point where they have lost their eligibility to use
1622:
1356:
983:
722:
657:
347:
292:
72:
1621:, which argued that Western development largely exploited non-Western peoples. Arturo Escobar views
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1483:
1335:
1194:
1184:
1174:
1149:
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900:
742:
717:
667:
389:
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The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure
1967:
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The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure
1408:
1219:
1085:
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813:
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607:
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945:
885:
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732:
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1537:) and "Economic Anthropology and Development: Essays on Tribal and Peasant Economies" (1971).
1454:. Lewis struggled to render "the poor" as legitimate subjects whose lives were transformed by
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1199:
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905:
865:
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33:
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The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development," Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho
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The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development," Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho
2015:
Ecogovernmentality, (or Eco-governmentality), is the application of Foucault's concepts of
1706:
1602:
1580:
1556:
1546:
1513:
1344:
1189:
870:
840:
808:
783:
682:
672:
647:
637:
168:
37:
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Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1984).
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loans support both development projects, and structural adjustment programs alike.
8:
2118:
2103:
2032:
1352:
1204:
1037:
920:
895:
798:
788:
768:
612:
498:
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237:
163:
125:
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policies, effectiveness, and resources. There is much room for improvement in the
2586:
Anthropologie et développement : essai en socio-anthropologie du changement social
2072:
2010:
1966:
development specialists influence the ways in which development is delivered, and what
1655:
1608:
1459:
1441:
1224:
915:
860:
632:
417:
369:
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2180:
Expectations of modernity: myths and meanings of urban life on the Zambian Copperbelt
1817:
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1647:
1550:
1348:
1032:
1022:
1000:
747:
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364:
178:
97:
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in particular ways and involve individuals in the process of problem definition and
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side of the modernization, and especially the factors needed for a country to reach
2411:
2240:
2108:
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1702:
1667:
1534:
1509:
970:
950:
687:
662:
477:
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324:
135:
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2214:
2028:
2024:
2020:
1958:
1950:
1837:
1479:
1214:
1154:
1131:
880:
422:
379:
153:
57:
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investments around the world. Thirty-two countries that borrowed from the
1865:
1633:, development plans helped to maintain the third world's dependency on the old
1630:
1594:
1380:
1169:
875:
692:
652:
130:
269:
2602:
2054:
1940:
1861:
1799:
1626:
1564:
1400:
1367:, the term development refers to the social action made by different agents (
1047:
1042:
990:
712:
452:
442:
437:
427:
412:
248:
210:
173:
1856:
On a major scale, the global development community has been impacted by the
2400:
Rose, Nikolas; O'Malley, Pat; Valverde, Mariana (2006). "Governmentality".
1953:'s work on the prison, the clinic, and the asylum â on the development of "
1841:
1640:
1. stop the spread of Communism with the spread of capitalist markets; and
1560:
1529:
1525:
1425:
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Some describe the anthropological critique of development as one that pits
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107:
102:
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1471:
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995:
752:
625:
592:
253:
158:
16:
Scientific study of humans as applied to institutions and economic growth
2358:
Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, Second Session, September 12, 2002
1654:
and follows a larger critique more recently posed by Foucault and other
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Environmentality: Technologies of Government and the Making of Subjects
1914:
1829:
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1757:
1735:
1727:
1714:
1107:
1954:
1825:
1813:
1634:
1080:
1075:
1007:
487:
205:
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Encountering Development, the making and unmaking of the Third World
2431:
Encountering Development: the making and unmaking of the third world
1609:
Development discourse and the creation of the 'underdeveloped' world
1555:
Dependency theory arose as a theory in Latin America in reaction to
2576:
Promise Not Kept: The Betrayal of Social Change in the third World.
2044:
2016:
1718:
most economically challenged among developing countries. The
1372:
221:
2195:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
2325:
Hunger, United States Congress House Select Committee on (1990).
1455:
1404:
1117:
1097:
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855:
1752:
In the 1950s, many of these nations were newly independent from
1918:
1905:
1845:
1821:
1791:
1783:
1613:
A major critique of development from anthropologists came from
1470:
The most influential modernization theorist in development was
1092:
62:
2059:
The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former
1908:. A number of policy reforms instituted by a number of
1760:. Utilizing the same criteria to evaluate loans as the
1448:
Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty
1680:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
1661:
1896:'s most avid supporters, have raised criticisms concerning
1787:
1102:
67:
1705:
was created in 1960, per urgent request of U.S. President
1524:
George Dalton applied the substantivist economic ideas of
2501:"The Green Revolution: Accomplishments and Apprehensions"
1415:
1360:
2463:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25â74.
2399:
1808:
lending for FY89 by sector approximates as follows: 29%
1476:
The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto
559:
2593:
Beyond the Impasse. New Direction in Development Theory
2569:
Anthropology, Development and the Post-Modern Challenge
2251:
2182:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 26.
1930:
Governmentality: Development as 'anti-politics machine'
1519:
1465:
1924:
1860:, with success rates that compare favorably with both
2224:
2222:
1812:; 24% structural and sector adjustment lending; 16%
2578:Fourth Edition. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.
2192:
2061:United States Agency for International Development
1394:
2529:Sex, Gender, Becoming: Post-apartheid Reflections
2219:
2193:Bourgois, Phillipe (2001). "Culture of Poverty".
2600:
2229:Roseberry, William (1988). "Political Economy".
2067:, who noted the spread of the new technologies:
2055:Agricultural development: the "Green Revolution"
1999:
1876:funds, granting them "graduate" status from the
1670:consists of multiple institutions including the
2164:Edelman, Marc, and Angelique Haugerud. (2005).
2151:Edelman, Marc, and Angelique Haugerud. (2005).
2031:, writing on ecogovernmentality focuses on how
1684:Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
1574:
1294:
520:
2308:Princeton: Princeton University Press, p.34.
2433:. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
1904:'s track record, namely for its support in
1672:International Development Association (IDA)
1883:
1301:
1287:
527:
513:
2525:
2416:10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.2.081805.105900
2361:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 2002.
2257:
2228:
1662:The World Bank and the development regime
2560:, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
2458:
2448:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2443:
2177:
1939:
1745:. Since its creation in 1960, the
2483:
2428:
2403:Annual Review of Law and Social Science
2286:
1676:International Finance Corporation (IFC)
1420:The British government established the
2601:
2381:
2324:
2168:. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Pub, page 40
2075:like that of the Soviets, nor is it a
1726:, the main lending institution of the
1416:Pre-WWII: Rhodes-Livingstone Institute
1363:as primary objects. In this branch of
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2348:
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2342:
2340:
2338:
2320:
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2023:to the analysis of the regulation of
2004:
1851:
1435:
1403:and an eradication of the indigenous
2498:
1540:
1520:George Dalton and the substantivists
1466:Modernization Theory and its critics
1321:work which views development from a
2488:. Durham NC: Duke University Press.
1944:Location of Lesotho in South Africa
1925:The development of underdevelopment
1738:was approximately $ 23.06 billion.
13:
2547:
2389:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
2335:
2331:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
2311:
2201:
2083:. I call it the Green Revolution."
14:
2625:
2499:Gaud, William S. (8 March 1968).
1597:. Boserup's most notable book is
558:
2477:
2467:
2452:
2437:
2422:
2393:
2375:
2295:
2280:
2245:10.1146/annurev.anthro.17.1.161
1395:Early approaches to development
1317:is a term applied to a body of
2291:. Chicago: Aldine. p. 13.
2263:
2186:
2171:
2158:
2155:. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Pub.
2145:
2131:
1345:application of anthropological
1248:Anthropologists by nationality
353:Formalistâsubstantivist debate
1:
2232:Annual Review of Anthropology
2124:
2000:The Limits of Governmentality
343:Critique of political economy
1730:. Loans issued by the
1575:'Women in development' (WID)
1503:Age of High mass consumption
1422:Rhodes-Livingstone Institute
1333:has been distinguished from
7:
2571:, Chicago, IL: Pluto Press.
2087:
1478:(1960) concentrates on the
1331:anthropology of development
1315:anthropology of development
395:Anthropology of development
283:Colonialism and development
10:
2630:
2519:
2213:February 23, 2013, at the
2008:
1933:
1578:
1544:
1494:Preconditions for take-off
1439:
1268:List of indigenous peoples
2526:Van Marle, Karin (2006).
2140:Anthropological Quarterly
1936:The Anti-Politics Machine
1892:community, including the
1623:international development
1450:(1959) by anthropologist
1357:international development
1013:Cross-cultural comparison
348:Original affluent society
293:The Anti-Politics Machine
2459:Ferguson, James (1990).
2444:Ferguson, James (1990).
2429:Escobar, Arturo (2011).
2306:Encountering Development
2287:Boserup, Esther (1965).
2269:(Chicago, Aldine, 1965,
2178:Ferguson, James (1999).
2094:Development anthropology
1619:Encountering Development
1341:Development anthropology
1336:development anthropology
1185:Historical particularism
390:Heritage commodification
385:Nutritional anthropology
359:The Great Transformation
2591:Schuurman, F.J., 1993,
2582:Olivier de Sardan J.-P.
2484:Agrawal, Arjun (2005).
1968:unintended consequences
1884:The Concerns of the IDA
1409:sustainable development
1018:Participant observation
113:Inalienable possessions
2574:Isbister, John, 1998,
2085:
1945:
1591:Gender and development
1585:Gender and development
1160:Cross-cultural studies
308:People Without History
2114:Impact of microcredit
2099:Development criticism
2069:
1943:
1917:providing service to
503:cultural anthropology
2595:. Zed Books, London.
1707:Dwight D. Eisenhower
1603:shifting cultivation
1581:Women in development
1557:modernization theory
1547:World-systems theory
1347:perspectives to the
1253:Anthropology by year
1190:Boasian anthropology
1165:Cultural materialism
1150:Actorânetwork theory
748:Paleoanthropological
458:BronisĆaw Malinowski
169:Shifting cultivation
148:Provisioning systems
2614:Development studies
2119:Weapons of the weak
2104:Development studies
2033:government agencies
2025:social interactions
1690:credits as well as
1625:as a means for the
1491:Traditional society
1353:development studies
1205:Performance studies
1098:Kinship and descent
1038:Cultural relativism
688:Paleoethnobotanical
663:Ethnoarchaeological
483:Harold K. Schneider
238:Gifting remittances
164:Nomadic pastoralism
126:Spheres of exchange
120:(commodity pathway)
2588:. Paris, Karthala.
2563:Gardner, Katy and
2011:Ecogovernmentality
2005:Ecogovernmentality
1946:
1852:Success of the IDA
1818:telecommunications
1656:poststructuralists
1460:blaming-the-victim
1442:Culture of poverty
1436:Culture of poverty
1359:and international
1225:Post-structuralism
984:Research framework
418:Alexander Chayanov
370:Culture of poverty
272:(hunter-gatherers)
2368:978-0-16-069388-5
2197:. Waveland Press.
2079:like that of the
2063:(USAID) director
1910:African countries
1652:dependency theory
1648:dependency theory
1551:Dependency theory
1541:Dependency theory
1512:" to combat the "
1500:Drive to maturity
1430:Manchester school
1349:multidisciplinary
1311:
1310:
1210:Political economy
1033:Thick description
830:Political economy
693:Zooarchaeological
653:Bioarchaeological
537:
536:
375:Political economy
365:Peasant economics
316:Political economy
179:Peasant economics
154:Hunting-gathering
2621:
2543:
2513:
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2156:
2149:
2143:
2135:
2109:Food sovereignty
2077:White Revolution
1949:social control.
1764:facility of the
1703:World Bank Group
1668:World Bank Group
1615:Arturo Escobar's
1535:Robert W. Clower
1510:Green revolution
1303:
1296:
1289:
831:
713:Anthrozoological
562:
539:
538:
529:
522:
515:
478:Marshall Sahlins
433:Maurice Godelier
337:Related articles
325:Jim Crow economy
136:Cultural capital
121:
118:Singularization
19:
18:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2623:
2622:
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2599:
2598:
2554:Escobar, Arturo
2550:
2548:Further reading
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2260:, pp. 125.
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2090:
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2037:internalization
2029:Michel Foucault
2021:governmentality
2013:
2007:
2002:
1959:governmentality
1951:Michel Foucault
1938:
1932:
1927:
1888:Members of the
1886:
1854:
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1587:
1579:Main articles:
1577:
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1319:anthropological
1307:
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1243:
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1215:Practice theory
1155:Alliance theory
1145:
1137:
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1132:Postcolonialism
1061:
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380:State formation
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306:Europe and the
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2073:Red Revolution
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2009:Main article:
2006:
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1998:
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1989:
1963:James Ferguson
1934:Main article:
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1866:private sector
1853:
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1814:transportation
1663:
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1631:decolonization
1610:
1607:
1595:Esther Boserup
1576:
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1542:
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1521:
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1514:Red revolution
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2018:
2012:
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1800:Latin America
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1754:colonial rule
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1617:seminal book
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2152:
2147:
2139:
2133:
2081:Shah of Iran
2070:
2065:William Gaud
2058:
2049:intervention
2041:
2014:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1947:
1887:
1855:
1842:water supply
1804:
1790:, and 8% to
1778:
1751:
1740:
1709:. The
1696:
1665:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1618:
1612:
1598:
1588:
1569:
1561:World-system
1554:
1526:Karl Polanyi
1523:
1506:
1475:
1469:
1447:
1445:
1426:Max Gluckman
1419:
1398:
1389:
1369:institutions
1365:anthropology
1340:
1334:
1330:
1328:
1322:
1314:
1312:
1258:Bibliography
1200:Interpretive
1175:Diffusionism
1144:Key theories
1130: /
1060:Key concepts
971:Sociological
951:Ethnological
803:
738:Neurological
723:Evolutionary
668:Experiential
552:Anthropology
473:Karl Polanyi
468:Sidney Mintz
463:Marcel Mauss
394:
357:
315:
304:
291:
282:
276:Batek people
261:Provisioning
260:
228:
196:
191:Case studies
108:Limited good
103:Gift economy
78:Embeddedness
44:anthropology
42:development
41:
22:
2565:David Lewis
2474:Publishing.
1810:agriculture
1796:Middle East
1472:Walt Rostow
1452:Oscar Lewis
1355:. It takes
1128:Colonialism
1071:Development
1028:Reflexivity
996:Ethnography
946:Descriptive
804:Development
743:Nutritional
718:Biocultural
643:Battlefield
270:Aché people
254:Shell money
197:Prestations
159:Pastoralism
83:Reciprocity
2603:Categories
2410:: 83â104.
2125:References
1915:World Bank
1830:population
1766:World Bank
1758:World Bank
1736:World Bank
1728:World Bank
1682:, and the
1565:structures
1484:"take-off"
1385:volunteers
1377:enterprise
1351:branch of
1108:Prehistory
961:Historical
934:Linguistic
846:Historical
814:Ecological
706:Biological
608:Linguistic
598:Biological
448:Keith Hart
1955:bio-power
1838:nutrition
1826:education
1786:, 44% to
1713:gave the
1635:metropole
1081:Evolution
1076:Ethnicity
1008:Ethnology
886:Political
794:Cognitive
733:Molecular
488:Eric Wolf
206:Kula ring
2567:, 1996,
2556:, 1995,
2532:. PULP.
2507:8 August
2304:, 1995,
2211:Archived
2088:See also
2045:behavior
2017:biopower
1686:.
1627:Occident
1530:embedded
1497:Take-off
1480:economic
1474:, whose
1373:business
1323:critical
1263:Journals
1180:Feminism
966:Semiotic
906:Symbolic
901:Religion
836:Feminist
824:Economic
774:Cultural
728:Forensic
683:Maritime
678:Forensic
673:Feminist
648:Biblical
638:Aviation
603:Cultural
544:a series
542:Part of
222:Potlatch
34:Economic
25:a series
23:Part of
2520:Sources
2239:: 166.
1701:of the
1456:poverty
1405:culture
1118:Society
1066:Culture
881:Musical
876:Museums
871:Medical
856:Kinship
809:Digital
784:Applied
576:History
571:Outline
229:Gifting
73:Finance
38:applied
2584:1995,
2536:
2365:
2273:
1919:Africa
1906:Africa
1862:public
1846:sewage
1836:, and
1834:health
1822:energy
1820:; 10%
1798:, and
1794:, the
1792:Europe
1784:Africa
1768:, the
1678:, the
1674:, the
1381:states
1093:Gender
1023:Holism
921:Visual
896:Public
799:Cyborg
769:Social
633:Aerial
613:Social
499:Social
98:Wealth
63:Barter
40:, and
1840:; 4%
1828:; 5%
1824:; 9%
1329:This
1242:Lists
1123:Value
1001:cyber
916:Urban
866:Media
861:Legal
587:Types
93:Value
2534:ISBN
2509:2011
2386:1984
2363:ISBN
2271:ISBN
2019:and
1864:and
1844:and
1816:and
1788:Asia
1762:IBRD
1724:IBRD
1715:Bank
1697:The
1692:IBRD
1666:The
1583:and
1549:and
1313:The
1113:Race
1103:Meme
841:Food
501:and
68:Debt
2412:doi
2241:doi
1902:IDA
1898:IDA
1894:IDA
1890:IDA
1878:IDA
1874:IDA
1870:IDA
1858:IDA
1806:IDA
1780:IDA
1774:IDA
1770:IDA
1747:IDA
1743:IDA
1732:IDA
1720:IDA
1711:IDA
1699:IDA
1688:IDA
1516:".
1462:."
1361:aid
789:Art
2605::
2406:.
2337:^
2313:^
2237:17
2235:.
2221:^
2051:.
1880:.
1848:.
1832:,
1802:.
1658:.
1379:,
1375:,
1371:,
1339:.
546:on
36:,
27:on
2542:.
2511:.
2418:.
2414::
2408:2
2371:.
2277:)
2247:.
2243::
1508:"
1302:e
1295:t
1288:v
528:e
521:t
514:v
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