Antler - Knowledge

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eat the vegetation underneath. Another possible reason is for female competition during winter foraging. Espmark (1964) observed that the presence of antlers on females is related to the hierarchy rank and is a result of the harsh winter conditions and the female dominated parental investment. Males shed their antlers prior to winter, while female antlers are retained throughout winter. Also, female antler size plateaus at the onset of puberty, around age three, while males' antler size increases during their lifetime. This likely reflects the differing life history strategies of the two sexes, where females are resource limited in their reproduction and cannot afford costly antlers, while male reproductive success depends on the size of their antlers because they are under directional sexual selection. In other species of deer, the presence of antlers in females indicates some degree of

792: 41: 395:. Male-male competition can take place in two forms. First, they can compete behaviorally where males use their antlers as weapons to compete for access to mates; second, they can compete physiologically where males present their antlers to display their strength and fertility competitiveness to compete for access to mates. Males with the largest antlers are more likely to obtain mates and achieve the highest fertilization success due to their competitiveness, dominance and high phenotypic quality. Whether this is a result of male-male fighting or display, or of female choosiness differs depending on the species as the shape, size, and function of antlers vary between species. 772: 378:: 1.46% and 2.2%, dry and wet respectively. Further, the ultimate tensile strength of wet, dry and bovine difference showed differences as well: 188 MPa, 108 MPa, and 99.2 MPa for dry, wet and bovine samples respectively. Similarly, the elastic modulus for dry samples was 17.1 GPa, 7.5 GPa for wet samples, and 17.7 GPa for bovine femur. This difference in elastic modulus is due to the difference in function of a bovine femur versus an antler. Bovine femurs must withstand greater stresses, holding up the body of the animal, whereas an antler is used for sexual selection and competition. 667: 471: 649: 582: 440: 549: 159: 519: 147: 811: 29: 535: 637: 625: 240: 601: 563: 269: 613: 505: 2967: 761:

matched pair from the same animal is a very desirable find but often antlers are shed separately and may be separated by several miles. Some enthusiasts for shed hunting use trained dogs to assist them. Most hunters will follow 'game trails' (trails where deer frequently run) to find these sheds or they will build a shed trap to collect the loose antlers in the late winter/early spring.

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slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected. A third possibility is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population.

485:, antlers may act as large hearing aids. Equipped with large, highly adjustable external ears, moose have highly sensitive hearing. Moose with antlers have more sensitive hearing than moose without, and a study of trophy antlers with an artificial ear confirmed that the large flattened (palmate) antler behaves like a parabolic reflector. 302:

regrowth of antlers might have evolved as a way to ensure the availability of complete antler sets to display each year. Antler regeneration in male deer ensures that every mating season begins on a clean slate, as an increase in branching size and complexity happens each regeneration cycle in an individual.

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are the only cervid species that inhabit the Arctic and subarctic regions of the globe, yet their most striking distinction is the presence of pedicles after birth and antlers in both males and females. One possible reason that females of this species evolved antlers is to clear away snow so they can

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If antlers functioned only in male–male competition for mates, the best evolutionary strategy would be to shed them immediately after the rutting season, both to free the male from a heavy encumbrance and to give him more time to regrow a larger new pair. Yet antlers are commonly retained through the

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Discarded antlers represent a source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals and are often gnawed upon by small animals, including squirrels, porcupines, rabbits and mice. This is more common among animals inhabiting regions where the soil is deficient in these minerals. Antlers shed in oak forest

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Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers was developed. It is by using antler grooves, which are formed on the surface of antlers by growth, projecting the branching structure on the burr circumference, and making diagrams. Comparing the positional order among species on

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In most Arctic and temperate-zone species, antler growth and shedding is annual, and is controlled by the length of daylight. Although the antlers are regrown each year, their size varies with the age of the animal in many species, increasing annually over several years before reaching maximum size.

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of antler growth. Alternatively, the lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is

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Antlers function as both weapons in male-male competition and as displays of sexual ornaments for females. Because mature antlers are no longer living during combat, antler fractures are incapable of being repaired following competition. A study in 2019 hypothesized that the periodic casting and

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In the United States in 2017 sheds fetch around US$ 10 per pound, with larger specimens in good condition attracting higher prices. The most desirable antlers have been found soon after being shed. The value is reduced if they have been damaged by weathering or being gnawed by small animals. A

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There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in the red deer, and has a heritable component. Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance,

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Antlers originated once in the cervid lineage. The earliest fossil remains of antlers that have been found are dated to the early Miocene, about 17 million years ago. These early antlers were small and had just two forks. As antlers evolved, they lengthened and gained many branches, or tines,

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was reported. For the longitudinal and radial orientations, the elastic modulus was 7.19-8.23 and 4.01-4.27 GPa respectively. The transverse direction was overall found to be the stronger orientation with higher mechanical properties. The ultimate tensile strength of 262.96-274.38 MPa in the

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typically serve a structural purpose, with load bearing abilities that are greater than any other part of an animals body. Bones typically differ in shape and properties to better fit their overall function. Antlers are not structural and typically have different properties when compared to

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In most US states, the possession of or trade in parts of game animals is subject to some degree of regulation, but the trade in antlers is widely permitted. In the national parks of Canada, the removal of shed antlers is an offense punishable by a maximum fine of C$ 25,000, as the Canadian

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without antlers, or groups of elk in which at least one male is without antlers. Half of all male elk killed by wolves lack antlers, at times in which only one quarter of all males have shed antlers. These findings suggest that antlers have a secondary function in deterring predation.

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skin called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom, and grow faster than any other mammal bone. Growth occurs at the tip, and is initially

298:. Additional tumor-suppressing and tumor-growth-inhibiting genes were determined to be responsible for regulating antler growth. This was taken to indicate that antler formation is more similar to a highly controlled form of cancer growth than to normal bone development. 341:

when compared to human cortical bone. Mineral content differs among species and also depends on the food availability. In recent studies, increase in mineral content has been linked to the increase in stiffness with a decrease in fracture toughness.

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in the United Kingdom roe deer hunting is especially popular due to the large antlers produced there. This is due to the high levels of chalk in Yorkshire. The chalk is high in calcium which is ingested by the deer and helps growth in the antlers.

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developed complex scoring systems based on various dimensions and the number of tines or points, and they keep extensive records of high-scoring antlers. Deer bred for hunting on farms are selected based on the size of the antlers.

256:, which is later replaced by bone tissue. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by 2476:

Garrod, A. Notes on the visceral anatomy and osteology of the ruminants, with a suggestion regarding a method of expressing the relations of species by means of formulae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 2–18

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of antler bones has also been conducted to compare to bovine femur results. The antler samples were tested in dry and wet conditions as done in other studies. The wetness of a sample resulted in a difference in mean maximum

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Lin, Zeshan; Chen, Lei; Chen, Xianqing; Zhong, Yingbin; Yang, Yue; Xia, Wenhao; Liu, Chang; Zhu, Wenbo; Wang, Han; Yan, Biyao; Yang, Yifeng; Liu, Xing; Sternang Kvie, Kjersti; Røed, Knut Håkon; Wang, Kun (June 21, 2019).

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due to their hierarchical structure. Thus, mechanical properties are highly dependent on testing conditions and directions. Due to their cylindrical shape, antlers can be tested using bending along three different

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Dogs are sometimes used to find shed antlers. The North American Shed Hunting Dog Association (NASHDA) has resources for people who want to train their dogs to find shed antlers and hold shed dog hunting events.

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and the antlers fall off at some point. As a result of their fast growth rate, antlers are considered a handicap since there is an immense nutritional demand on deer to re-grow antlers annually, and thus can be

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the diagram, the tine on the same position is homologous. The study revealed that three-pointed structures of Capreolinae and Cervini are homoplasious, and their subclades gained synapomorphous tines.

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Antlers are usually found only on males. Only reindeer (known as caribou in North America) have antlers on the females, and these are normally smaller than those of the males. Nevertheless, fertile

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and other spiritual figures in various cultures, and for dances; 21 antler "frontlets" apparently for wearing on the head, and over 10,000 years old, have been excavated at the English

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Gilbert, Clément; Ropiquet, Anne; Hassanin, Alexandre (2006). "Mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies of Cervidae (Mammalia, Ruminantia): Systematics, morphology, and biogeography".

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Metz, Matthew C.; Emlen, Douglas J.; Stahler, Daniel R.; MacNulty, Daniel R.; Smith, Douglas W. (September 3, 2018). "Predation shapes the evolutionary traits of cervid weapons".

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The principal means of evolution of antlers is sexual selection, which operates via two mechanisms: male-to-male competition (behaviorally, physiologically) and female

1379:"Major-Histocompatibility-Complex-Associated Variation in Secondary Sexual Traits of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus): Evidence for Good-Genes Advertisement" 329:. In antlers, the mineral content is considerably lower than other examples of bone tissue, while having a high volume of collagen. This leads antlers to having lower 675:

becoming more complex. The homology of tines has been discussed since the 1900s and has provided great insight into the evolutionary history of the Cervidae family.

851:. In the Viking Age and medieval period, it formed an important raw material in the craft of comb-making. In later periods, antler—used as a cheap substitute for 1562:

Landete-Castillejos, T.; Kierdorf, H.; Gomez, S.; Luna, S.; García, A. J.; Cappelli, J.; Pérez-Serrano, M.; Pérez-Barbería, J.; Gallego, L.; Kierdorf, U. (2019).

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Hunters have developed terms for antler parts: beam, palm, brow, bez or bay, trez or tray, royal, and surroyal. These are the main shaft, flattened center, first

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tribes also used antler to make bows, gluing tendons to the bow instead of tying them as cables. An antler bow, made in the early 19th century, is on display at

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Pocock, R. The Homologies between the Branches of the Antlers of the Cervidae based on the Theory of Dichotomous Growth. Journal of Zoology 103, 377–406 (1933).

209:, such as sheep, goats, bison and cattle—are two-part structures that usually do not shed. A horn's interior of bone is covered by an exterior sheath made of 833:

Antler has been used through history as a material to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and toys. It was an especially important material in the European Late

2921:"The effects of deer antler velvet extract or powder supplementation on aerobic power, erythropoiesis, and muscular strength and endurance characteristics" 2236:

Melnycky; et al. (December 2013). "Scaling of antler size in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): sexual dimorphism and variability in resource allocation".

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meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no

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transverse direction was statistically significant when compared to the longitudinal and radial directions' values of 46.91-48.55 and 41.75-43.67 MPa.

2636: 1246: 757:, and moose begin to shed. The North American Shed Hunting Club, founded in 1991, is an organization for those who take part in this activity. 2504:

Samejima, Y., Matsuoka, H. A new viewpoint on antlers reveals the evolutionary history of deer (Cervidae, Mammalia). Sci Rep 10, 8910 (2020).

1671:"Comparison of the structure and mechanical properties of bovine femur bone and antler of the North American elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis)" 1004: 224:

from other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels. The "horns" of a

863:, as well as buttons and the like. The decorative display of wall-mounted pairs of antlers has been popular since medieval times at least. 493:

The diversification of antlers, body size and tusks has been strongly influenced by changes in habitat and behavior (fighting and mating).

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in these orientations have resulted in different mechanical properties. In samples from antler bone taken in the transverse direction, an

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Brooke, V. On the classification of the Cervidæ, with a synopsis of the existing Species. Journal of Zoology 46, 883–928 (1878).

281:, antlers are shed at different times in the year depending on multiple factors. Some equatorial deer never shed their antlers. 247:

Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing, it is covered with highly

729:, second tine, third tine, fourth tine, and fifth or higher tines, respectively. The second branch is also called an advancer. 2888: 2779: 2723: 2696: 2583: 2558: 2531: 1153: 1101: 713:

firm, in the early 20th century. For a time only total length or spread was recorded. In the middle of the century, the

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Ditchkoff, Stephen S.; Lochmiller, Robert L.; Masters, Ronald E.; Hoofer, Steven R.; Bussche, Ronald A. Van Den (2007).

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government considers antlers to belong to the people of Canada and part of the ecosystems in which they are discarded.

753:. In the United States, the middle of December to the middle of February is considered shed hunting season, when deer, 1709: 1128:

CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 27, 2012

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An antler on a red deer stag. Velvet covers a growing antler, providing blood flow that supplies oxygen and nutrients.

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Elk, deer, and moose antlers have also become popular forms of dog chews that owners purchase for their pet canines.

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Landete-Castillejos, T.; Currey, J. D.; Estevez, J. A.; Gaspar-López, E.; Garcia, A.; Gallego, L. (November 2007).

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Schaefer and Mahoney (December 2001). "Antlers on Female Caribou: Biogeography of the Bones of Contention".

1632:"Influence of physiological effort of growth and chemical composition on antler bone mechanical properties" 1564:"Antlers - Evolution, development, structure, composition, and biomechanics of an outstanding type of bone" 1219: 953: 2909:

DiSalvo (September 18, 2015). How to Squeeze Snake Oil from Deer Antlers and Make Millions. forbes.com

130:, a suffix indicating an action or state of being) possibly from some form of an unattested Latin word 2632: 1886:; Slate, Jon; Pemberton, Josephine M.; Brotherstone, Sue; Guinness, Fiona; Clutton-Brock, Tim (2002). 1755: 1670: 1631: 874:

group, made bows and arrows using antler, reinforced with strands of animal tendons braided to form a

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Gathering shed antlers or "sheds" attracts dedicated practitioners who refer to it colloquially as

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Donaldson, John; Doutt, J. Kenneth (1965). "Antlers in Female White-Tailed Deer: A 4-Year Study".

1515:"While males fight, females choose: male phenotypic quality informs female mate choice in mammals" 1012: 842: 624: 3012: 2663: 714: 232:) meet some of the criteria of antlers, but are not considered true antlers because they contain 20: 2271:

Wishart, William (1985). "Frequency of Antlered White-Tailed Does in Camp Wainwright, Alberta".

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with larger sets being more highly prized. The first organization to keep records of sizes was

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Morina, Daniel L.; Demarais, Steve; Strickland, Bronson K.; Larson, Jamie E. (April 1, 2018).

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In tropical species, antlers may be shed at any time of year, and in some species such as the

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Increasing size of antlers year on year in different European game species, 1891 illustration

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Sleivert, G; Burke, V; Palmer, C; Walmsley, A; Gerrard, D; Haines, S; Littlejohn, R (2003).

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Fang, Zhongqi; Chen, Bin; Lin, Shiyun; Ye, Wei; Xiao, Hang; Chen, Xi (December 2018).

182:). In most species, antlers appear to replace tusks. However, one modern species (the 2940: 2775: 2719: 2692: 2579: 2554: 2527: 2459: 2441: 2180: 2176: 2145: 2133: 2125: 2079: 2067: 2059: 2012: 1966: 1945:"Low Heterozygosity at Microsatellite Markers in Iberian Red Deer with Small Antlers" 1943:

Perez-Gonzalez, J.; Carranza, J.; Torres-Porras, J.; Fernandez-Garcia, J. L. (2010).

1907: 1862: 1814: 1775: 1729: 1690: 1651: 1613: 1601: 1593: 1536: 1468: 1450: 1400: 1350: 1322: 1191: 1069: 1062: 898: 726: 540: 510: 286: 262: 96: 2384: 2257: 2024: 1919: 1887: 1756:"Investigation of inner mechanism of anisotropic mechanical property of antler bone" 1412: 504: 317:

While antlers are classified as bone, they differ in some ways from human bones and

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identified eight genes active in antler formation that are normally associated with

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This article is about the antlers of deer and related species. For other uses, see

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culture to make carvings and engraved designs on objects such as the so-called

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Rössner, Gertrud E.; Costeur, Loïc; Scheyer, Torsten M. (December 16, 2020).

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Malo, A. F.; Roldan, E. R. S.; Garde, J.; Soler, A. J.; Gomendio, M. (2005).

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condition, the frequency of which has been seen to vary from 1.5% to 0.02%.

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Antlers found shortly after being shed by a whitetail deer in eastern

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Extensions of the skull found in animals of the family Cervidae (deer)

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Bones and Cartilage: Developmental and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology

2970: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 2660:"Fieldsports Britain: Grouse on the Glorious Twelfth, roebucks and" 894: 867: 798: 459: 450: 418:

winter and into the spring, suggesting that they have another use.

322: 194:, which are not true cervids, also bear tusks in place of antlers. 163: 92: 88: 56: 33: 2957: 1669:

Chen, Poyu; Stokes, A. G.; McKittrick, Joanna M. (February 2009).

1710:"Organic and mechanical properties of Cervidae antlers: a review" 957: 856: 318: 268: 233: 210: 206: 187: 2925:

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

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Through history large deer antler from a suitable species (e.g.

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Antlers: A Guide to Collecting, Scoring, Mounting, and Carving

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Antlers: A Guide to Collecting, Scoring, Mounting, and Carving

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Antlers: A Guide to Collecting, Scoring, Mounting, and Carving

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inhabited by squirrels are rapidly chewed to pieces by them.

482: 134:, "before the eye" (and applied to the word for "branch" or " 80: 52: 2420:"The systematics of the Cervidae: a total evidence approach" 2986:

Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences

2918: 2829:"Deer-antler pick, used in flint mining from Grimes Graves" 2520:

George A. Feldhamer; William J. McShea (January 26, 2012).

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stage, antlers of elk and deer have been used in Asia as a

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bones. Bone is characterized as being made up of primarily

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Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials

398: 1293:"Antlers honestly advertise sperm production and quality" 855:—was a material especially associated with equipment for 754: 427: 1986: 925:. Antlers are still worn in traditional dances such as 1836: 1297:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

859:, such as saddles and horse harness, guns and daggers, 805: 265:

of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability.

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Picavet, P. P.; Balligand, M. (September 12, 2016).

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Whitaker, John O.; Hamilton, William J. Jr. (1998).

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are 3.6 times more likely to attack individual male

2657: 2651: 2510: 1220:"What Is The Difference Between Horns And Antlers?" 1064:

The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Volume 1

1061: 897:) were often cut down to its shaft and its lowest 661: 2633:"Wildlifeonline – Questions & Answers – Deer" 1792: 976:study did not find evidence of intended effects. 956:for more than 2,000 years. Recently, deer antler 642:Sambar deer with thick, forked beams for antlers. 474:A six-year old moose undergoing domestication at 2999: 2394:"Moose's sharp hearing is attributed to antlers" 2092: 1707: 1342: 682: 2391: 964:because the extract, with its trace amounts of 412: 95:each year and function primarily as objects of 44:Red deer at the beginning of the growing season 2359:Bubenik, George A.; Bubenik, Peter G. (2008). 2358: 2305: 960:has become popular among Western athletes and 2738: 2711: 2684: 2546: 1793:Rajaram, A.; Ramanathan, N. (December 1982). 1753: 1035:"What are antlers and what is their purpose?" 434: 118:(see present French : "Andouiller", from 63:. Antlers are a single structure composed of 141: 2958:North American Shed Hunting Dog Association 2231: 2229: 1938: 1936: 2769: 2705: 2573: 2506:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64555-7 2418:Heckeberg, Nicola S. (February 18, 2020). 1832: 1830: 1828: 1424: 1422: 1338: 1336: 1224:A Moment of Science – Indiana Public Media 2453: 2435: 2417: 2119: 1982: 1980: 1960: 1587: 1530: 1462: 1394: 1370: 1349:. Cornell University Press. p. 517. 1316: 1005:"Arctic Wildlife – Arctic Studies Center" 982: 2975: 2235: 2226: 1933: 1929:from the original on September 16, 2016. 1878: 1876: 1087: 1085: 809: 665: 469: 438: 305: 267: 238: 157: 145: 39: 27: 2794: 2658:Fieldsports Britain (August 28, 2009). 2348:from the original on December 10, 2016. 2270: 2158: 2037: 1825: 1485: 1419: 1333: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1280: 968:, is believed to help build and repair 886:. Its manufacture is attributed to the 399:Heritability and reproductive advantage 3000: 2770:Bauer, Erwin A.; Bauer, Peggy (2000). 2666:from the original on December 11, 2021 2613:from the original on September 3, 2014 2598: 2574:Bauer, Erwin A.; Bauer, Peggy (2000). 1977: 1177: 1175: 1173: 1171: 1134:from the original on October 28, 2012. 1091: 740: 465: 2891:from the original on October 18, 2017 2751:from the original on February 6, 2015 2639:from the original on January 15, 2012 2413: 2411: 2409: 2365:European Journal of Wildlife Research 1873: 1839:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 1749: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1625: 1623: 1488:"Cancer genes help deer antlers grow" 1156:from the original on November 8, 2010 1104:from the original on November 8, 2010 1082: 1059: 1782:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 1697:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 1658:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 1486:Pennisi, Elizabeth (June 20, 2019). 1346:Mammals of the Eastern United States 1277: 1190:. Academic Press. pp. 103–114. 1181: 806:Carving for decorative and tool uses 2739:Susan Quinlan (November 18, 2011). 2718:. Stackpole Books. pp. 46–47. 2691:. Stackpole Books. pp. 44–52. 1795:"Tensile properties of antler bone" 1168: 908: 386: 186:) has tusks and no antlers and the 13: 2881:"Velvet Antler – Research Summary" 2835:from the original on March 8, 2012 2811:"Bow, Bow Case, Arrows and Quiver" 2406: 2392:James Randerson (March 20, 2008). 2159:Espmark, Yngve (October 1, 1964). 1904:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01480.x 1740: 1714:Veterinary Research Communications 1620: 1396:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00794.x 687: 488: 190:have small antlers and tusks. The 14: 3024: 2993: 2799:. Waveland Press. pp. 38–39. 2599:Laskow, Sarah (August 27, 2014). 2578:. Voyageur Press. pp. 20–1. 779:Denali National Park and Preserve 696: 2965: 2772:Antlers: Nature's Majestic Crown 2576:Antlers: Nature's Majestic Crown 1217: 939: 913:Antler headdresses were worn by 790: 770: 647: 635: 623: 611: 599: 580: 561: 547: 533: 517: 503: 2951: 2912: 2903: 2873: 2847: 2821: 2803: 2788: 2763: 2732: 2678: 2625: 2592: 2567: 2553:. Stackpole Books. p. 46. 2540: 2498: 2489: 2480: 2470: 2352: 2334: 2299: 2264: 2191: 2152: 2086: 2031: 1786: 1701: 1662: 1555: 1506: 1479: 1255: 954:alternative medicinal substance 662:Homology and evolution of tines 443:Reindeer in Kebnekaise valley, 2308:Journal of Wildlife Management 2273:Journal of Wildlife Management 1989:Nature Ecology & Evolution 1799:Calcified Tissue International 1237: 1211: 1138: 1116: 1053: 1027: 997: 496: 314:structural bones like femurs. 51:are extensions of an animal's 1: 2774:. Voyageur Press. p. 7. 2523:Deer: The Animal Answer Guide 1532:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.02.004 1094:"Online Etymology Dictionary" 991: 819: 818:made from a red deer antler, 701:Antlered heads are prized as 683:Exploitation by other species 528:with relatively large antlers 228:(which is not a cervid but a 2342:"Moose as a domestic animal" 2177:10.1016/0003-3472(64)90061-2 1687:10.1016/j.actbio.2008.09.011 413:Protection against predation 213:(the same material as human 174:. The ancestors of deer had 106: 7: 2857:. DK Images. Archived from 2526:. JHU Press. pp. 32–. 2344:. The Kostroma moose farm. 1859:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.017 1772:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.07.043 1146:"Dictionary.com Unabridged" 606:Young red deer, with velvet 573: 381: 10: 3029: 1821:– via Springer Link. 1736:– via Springer Link. 1648:10.1016/j.bone.2007.07.013 1580:10.1016/j.bone.2019.115046 1447:10.1007/s00114-020-01713-x 1249:February 29, 2012, at the 901:and used as a one-pointed 435:Female antlers in reindeer 345:Further, bones are highly 284:A 2019 study published in 162:Two sambar deer fighting, 18: 2885:www.vitaminsinamerica.com 2662:. fieldsportschannel.tv. 2377:10.1007/s10344-007-0165-4 2038:Nasoori, Alireza (2020). 2009:10.1038/s41559-018-0657-5 1726:10.1007/s11259-016-9663-8 934:Abbots Bromley Horn Dance 848:Bison Licking Insect Bite 719:Safari Club International 424:Yellowstone National Park 142:Structure and development 1092:Harper, Douglas (2010). 197:In contrast to antlers, 55:found in members of the 2937:10.1123/ijsnem.13.3.251 2250:10.1644/12-mamm-a-282.1 2121:10.1126/science.aav6312 1182:Hall, Brian K. (2005). 777:A shed moose antler in 715:Boone and Crockett Club 630:American elk, or wapiti 21:Antler (disambiguation) 2795:Balikci, Asen (1989). 2712:Dennis Walrod (2010). 2685:Dennis Walrod (2010). 2547:Dennis Walrod (2010). 1309:10.1098/rspb.2004.2933 1060:Brown, Leslie (1993). 983:Shed hunting with dogs 843:Bâton de commandements 830: 671: 478: 447: 273: 244: 170:Antlers are unique to 167: 155: 111:Antler comes from the 45: 37: 1962:10.1093/jhered/esq049 1435:The Science of Nature 1009:naturalhistory.si.edu 813: 669: 473: 442: 306:Mechanical properties 271: 242: 161: 149: 43: 31: 2238:Journal of Mammalogy 1263:"Mammals: Pronghorn" 670:Antler phylogenetics 2112:2019Sci...364.6312L 2001:2018NatEE...2.1619M 1949:Journal of Heredity 1884:Kruuk, Loeske E. B. 1851:2006MolPE..40..101G 1068:. Clarendon Press. 932:and carried in the 880:Indigenous American 741:Shed antler hunting 476:Kostroma Moose Farm 466:Antenna for hearing 406:genetic correlation 2797:The Netsilik Inuit 2437:10.7717/peerj.8114 2106:(6446): eaav6312. 2044:Biological Reviews 1811:10.1007/BF02411255 1675:Acta Biomaterialia 1041:. January 14, 2019 950:dietary supplement 831: 827:Wallace Collection 672: 479: 455:Rangifer tarandus) 448: 339:fracture toughness 274: 245: 168: 156: 46: 38: 2977:Chambers, Ephraim 2781:978-1-61060-343-0 2745:Prairie Post West 2725:978-0-8117-0596-7 2698:978-0-8117-0596-7 2585:978-1-61060-343-0 2560:978-0-8117-0596-7 2533:978-1-4214-0387-8 2206:(12): 3556–3560. 2056:10.1111/brv.12597 1995:(10): 1619–1625. 541:White-tailed deer 511:Porcupine caribou 97:sexual attraction 3020: 2990: 2969: 2968: 2960: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2861:on July 25, 2011 2851: 2845: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2792: 2786: 2785: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2655: 2649: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2629: 2623: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2606:Medium (service) 2596: 2590: 2589: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2544: 2538: 2537: 2517: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2493: 2487: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2468: 2467: 2457: 2439: 2415: 2404: 2401: 2388: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2244:(6): 1371–1379. 2233: 2224: 2223: 2195: 2189: 2188: 2165:Animal Behaviour 2156: 2150: 2149: 2123: 2090: 2084: 2083: 2035: 2029: 2028: 1984: 1975: 1974: 1964: 1940: 1931: 1930: 1928: 1880: 1871: 1870: 1834: 1823: 1822: 1790: 1784: 1783: 1751: 1738: 1737: 1720:(3–4): 141–147. 1705: 1699: 1698: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1627: 1618: 1617: 1591: 1559: 1553: 1552: 1534: 1519:Animal Behaviour 1510: 1504: 1503: 1501: 1499: 1483: 1477: 1476: 1466: 1426: 1417: 1416: 1398: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1340: 1331: 1330: 1320: 1303:(1559): 149–57. 1288: 1275: 1274: 1272: 1270: 1259: 1253: 1241: 1235: 1234: 1232: 1230: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1206: 1204: 1179: 1166: 1165: 1163: 1161: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1111: 1109: 1089: 1080: 1079: 1067: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1031: 1025: 1024: 1022: 1020: 1011:. Archived from 1001: 909:Ceremonial roles 876:cable-backed bow 824: 821: 794: 774: 651: 639: 627: 615: 603: 584: 565: 551: 537: 521: 507: 387:Sexual selection 93:shed and regrown 89:reindeer/caribou 3028: 3027: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3018: 3017: 2998: 2997: 2996: 2966: 2963: 2956: 2952: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2894: 2892: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2864: 2862: 2853: 2852: 2848: 2838: 2836: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2815:Brooklyn Museum 2809: 2808: 2804: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2768: 2764: 2754: 2752: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2683: 2679: 2669: 2667: 2656: 2652: 2642: 2640: 2631: 2630: 2626: 2616: 2614: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2518: 2511: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2471: 2416: 2407: 2357: 2353: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2320:10.2307/3798545 2304: 2300: 2285:10.2307/3801538 2269: 2265: 2234: 2227: 2212:10.2307/2680172 2196: 2192: 2157: 2153: 2091: 2087: 2050:(4): 986–1019. 2036: 2032: 1985: 1978: 1941: 1934: 1926: 1881: 1874: 1835: 1826: 1791: 1787: 1752: 1741: 1706: 1702: 1667: 1663: 1628: 1621: 1560: 1556: 1511: 1507: 1497: 1495: 1484: 1480: 1427: 1420: 1375: 1371: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1341: 1334: 1289: 1278: 1268: 1266: 1265:. San Diego Zoo 1261: 1260: 1256: 1251:Wayback Machine 1242: 1238: 1228: 1226: 1218:Love, Heather. 1216: 1212: 1202: 1200: 1198: 1180: 1169: 1159: 1157: 1144: 1143: 1139: 1122: 1121: 1117: 1107: 1105: 1090: 1083: 1076: 1058: 1054: 1044: 1042: 1033: 1032: 1028: 1018: 1016: 1003: 1002: 998: 994: 985: 972:; however, one 942: 911: 884:Brooklyn Museum 829:, London (2010) 822: 808: 801: 795: 786: 775: 743: 709:Ltd., a London 699: 690: 688:Ecological role 685: 664: 657: 652: 643: 640: 631: 628: 619: 616: 607: 604: 595: 585: 576: 569: 566: 557: 552: 543: 538: 529: 522: 513: 508: 499: 491: 489:Diversification 468: 437: 415: 401: 389: 384: 371:Tensile testing 360:elastic modulus 308: 294:, particularly 217:and toenails). 144: 126:meaning eye and 122:meaning before, 109: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3026: 3016: 3015: 3013:Mammal anatomy 3010: 2995: 2994:External links 2992: 2979:, ed. (1728). 2962: 2961: 2950: 2911: 2902: 2872: 2846: 2820: 2802: 2787: 2780: 2762: 2731: 2724: 2704: 2697: 2677: 2650: 2624: 2591: 2584: 2566: 2559: 2539: 2532: 2509: 2497: 2488: 2479: 2469: 2405: 2403: 2402: 2351: 2333: 2314:(4): 699–705. 2298: 2279:(2): 386–388. 2263: 2225: 2190: 2171:(4): 420–426. 2151: 2085: 2030: 1976: 1932: 1898:(8): 1683–95. 1872: 1824: 1805:(3): 301–305. 1785: 1739: 1700: 1681:(2): 693–706. 1661: 1642:(5): 794–803. 1619: 1554: 1505: 1478: 1418: 1369: 1355: 1332: 1276: 1254: 1236: 1210: 1196: 1167: 1150:Dictionary.com 1137: 1115: 1098:Dictionary.com 1081: 1074: 1052: 1026: 1015:on May 1, 2018 995: 993: 990: 984: 981: 941: 938: 910: 907: 837:, used by the 807: 804: 803: 802: 796: 789: 787: 776: 769: 742: 739: 698: 697:Trophy hunting 695: 689: 686: 684: 681: 663: 660: 659: 658: 653: 646: 644: 641: 634: 632: 629: 622: 620: 617: 610: 608: 605: 598: 596: 586: 579: 575: 572: 571: 570: 567: 560: 558: 553: 546: 544: 539: 532: 530: 523: 516: 514: 509: 502: 498: 495: 490: 487: 467: 464: 436: 433: 414: 411: 400: 397: 388: 385: 383: 380: 362:of 8.92-10.02 331:yield strength 307: 304: 263:honest signals 143: 140: 108: 105: 91:. Antlers are 73:fibrous tissue 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3025: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3008:Bone products 3006: 3005: 3003: 2991: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2972:public domain 2959: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2931:(3): 251–65. 2930: 2926: 2922: 2915: 2906: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2876: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2834: 2830: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2806: 2798: 2791: 2783: 2777: 2773: 2766: 2750: 2747:. p. 3. 2746: 2742: 2735: 2727: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2708: 2700: 2694: 2690: 2689: 2681: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2638: 2634: 2628: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2602: 2601:"Antler Farm" 2595: 2587: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2562: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2543: 2535: 2529: 2525: 2524: 2516: 2514: 2507: 2501: 2492: 2483: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2230: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2155: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2089: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1981: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1955:(5): 553–61. 1954: 1950: 1946: 1939: 1937: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1879: 1877: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1845:(1): 101–17. 1844: 1840: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1789: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1704: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1665: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1626: 1624: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1558: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1509: 1493: 1489: 1482: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1423: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1389:(3): 616–25. 1388: 1384: 1380: 1373: 1358: 1356:0-8014-3475-0 1352: 1348: 1347: 1339: 1337: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1281: 1264: 1258: 1252: 1248: 1245: 1240: 1225: 1221: 1214: 1199: 1197:0-12-319060-6 1193: 1189: 1185: 1178: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1141: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1119: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1088: 1086: 1077: 1075:0-19-861271-0 1071: 1066: 1065: 1056: 1040: 1036: 1030: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1000: 996: 989: 980: 977: 975: 971: 970:muscle tissue 967: 963: 962:body builders 959: 955: 951: 947: 946:velvet antler 940:Dietary usage 937: 935: 931: 928: 924: 920: 916: 906: 904: 900: 896: 891: 889: 888:Yankton Sioux 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 864: 862: 861:powder flasks 858: 854: 850: 849: 844: 840: 836: 828: 817: 812: 800: 793: 788: 784: 780: 773: 768: 767: 766: 762: 758: 756: 752: 748: 738: 735: 730: 728: 723: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 694: 680: 676: 668: 656: 650: 645: 638: 633: 626: 621: 614: 609: 602: 597: 593: 589: 583: 578: 577: 564: 559: 556: 550: 545: 542: 536: 531: 527: 520: 515: 512: 506: 501: 500: 494: 486: 484: 477: 472: 463: 461: 456: 452: 446: 441: 432: 429: 425: 421: 410: 407: 396: 394: 379: 377: 372: 368: 365: 361: 357: 353: 348: 343: 340: 337:, but higher 336: 332: 328: 327:mineral phase 324: 320: 315: 312: 303: 299: 297: 293: 289: 288: 282: 280: 270: 266: 264: 259: 255: 250: 241: 237: 235: 231: 227: 223: 218: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 195: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 165: 160: 153: 148: 139: 137: 133: 132:*anteocularis 129: 125: 121: 117: 114: 104: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 85:blood vessels 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 42: 36:stag, Denmark 35: 30: 26: 22: 2984: 2964: 2953: 2928: 2924: 2914: 2905: 2893:. 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