3514:
1563:. This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high-energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations. By itself it could as well be useful to terrorists for crippling a nation's economic electronics-based infrastructure. Because the effect is most effectively produced by high altitude nuclear detonations (by military weapons delivered by air, though ground bursts also produce EMP effects over a localized area), it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area.
152:
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1697:. This is a nuclear bomb that is man-portable, or at least truck-portable, and though of a relatively small yield (one or two kilotons) is sufficient to destroy important tactical targets such as bridges, dams, tunnels, important military or commercial installations, etc. either behind enemy lines or pre-emptively on friendly territory soon to be overtaken by invading enemy forces. These weapons require plutonium fuel and are particularly "dirty". They also demand especially stringent security precautions in their storage and deployment.
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2005:
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1673:. Such a weapon could, according to tacticians, be used to cause massive biological casualties while leaving inanimate infrastructure mostly intact and creating minimal fallout. Because high energy neutrons are capable of penetrating dense matter, such as tank armor, neutron warheads were procured in the 1980s (though not deployed in Europe) for use as tactical payloads for US Army artillery shells (200 mm
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1570:: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required the development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the
1762:
2044:(see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. This can mean keeping weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on
2617:. The two years with the highest likelihood had previously been 1953, when the Clock was set to two minutes until midnight after the U.S. and the Soviet Union began testing hydrogen bombs, and 2018, following the failure of world leaders to address tensions relating to nuclear weapons and climate change issues. In 2023, following the
2170:, especially in troubled regions of the world where there exists a single nuclear-weapon state. Aside from the public opinion that opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer, who favored selective proliferation, and Waltz, who was somewhat more non-
2441:, which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.
1611:, has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible beyond the military domain. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the
2628:
As of 2024, Russia has intensified nuclear threats in
Ukraine and is reportedly planning to place nuclear weapons in orbit, breaching the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. China is significantly expanding its nuclear arsenal, with projections of over 1,000 warheads by 2030 and up to 1,500 by 2035. North Korea
2243:
argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that "the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on
2099:
in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of
1508:
is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small number of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. There are two types of boosted fission bomb:
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stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons. Furthermore, high yield thermonuclear explosions (most dangerously ground bursts) have the force to lift radioactive debris upwards
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into two new cells. Even before it was published, news of
Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation crossed the Atlantic. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening
1425:
Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described to the right, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily
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they stated that: "The energy liberated in the explosion of such a super-bomb...will, for an instant, produce a temperature comparable to that of the interior of the sun. The blast from such an explosion would destroy life in a wide area. The size of this area is difficult to estimate, but it will
3908:
By the start of the war in
September 1939, many scientists likely to be persecuted by the Nazis had already escaped. Physicists on both sides were well aware of the possibility of utilizing nuclear fission as a weapon, but no one was quite sure how it could be engineered. In August 1939, concerned
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of radiation, it is coupled with infertility, sub-fertility and blood disorders. Furthermore, ionizing radiation above a dose of around 50–100 millisievert exposure has been shown to statistically begin increasing one's chance of dying of cancer sometime in their lifetime over the normal unexposed
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or evacuate perpendicular to the direction of the wind, and therefore avoid contact with the fallout plume, and stay there for the days and weeks after the nuclear explosion, their exposure to fallout, and therefore their total dose, will vary. With those who do shelter in place, and or evacuate,
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study claims that fallout from atmospheric nuclear tests would lead to perhaps 11,000 excess deaths among people alive during atmospheric testing in the United States from all forms of cancer, including leukemia, from 1951 to well into the 21st century. As of March 2009, the U.S. is the only
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Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet
Britain, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs). The
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claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of
January 2016, though this claim is disputed. Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design
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might kill 400–450 million directly, mostly in the United States, Europe and Russia, and maybe several hundred million more through follow-up consequences in those same areas. Many scholars have posited that a global thermonuclear war with Cold War-era stockpiles, or even with the current
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cops would collect debris samples and send them to a laboratory for radiological analysis. By identifying unique attributes of the fissile material, including its impurities and contaminants, one could trace the path back to its origin." The process is analogous to identifying a criminal by
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Additionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the tests by India and
Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear
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said that governments of France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, UK, and South Africa have used nuclear power or research reactors to assist nuclear weapons development or to contribute to their supplies of nuclear explosives from military reactors. In 2017, 122 countries mainly in the
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divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment".
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Critics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in
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of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 megatons of TNT (210 PJ), was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements. In the early 1950s the
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says there is a new danger, which cannot be addressed by deterrence: "The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of suicide bombers, that calculation doesn't operate in any comparable way".
1537:. It has been conjectured that such a device could serve as a "doomsday weapon" because such a large quantity of radioactivities with half-lives of decades, lifted into the stratosphere where winds would distribute it around the globe, would make all life on the planet extinct.
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internally boosted, in which a deuterium-tritium mixture is injected into the bomb core, and externally boosted, in which concentric shells of lithium-deuteride and depleted uranium are layered on the outside of the fission bomb core. The external method of boosting enabled the
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in 1945. This method places few restrictions on the size of the weapon. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both
1244:
A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons (500
5351:". Accessed May 27, 2010. Of the "Annex 2" states whose ratification of the CTBT is required before it enters into force, China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty. India, North Korea, and Pakistan have not signed the Treaty.
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fingerprints. "The goal would be twofold: first, to deter leaders of nuclear states from selling weapons to terrorists by holding them accountable for any use of their weapons; second, to give leaders every incentive to tightly secure their nuclear weapons and materials."
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publicly proposed a three-stage program for abolishing the world's nuclear weapons by the end of the 20th century. In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that organized by the
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in the Congo which produced by far the highest quality uranium ore in the world, had become aware of uranium's possible use in a bomb. In late 1940, fearing that it might be seized by the
Germans, he shipped the mine's entire stockpile of ore to a warehouse in New
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has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must "pursue negotiations in good faith" towards the long-term goal of "complete disarmament". The nuclear-weapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as "decorative" and without force.
1276:. Another source of radioactivity is the burst of free neutrons produced by the weapon. When they collide with other nuclei in the surrounding material, the neutrons transmute those nuclei into other isotopes, altering their stability and making them radioactive.
2205:, that this complication calls for a new nuclear strategy, one that is distinct from that which gave relative stability during the Cold War. Since 1996, the United States has had a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with
2521:
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1825:. The design, development, and maintenance of delivery systems are among the most expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program; they account, for example, for 57% of the financial resources spent by the United States on nuclear weapons projects since 1940.
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in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including
2444:
Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as
1422:. Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium.
3901:. When the nucleus of uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.5 neutrons. Because uranium-235 releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as
1987:
Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of
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Because they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation and possible use of nuclear weapons are important issues in international relations and diplomacy. In most countries, the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the
2244:
those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.".
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forces. Soviet authorities announced similar intentions for neutron warhead deployment in Europe; indeed, they claimed to have originally invented the neutron bomb, but their deployment on USSR tactical nuclear forces is unverifiable.
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and the
Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.
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to field the first partially thermonuclear weapons, but it is now obsolete because it demands a spherical bomb geometry, which was adequate during the 1950s arms race when bomber aircraft were the only available delivery vehicles.
3169:
equipped with a nuclear warhead exploded. The accident was caused by a maintenance man who dropped a socket from a socket wrench down an 80-foot (24 m) shaft, puncturing a fuel tank on the rocket. Leaking fuel resulted in a
3811:
identified that atoms were breaking down and turning into different elements. Hopes were raised among scientists and laymen that the elements around us could contain tremendous amounts of unseen energy, waiting to be harnessed.
1996:
status (the ability to destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists considered the sorts of policies that might prevent a nuclear attack, and they developed
8099:, vol. 44, no. 4 (24 February 2022), pp. 29–32. "Nuclear strategists systematically underestimate the chances of nuclear accident... here have been too many close calls for accidental use to be discounted." (p. 32.)
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but, with little initial funding ($ 6,000), progress was slow. It was not until the U.S. entered the war in
December 1941 that Washington decided to commit the necessary resources to a top-secret high priority bomb project.
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justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. The question of whether nations should have nuclear weapons, or test them, has been continually and nearly universally controversial.
3322:
Some scientists estimate that a nuclear war with 100 Hiroshima-size nuclear explosions on cities could cost the lives of tens of millions of people from long-term climatic effects alone. The climatology hypothesis is that
2436:
to encourage development of peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed the
2786:
has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their invention at the end of
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7 hour rule: At 7 hours after detonation the fission product activity will have decreased to about 1/10 (10%) of its amount at 1 hour. At about 2 days (49 hours-7X7) the activity will have decreased to 1% of the 1-hour
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correctly interpreted these results as being due to the splitting of the uranium atom. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on
January 13, 1939. They gave the process the name "fission" because of its similarity to the
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prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactive fallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years. A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American
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is progressing in intercontinental ballistic missile tests and has a mutual-defense treaty with Russia, exchanging artillery for possible missile technology. Iran is currently viewed as a nuclear "threshold" state.
3006:
accidentally fell from a bomber near Albuquerque, New Mexico. The detonation of the device's conventional explosives destroyed it on impact and formed a crater 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter on land owned by the
9532:
6183:
2262:" of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs website Publication, "Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation."
1615:, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. A fourth generation nuclear weapon design is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as
1474:, where the calm non-turbulent winds permit the debris to travel great distances from the burst, eventually settling and unpredictably contaminating areas far removed from the target of the explosion.
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Delayed period—from 20+ weeks. Characterized by numerous complications, mostly related to healing of thermal and mechanical injuries, and if the individual was exposed to a few hundred to a thousand
2250:
makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence is coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that forged the fissile material. "After a nuclear bomb detonates,
4695:
1351:). All such weapons derive a significant portion of their energy from fission reactions used to "trigger" fusion reactions, and fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.
8140:
1190:
All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as
8315:
or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.
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possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the
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6984:
Xia, Lili; Robock, Alan; Scherrer, Kim; Harrison, Cheryl S.; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; Weindl, Isabelle; Jägermeyr, Jonas; Bardeen, Charles G.; Toon, Owen B.; Heneghan, Ryan (August 15, 2022).
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3541:." Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons".
3338:
People near the Hiroshima explosion and who managed to survive the explosion subsequently suffered a variety of horrible medical effects. Some of these effects are still present to this day:
3331:, a great deal of soot could be thrown up into the atmosphere which could blanket the earth, cutting out sunlight for years on end, causing the disruption of food chains, in what is termed a
3102:, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by
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but this did not result in a working weapon. The concept involves the tapping of the energy of an exploding nuclear bomb to power a single-shot laser that is directed at a distant target.
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led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The incident caused widespread concern around the world, especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric
2704:
Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present
3261:
As public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the nuclear fallout, various studies were done to assess the extent of the hazard. A
1237:—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically fueled
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3572:, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches.
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1992:. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for
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3090:. The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard. Of the four
1241:. The latter approach, the "implosion" method, is more sophisticated and more efficient (smaller, less massive, and requiring less of the expensive fissile fuel) than the former.
1143:: "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one "... "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds".
2732:
stated that "no issue carries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps one day, rid the world of nuclear weapons".
9518:
8007:... Unless Washington and Moscow confront these problems now, a major international conflict or nuclear escalation is disturbingly plausible—perhaps even likely." (p. 161.)
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2746:
to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War, Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.
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who calculated uranium-235's critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible. In the February 1940
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can be desirable. In this case, it is argued that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons deter all-out war between states, and they succeeded in doing this during the
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rate of ~25%, in the long term, a heightened rate of cancer, proportional to the dose received, would begin to be observed after ~5+ years, with lesser problems such as eye
2666:
Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are eliminated.
3751:) absorbs a thermal neutron, becomes unstable and splits into two new atoms, releasing some energy and between one and three new neutrons, which can perpetuate the process.
3687:. During the 1960s and 1970s, both the United States and the Soviet Union conducted a number of PNEs. The United States created plans for several uses of PNEs, including
1299:
may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of dispute.
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1905:. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be difficult.
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7945:. Missile defenses will not allow us to escape our vulnerability to nuclear weapons. Instead large-scale developments will create barriers to taking real steps toward
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and David Wright, "Broken Shield: Missiles designed to destroy incoming nuclear warheads fail frequently in tests and could increase global risk of mass destruction",
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The United States and the Soviet Union later halted their programs. Definitions and limits are covered in the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty of 1976. The stalled
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Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an
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3449:. Detonating large numbers of nuclear weapons would have an immediate, short term and long-term effects on the climate, potentially causing cold weather known as a "
994:
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trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range
6737:
7654:. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004 (Two volumes, both accessible on Google Book Search) (Content of both volumes is now available in the 2009 trilogy by Alexander DeVolpi:
7369:"Gerald R. Ford: "Message to the Senate Transmitting United States-Soviet Treaty and Protocol on the Limitation of Underground Nuclear Explosions", July 29, 1976"
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2339:. Despite controls and regulations governing nuclear weapons, there is an inherent danger of "accidents, mistakes, false alarms, blackmail, theft, and sabotage".
8353:
5582:
767:
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2999:"—an accident involving a nuclear weapon, but which does not present a risk of war. Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the Cold War.
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episode, likewise titled "Command and Control". Nuclear weapons continue to be equally hazardous to their owners as to their potential targets. Under the 1970
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has said, "If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks, and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition not deterrable".
2618:
2390:(1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military
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The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as
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1849:. This method is the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the
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Initial stage—the first 1–9 weeks, in which are the greatest number of deaths, with 90% due to thermal injury or blast effects and 10% due to super-lethal
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total number of deaths is not known precisely ... acute (within two to four months) deaths ... Hiroshima ... 90,000–166,000 ... Nagasaki ... 60,000–80,000
3491:
in August 2022, a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would directly kill 360 million people and more than 5 billion people would die from
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7157:
How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda
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6986:"Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection"
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Gsponer, Andre; Hurni, Jean-Pierre (1987). "The physics of antimatter induced fusion and thermonuclear explosions". In Velarde, G.; Minguez, E. (eds.).
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2150:(1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase
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emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed
1100:
1093:
341:
8112:, vol. 325, no. 2 (August 2021), pp. 64–71. "Failure to fully assess is a recipe for wasteful spending and increased global risk." (p. 71.)
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9443:
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8235:– contains resources related to nuclear weapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources
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in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearby
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Some nuclear weapons are designed for special purposes; most of these are for non-strategic (decisively war-winning) purposes and are referred to as
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danger (premature nuclear chain reaction caused by too-large amounts of pre-assembled fissile fuel). The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, the
894:). A thermonuclear weapon weighing as little as 600 pounds (270 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 megatonnes of TNT (5.0 PJ).
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has been "destabilized" by "clashing national interests, insufficient dialogue, eroding arms control structures, advanced missile systems, and new
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was created in 1957 to encourage peaceful development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear proliferation.
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3878:, pictured in about 1960, invented the electron microscope, linear accelerator, cyclotron, nuclear chain reaction and patented the nuclear reactor
3645:, between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent $ 11.3 trillion in present-day terms on nuclear weapons programs. 57% of which was spent on building
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of 1990, more than $ 1.38 billion in compensation has been approved. The money is going to people who took part in the tests, notably at the
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in the United States had plans for the testing of two massive bombs, Gnomon and Sundial, 1 gigaton of TNT and 10 gigatons of TNT respectively.
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In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from making progress on arms control agreements. The
2028:, could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. A factor in the development of
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being a prominent example) which exist in an elevated energy state. Mechanisms to release this energy as bursts of gamma radiation (as in the
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instead of a sovereign nation, there might not be a nation or specific target to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the
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6447:"Report on the Health Consequences to the American Population from Nuclear Weapons Tests Conducted by the United States and Other Nations"
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bunkers. Other components of nuclear strategies included using missile defenses to destroy the missiles before they land or implementing
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6646:
6107:
4959:
4525:
4405:
2685:
Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of
12237:
11911:
10267:
7778:
7677:
7321:
7275:
7213:
6763:
6535:
6401:"We Can Neither Confirm Nor Deny" Sentinels of History: Refelections on Arkansas Properties on the National Register of Historic Places
4324:
4141:
3262:
1970:
721:
418:
6472:
Committee to Review the CDC-NCI Feasibility Study of the Health Consequences Nuclear Weapons Tests, National Research Council (2003).
3470:
believe that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects, including environmental consequences,
2374:
By the 1960s, steps were taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of
12117:
12094:
12014:
10770:
5135:
3479:
1837:
1001:
922:
803:
536:
531:
449:
12026:
11009:
4623:
2625:, the doomsday clock was set to 90 seconds, the highest likelihood of global catastrophe since the existence of the Doomsday Clock.
11955:
4895:
2545:
2454:
2279:
1041:
646:
631:
546:
392:
7177:
How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States
5546:
4301:
2110:
have been of great strategic importance for the United States, Russia, and other nuclear powers since they entered service in the
1894:(SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success.
12154:
11847:
11802:
11220:
11060:
10999:
4865:
3508:
1720:
also used small nuclear warheads (optimized to produce neutron or X-ray flux) but were for use against enemy strategic warheads.
706:
651:
616:
571:
526:
521:
11140:
5009:
4505:
3281:
In addition, leakage of byproducts of nuclear weapon production into groundwater has been an ongoing issue, particularly at the
11852:
11842:
10965:
9499:
8339:
7738:
7296:
4787:
3580:
2708:
and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen, who were in office during the
2498:
1436:
1049:
1029:
1021:
701:
686:
656:
641:
611:
591:
566:
551:
541:
362:
352:
6473:
5516:
5279:
11749:
10194:
9901:
9251:
9147:
8667:
8273:
7846:
7760:
7714:
7607:
7576:
7545:
7516:
7479:
7460:
7439:
6491:
6352:
6222:
5658:
5376:
5225:
5094:
4992:
4953:
4449:
4374:
4242:
4044:
3725:
3695:
3162:
2674:
2541:
2438:
2295:
2291:
2259:
1943:, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.
1674:
1394:, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (
1037:
1033:
696:
606:
601:
576:
561:
556:
378:
367:
357:
117:
7794:
5483:
12149:
11944:
11016:
4720:
4054:
2872:
2155:
1891:
1756:
796:
784:
586:
581:
282:
89:
7663:
5178:
Gallucci, Robert (September 2006). "Averting Nuclear Catastrophe: Contemplating Extreme Responses to U.S. Vulnerability".
11737:
10933:
10479:
10444:
8721:
7767:
of France; the book also contains about ten chapters on true historical incidents involving nuclear weapons and strategy.
7368:
6955:"World Nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would kill more than 5 billion people – just from starvation, study finds"
6726:
5315:
4238:
4024:
3271:
3011:. According to a researcher at the Natural Resources Defense Council, it was one of the most powerful bombs made to date.
2644:
1009:
331:
8694:
8220:
7065:
6676:
6450:
3142:
when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an
12127:
12122:
11977:
11882:
11817:
11631:
11215:
9489:
8715:
8699:
8312:
7626:
6582:
6430:
5791:
5460:
4657:
4049:
2925:
2548:
calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.
2429:
2323:
1974:
1940:
1887:
1752:
1690:
1571:
156:
8264:
5817:
5579:
3380:
experiencing a total dose that would be negligible in comparison to someone who just went about their life as normal.
2088:. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.
96:
12143:
12112:
11972:
11901:
10295:
10174:
8709:
8030:
7877:
7863:
7829:
7813:
7729:
7645:
6954:
6802:
6084:
5822:
5324:
2779:
2614:
2562:
was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered
2533:
2509:
2166:, have argued, along the lines of Gallois, that some forms of nuclear proliferation would decrease the likelihood of
1935:
has been tested by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as
660:
136:
6858:
6369:
5675:
3905:. Uranium-238, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron.
12004:
11525:
11390:
9925:
9494:
9244:
5768:
4761:
3549:
2980:
2822:
2678:
9468:
7533:
Technology and International Transformation: The Railroad, the Atom Bomb, and the Politics of Technological Change
5882:
5427:
3732:
2972:, and died nine days later on May 30, 1946. After the death of Daghlian and Slotin, the mass became known as the "
2197:
might not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless
11906:
11468:
11302:
10904:
10782:
10439:
10300:
8297:
7890:
7709:" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chucklea Publications, 1995, 2007.
5887:
4466:
3454:
2956:
May 21, 1946: While conducting further experiments on the same core at Los Alamos National Laboratory, physicist
2829:
2743:
2379:
2275:
2233:
1901:(MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful
596:
151:
70:
8973:
8321:
4811:
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems, Madrid, June 30/July 4, 1986
4444:" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chuklea Publications, 1995, 2007.
103:
12204:
11458:
11307:
10765:
9818:
9747:
9463:
8704:
8362:
8060:
7342:
5392:
3910:
3232:
Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980.
3127:
2938:
2803:
As of early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.
2517:
2343:
2096:
1053:
74:
12042:
5992:
4600:
3918:
3691:. Six of the explosions by the Soviet Union are considered to have been of an applied nature, not just tests.
3258:, and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries".
11837:
11232:
11065:
10489:
10417:
9675:
8637:
8632:
7820:
5739:
4835:
3969:
3628:
3294:
3048:
2175:
1560:
1387:
because it results in an explosion hundreds of times stronger than that of a fission bomb of similar weight.
950:
737:
442:
260:
5115:"Should We Let the Bomb Spread? Edited by Mr. Henry D. Sokolski. Strategic studies institute. November 2016"
5114:
3698:
of 1996 would prohibit all nuclear explosions, regardless of whether they are for peaceful purposes or not.
1669:
is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron
12283:
11998:
11812:
11575:
11312:
11021:
10775:
10272:
9655:
9624:
9073:
8251:
8035:
7184:
7164:
4740:
Gsponer, Andre (2005). "Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons: Military effectiveness and collateral effects".
4065:
3924:
3561:
3475:
3023:
3015:
2359:, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist
2194:
2085:
2049:
1541:
85:
8282:
7909:
1700:
Small "tactical" nuclear weapons were deployed for use as antiaircraft weapons. Examples include the USAF
1321:
for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.
11932:
11725:
11638:
11610:
11567:
11532:
11370:
11197:
11135:
10960:
10864:
10750:
10218:
9918:
9844:
9634:
9510:
7406:
6048:
3599:
for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the "Ban the Bomb" movement spread.
2931:
2622:
2481:, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The
2383:
2206:
2107:
1911:
have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also
906:
747:
423:
17:
6239:
5916:
2774:
Some analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through
2477:
Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared
1390:
Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the
878:
released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ). Nuclear bombs have had
12248:
12010:
11938:
11559:
11418:
11097:
10615:
10572:
10424:
9764:
9629:
9199:
8684:
7702:
6916:
5341:
4437:
3820:
3713:
3707:
3670:
3038:
2818:
2171:
1993:
1962:
1427:
465:
383:
228:
31:
7949:—by blocking further cuts in nuclear arsenals and potentially spurring new deployments." (p. 67.)
3474:, and economic collapse. It has been estimated that a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between
2524:". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of
2052:
whose locations are difficult to track, or it can mean protecting weapons by burying them in hardened
1268:(but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such, they are a serious form of
12262:
12228:
12164:
12073:
11807:
11713:
11395:
11004:
10787:
9194:
8174:
6701:
3783:, that atoms had a highly dense, very small, charged central core called an atomic nucleus. In 1898,
3650:
3620:
3266:
3155:
3067:
3034:
3030:
2759:
movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President
2221:
2065:
1534:
1426:
large yield. This is in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive power due to
1406:) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated,
1269:
9357:
9352:
4271:
3495:. More than 2 billion people could die from a smaller-scale nuclear war between India and Pakistan.
2677:, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968
12278:
11643:
11485:
11385:
11297:
10506:
10392:
10352:
10164:
9835:
9189:
9184:
8459:
8307:
8228:
8082:
7982:
7975:, "The Return of Doomsday: The New Nuclear Arms Race – and How Washington and Moscow Can Stop It",
7493:
3824:
3654:
3646:
3624:
3008:
2950:
2610:
2478:
2212:
2115:
2076:
2041:
1814:
1740:
435:
248:
8550:
7087:
4836:"Air Force pursuing antimatter weapons: Program was touted publicly, then came official gag order"
3359:
Late period—lasting from 13 to 20 weeks. This period has some improvement in survivors' condition.
2839:
and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction,
1162:
There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from
1103:
aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, but there are different views of its effectiveness.
12189:
12179:
11548:
11515:
11490:
11104:
10881:
10687:
10610:
10567:
10550:
10511:
10434:
9174:
8397:
8188:
8155:
6558:"Radiation Exposure Compensation System: Claims to Date Summary of Claims Received by 06/11/2009"
6557:
6141:
4019:
3603:
3241:
3131:
3075:
2670:
2563:
1794:
1694:
1655:
1453:
Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of
1261:
1005:
914:
277:
243:
63:
35:
11473:
7564:
Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the Making of British Nuclear Culture 1939–59
7243:
4784:"Page discussing the possibility of using antimatter as a trigger for a thermonuclear explosion"
4543:
1868:
12293:
12184:
11985:
11380:
10667:
10211:
9215:
9179:
8095:
7175:
7155:
4502:
4029:
3937:
3865:
3636:
3482:
yield (15 kilotons) weapons, could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people.
3371:
and other more minor effects in other organs and tissue also being observed over the long term.
3095:
2996:
2903:
were divided over the use of the weapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in
2868:
2756:
2662:
until 2015, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991.
2578:, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions; in 2007, Israel
2501:
was established among the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons.
2397:
1928:
1505:
1495:
1483:
1318:
1234:
1122:
863:
11779:
8208:
7531:
5962:
4984:
4978:
2771:
poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.
1378:—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. Whether India has detonated a "true" multi-staged
11674:
11410:
11365:
10827:
10755:
10682:
10677:
10642:
10429:
10397:
10184:
10111:
9699:
9484:
9125:
9120:
9115:
9110:
9043:
9033:
9018:
8993:
8988:
8983:
8968:
8948:
8938:
8933:
8903:
8893:
8662:
8657:
8642:
8555:
8545:
8540:
8530:
8520:
8515:
8075:
7674:
7593:
7562:
7429:
6638:
6111:
4943:
4522:
4389:
4169:
4039:
4014:
3642:
2313:
2127:
1818:
1723:
Other small, or tactical, nuclear weapons were deployed by naval forces for use primarily as
1623:
1151:
1130:
1112:
910:
742:
317:
302:
238:
183:
39:
7775:
7221:
6527:
5362:
Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea.
4332:
4188:
3816:
3246:
1731:
or nuclear armed torpedoes. Nuclear mines for use on land or at sea are also possibilities.
110:
12174:
12036:
11585:
11360:
11345:
10662:
10620:
10456:
10362:
10290:
9884:
9602:
8908:
8883:
8878:
8806:
8801:
8791:
8786:
8781:
8776:
8771:
8766:
8761:
8756:
8751:
8736:
8627:
8596:
8510:
8505:
8454:
8449:
8444:
8439:
8434:
8170:
6332:
6328:
6320:
5340:
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (2010). "
5132:
4355:
4004:
3999:
3680:
3166:
3042:
3019:
3003:
2698:
2482:
2364:
2202:
2178:
that it generates continues to this day, with ongoing debate about indigenous Japanese and
2139:
1982:
1920:
1545:
1491:
1458:
1379:
1327:
1308:
879:
844:
503:
265:
253:
4316:
3661:, and 7% of the total$ , 795 billion was spent on making nuclear weapons themselves.
3055:
attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea. The pilot, the aircraft, and the
2520:, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "
2060:
measures using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack.
8:
12159:
11684:
11495:
11280:
10874:
10742:
10720:
10545:
10402:
10169:
10131:
9964:
9586:
9267:
8500:
8495:
8490:
8485:
8429:
8424:
8419:
8414:
8409:
8108:
8067:
7946:
7925:
7336:"Announcement of Treaty on Underground Nuclear Explosions Peaceful Purposes (PNE Treaty)"
6321:"Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety"
6163:
5609:
3545:
3504:
3446:
3233:
3135:
3079:
3071:
3052:
2988:
2892:
2848:
2712:
period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include
2638:
2494:
2009:
1590:
1586:
307:
187:
11961:
7790: – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons)
6336:
5729:"The Stability-Instability Paradox, Misperception, and Escalation Control in South Asia"
4891:
2888:
1559:
high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a
866:
of a fission ("atomic") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000
12067:
12030:
11967:
11664:
11400:
11237:
11164:
10975:
10625:
10595:
10579:
10562:
10206:
10096:
10044:
9994:
9941:
9864:
8048:
Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety
7770:
7568:
7092:
7027:
6897:
6850:
5195:
5040:
5010:"Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer (Part I)"
4814:
4741:
3949:
3933:
3855:
3403:
or escaping completely from this substance depending on the actions of the individual.
3350:
3315:
3199:
2946:
2904:
2899:
Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the
2844:
2729:
2529:
2391:
2332:
2299:
1774:
1631:
1567:
1391:
1230:
990:
986:
7650:
DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S.
5883:"Global Nuclear Arsenal Declines, But Future Cuts Uncertain Amid U.S.-Russia Tensions"
4861:
3250:. One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, and the fear of contaminated
1581:
provide a possible pathway to fissionless fusion bombs. These are naturally occurring
981:. These bombings caused injuries that resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000
12169:
12132:
10732:
10525:
10412:
10387:
10325:
10282:
10126:
10121:
10116:
9959:
8103:
8056:
8026:
7904:
7873:
7859:
7842:
7825:
7809:
7756:
7725:
7710:
7641:
7603:
7572:
7541:
7435:
7315:
7269:
7031:
7019:
6901:
6854:
6497:
6487:
6475:
Exposure of the American Population to Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests
6426:
6348:
6218:
5654:
5554:
5044:
5032:
4988:
4974:
4949:
4445:
4397:
3945:
3860:
3780:
3717:
3688:
3676:
3596:
3584:
3556:
1958, when, according to the CND, several thousand people marched for four days from
3518:
3471:
3458:
3412:
3110:
3103:
2969:
2900:
2836:
2775:
2751:
2579:
2525:
2251:
2190:
2143:
2123:
2017:
1989:
1956:
1916:
1912:
1549:
1518:
1499:
1403:
1265:
1155:
1126:
848:
312:
297:
292:
287:
223:
7735:
7289:
5199:
5048:
4783:
4297:
3154:, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread
2189:
The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of
1593:) have been proposed as possible triggers for conventional thermonuclear reactions.
1279:
The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been
12055:
11580:
10635:
10600:
10357:
10347:
10235:
10223:
10064:
10059:
10049:
10039:
10034:
9342:
8943:
8918:
8913:
8888:
8862:
8846:
8841:
8836:
8831:
8826:
8821:
8816:
8811:
8796:
8611:
8469:
8198:
7952:
7675:
NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear)
7171:
7151:
7009:
6999:
6889:
6842:
6505:
6479:
6340:
5374:
The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance
5187:
5024:
4653:
4129:
4034:
3890:
would be the element which can realize his 1933 idea about nuclear chain reaction.
3843:
3748:
3557:
3463:
3376:
3275:
3225:
3091:
3083:
3056:
2984:
2840:
2725:
2351:
2217:
2163:
2103:
1952:
1908:
1850:
1842:
1748:
1713:
1689:
A type of nuclear explosive most suitable for use by ground special forces was the
1419:
1218:
1214:
832:
828:
488:
171:
6893:
5373:
5090:
4062:(Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean)
3649:
systems. 6.3% of the total$ , 709 billion in present-day terms, was spent on
3236:
from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the
3212:
2497:(1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a
1805:. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest
1264:, the remains of the split atomic nuclei. Many fission products are either highly
11478:
11438:
10892:
10706:
10630:
10605:
10451:
10244:
10146:
10136:
10101:
9979:
9969:
9576:
8606:
8464:
8325:
8301:
8286:
8268:
8255:
8232:
8212:
8014:
7977:
7968:
7930:
7782:
7764:
7742:
7706:
7681:
6420:
6148:
6079:
5945:
5586:
5412:
5399:
5380:
5348:
5319:
5252:
5164:
5157:
5139:
5098:
4899:
4724:
4529:
4509:
4441:
3914:
3808:
3744:
3420:
3255:
3188:
2792:
2713:
2650:
2590:
2567:
2508:
The number of nuclear warheads by country in 2024, based on an estimation by the
2375:
2356:
2240:
2033:
1978:
1932:
1924:
1902:
1861:
1822:
1666:
1608:
1578:
1462:
1454:
1273:
1250:
1183:
1163:
1081:
942:
836:
493:
233:
175:
10970:
8331:
4387:
4140:
In the United States, the President and the Secretary of Defense, acting as the
2063:
Weapons designed to threaten large populations or to deter attacks are known as
1178:
12288:
12194:
12061:
12020:
11433:
11428:
11423:
11173:
11080:
11049:
11031:
10555:
10461:
10407:
10305:
10252:
10106:
9999:
9984:
9974:
9783:
9607:
9542:
8313:
The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project
8042:
7801:
7140:(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988), chapters 16 and 19.
7004:
6985:
6846:
5813:
5308:
4462:
3965:
3961:
3828:
3776:
3537:
Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "
3450:
3428:
3416:
3400:
3332:
3221:
2976:". It was ultimately used to construct a bomb for use on the Nevada Test Range.
2942:
2883:
2606:
2433:
2360:
2247:
1846:
1790:
1717:
1556:
1418:, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as
1363:
1238:
1207:
1167:
891:
867:
840:
681:
322:
270:
191:
11453:
7434:. Great Discoveries in Science. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. p. 33.
7376:
7214:"Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996"
6798:"Nowhere to hide: How a nuclear war would kill you — and almost everyone else"
6446:
5312:
4246:
2697:
returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the
12272:
11618:
10909:
10315:
10156:
9717:
9665:
9326:
9316:
9291:
8383:
8089:, Simon and Schuster, 2021, 384 pp.; and Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press,
8052:
8010:
7996:
7852:
7834:
7599:
7061:
6668:
5558:
5191:
5073:
Kenneth Waltz, "More May Be Better", in Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz, eds.,
5036:
5028:
4717:
4503:
Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: 4.5.2 "Dirty" and "Clean" Weapons
4401:
4331:. Nuclear Threat Initiatives, South Africa (NTI South Africa). Archived from
3975:
3929:
3764:
3592:
3424:
3205:
3143:
3139:
2961:
2937:
August 21, 1945: While conducting experiments on a plutonium-gallium core at
2797:
2783:
2717:
2705:
2486:
2336:
2159:
2151:
2057:
1966:
1936:
1744:
1724:
1709:
1705:
1650:
missile. Capable of firing a 100-kiloton nuclear warhead a distance of 185 km
1647:
1446:
1355:
1292:
1284:
1226:
1139:
938:
5452:
4892:
Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996
4888:
Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940.
1442:
12137:
12083:
12078:
11184:
10320:
10262:
10189:
10141:
10011:
9889:
9670:
9321:
9311:
9306:
9301:
9286:
9281:
9093:
8261:
8158:
was created from a revision of this article dated 1 December 2005
7989:
7985:
7787:
7688:
7023:
6501:
5855:
5827:
4467:"Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns"
3851:
3832:
3784:
3759:
was revolutionized with developments in the understanding of the nature of
3658:
3438:
3363:
3349:
Intermediate stage—from 10 to 12 weeks. The deaths in this period are from
3282:
3237:
3175:
3060:
2957:
2788:
2760:
2595:
2135:
2053:
2021:
2004:
1878:
Preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted on a
1829:
1806:
1778:
1766:
1728:
1682:
1662:
1634:
or requirements for special materials, especially fissile fuel or tritium.
1627:
1487:
1471:
1085:
1017:
958:
946:
926:
11781:
Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites
9540:
9236:
6880:
Tonn, Bruce & MacGregor, Donald (2009). "A singular chain of events".
5950:
Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age
5280:"Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine"
3525:
3310:
1785:
1642:
1630:, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size,
12209:
11595:
11242:
10832:
10339:
10310:
9660:
9581:
8601:
8020:
8004:
7920:
7014:
6990:
3994:
3979:
3957:
3898:
3894:
3883:
3875:
3788:
3772:
3768:
3608:
3565:
3487:
3194:
2735:
2554:
2183:
2179:
2025:
1998:
1802:
1701:
1530:
1383:
1288:
1280:
1073:
167:
6830:
6764:"You're More Likely to Die in a Human Extinction Event Than a Car Crash"
6049:"Accident Revealed After 29 Years: H-Bomb Fell Near Albuquerque in 1957"
5104:, no. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981).
4819:
4746:
2544:. Given the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the
1313:
1147:
937:
Nuclear weapons have only twice been used in warfare, both times by the
12199:
10948:
9388:
9383:
9378:
8391:
7961:
7956:
7934:
7633:
7537:
4718:
Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-8)
4009:
3492:
3171:
2973:
2856:
2825:
2690:
2537:
1883:
1596:
1533:. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of long-lived
1467:
1431:
962:
887:
179:
8292:
7981:, vol. 98, no. 5 (September / October 2019), pp. 150–161. Former
7685:. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996
7585:
6624:
Alan Robock and Owen Brian Toon. Local Nuclear War, Global Suffering,
6422:
Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy
6344:
5851:"Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them"
3099:
2504:
1856:
11991:
11590:
10953:
10943:
10071:
10024:
9989:
9910:
9804:
8318:
8087:
The Bomb: Presidents, Generals, and the Secret History of Nuclear War
6399:
Stumpf, David K. (2000). Christ, Mark K.; Slater, Cathryn H. (eds.).
5168:, November/December 1998, page 4. Fetched from URL on April 18, 2011.
4833:
4433:
San Antonio, TX: Aerofax, 1988; and the more-updated Hansen, Chuck, "
3839:
3804:
3792:
3569:
3392:
3343:
3328:
3217:
3151:
3106:
2965:
2945:
received a lethal dose of radiation when an error caused it to enter
2852:
2817:
The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the
2490:
2485:(1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in
2466:
2303:
2198:
2167:
2045:
1817:
a nuclear weapon to its target is an important factor affecting both
1670:
1600:
1407:
1399:
1344:
1296:
1222:
1117:
970:
966:
902:
871:
30:"Atom bomb", "A-bomb", and "Nuke" redirect here. For other uses, see
11448:
8308:
Recordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
8249:
The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States)
8091:
The Myth of the Nuclear Revolution: Power Politics in the Atomic Age
6639:"Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects | K=1 Project"
5248:"The Pentagon Revealed Its Nuclear War Strategy and It's Terrifying"
3956:
Organized research first began in Britain and Canada as part of the
3318:'s back injuries taken in January 1946 by a U.S. Marine photographer
52:
11862:
11679:
11322:
11317:
11257:
10926:
10854:
10837:
10822:
10797:
10540:
10029:
9733:
9680:
9559:
9225:
9220:
8194:
8102:
David Wright and Cameron Tracy, "Over-hyped: Physics dictates that
7992:
7972:
7938:
6483:
4596:
4574:"Nuclear Testing and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) Timeline"
4272:"Federation of American Scientists: Status of World Nuclear Forces"
3921:
to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat.
3721:
3679:
conducted for non-military purposes, such as activities related to
3433:
3368:
2859:, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.
2721:
2709:
2659:
2559:
2458:
2287:
2232:
are considered destabilizing because they tend to put a premium on
2131:
2111:
1833:
1612:
1582:
1340:
1203:
982:
978:
875:
9347:
4388:
Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (February 1954).
3739:
1517:
The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of
1170:
reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.
11648:
11600:
11463:
11443:
10842:
10817:
10257:
10088:
10076:
10054:
10019:
9296:
8403:
8197:: reliable source, has links to other sources and an informative
7929:, vol. 320, no. no. 6 (June 2019), pp. 62–67. "Current U.S.
7700:
Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945
7652:
Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry
7341:. Gerald R. Ford Museum and Library. May 28, 1976. Archived from
6168:
4435:
Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945
3902:
3887:
3796:
3756:
3384:
3147:
3045:
broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.
2739:
2694:
2686:
2450:
2446:
2367:, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the
2283:
1879:
1770:
1504:
There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a
1415:
1395:
1348:
1246:
1077:
1069:
1057:
974:
954:
8328:– a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps.
8248:
3835:
reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons.
3299:
1521:. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as
473:
11252:
11247:
11227:
11207:
11192:
11075:
10812:
10792:
10760:
9799:
9685:
9639:
8279:
8183:
8000:
7190:
6240:"Jan. 17, 1966: H-Bombs Rain Down on a Spanish Fishing Village"
5704:. Politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com. April 12, 2010. Archived from
4059:
3847:
3800:
3588:
3553:
2908:
2764:
2571:
2470:
2363:
offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in
2347:
2318:
2071:
1604:
1522:
1371:
1359:
1166:
reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin
1065:
856:
852:
8215:
provide information on weapons of mass destruction, including
8078:
are obliged to work toward the elimination of nuclear weapons.
6115:(Navy.mil weblist of Aug 2003 compilation from cruise reports)
5920:
5180:
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
4890:
Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. See also
3871:
1867:(submarine launched ballistic missile), from submerged to the
1272:. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of
11669:
11626:
11289:
11145:
10938:
10802:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9438:
9433:
9428:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9408:
9398:
9393:
9362:
8898:
5702:"CNN Poll: Public divided on eliminating all nuclear weapons"
5517:"PRESS RELEASE: Doomsday Clock set at 90 seconds to midnight"
4394:
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs
3684:
3632:
3396:
3388:
3244:
contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat
3146:
was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto
3087:
2583:
2386:, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, whereas the
1411:
1375:
1367:
1134:
1061:
208:
8243:
8106:
cannot live up to the grand promises made on their behalf",
7872:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012.
7858:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988.
7699:
6879:
4434:
3827:
could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with
3771:. Around the turn of the 20th century, it was discovered by
3485:
According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal
3445:
Nuclear war could yield unprecedented human death tolls and
3375:
Fallout exposure—depending on if further afield individuals
12048:
11150:
11039:
10849:
10807:
7942:
7448:
4834:
Keay Davidson; Chronicle Science Writer (October 4, 2004).
4521:
On India's alleged hydrogen bomb test, see Carey Sublette,
3760:
3530:
3441:, the largest nuclear weapon detonated by the U.S., in 1954
3399:
case, would make the difference between likely contracting
3354:
3251:
2828:'s plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the
2658:
and United States nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout the
2655:
2575:
2566:
as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel had
2462:
2229:
2029:
2013:
1864:
1798:
1526:
1510:
1004:, nuclear weapons have been detonated over 2,000 times for
898:
7504:
7405:. CTBT Organization Preparatory Commission. Archived from
7375:. University of California – Santa Barbara. Archived from
6925:
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
6161:"U.S. Confirms '65 Loss of H-Bomb Near Japanese Islands".
3468:
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
1761:
1607:
particles in most of their properties but having opposite
11123:
10987:
9153:
9130:
9079:
9068:
9063:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9038:
9028:
9023:
9013:
9008:
9003:
8998:
8978:
8963:
8958:
8953:
8928:
8923:
8673:
8652:
8647:
8580:
8575:
8570:
8565:
8560:
8535:
8525:
8240:
US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing
8064:
7667:
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977.
6983:
6130:
deck logs for aircraft carriers for the Vietnam Conflict.
5488:
4913:"US to introduce new nuclear gravity bomb design: B61-13"
4396:. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 61–.
2768:
1828:
The simplest method for delivering a nuclear weapon is a
1678:
918:
883:
8225:
8216:
3960:
project: the world's first nuclear weapons project. The
3270:
nation that compensates nuclear test victims. Since the
2001:
models that could lead to stable deterrence conditions.
1777:, Japan. They were large and could only be delivered by
1449:, often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb"
1339:), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of
1129:
was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, which led
8258:– located in New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum
7080:
6403:. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press.
5484:"'Doomsday clock' ticks closer to apocalyptic midnight"
5155:
Daniel Plesch & Stephen Young, "Senseless policy",
3383:
Staying indoors until after the most hazardous fallout
1158:, often referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb".
969:; three days later, on August 9, the USAAF detonated a
7595:
Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project
7467:
4658:"The untold story of the world's biggest nuclear bomb"
3391:
decays away to 0.1% of its initial quantity after ten
2847:. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of
12246:
8039:, vol. LXV, no. 1 (January 18, 2018), pp. 13–15.
5993:"The Nuclear 'Demon Core' That Killed Two Scientists"
5417:"Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power"
4624:"Nuclear overkill: The quest for the 10 gigaton bomb"
3893:
Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes:
2949:. He died 25 days later, on September 15, 1945, from
2118:
and fire their nuclear weapons with virtual impunity.
1052:
is believed to possess nuclear weapons, though, in a
923:
against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
6528:"What governments offer to victims of nuclear tests"
5765:"Michael Krepon • The Stability-Instability Paradox"
5635:
Lawrence M. Krauss. The Doomsday Clock Still Ticks,
4362:
2915:
2193:) complicates the decision process. The prospect of
917:
policy. Nuclear weapons have been deployed twice in
8205:
6151:
at www.atomicarchive.com. Accessed August 24, 2007.
5917:"Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform"
4688:"Why the U.S. once set off a nuclear bomb in space"
3579:was the start of a successful campaign to stop the
2394:to member countries without fear of proliferation.
2148:
The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age
77:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
10673:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
9716:Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile Test Centre,
8072:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
7965:, vol. 309, no. 6 (September 23, 2019), p. 4.
7786:Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. (
6374:The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture
6295:
5653:. New York City: Simon and Schuster. p. 291.
5393:Nuclear weapons and international humanitarian law
2388:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
2272:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
1899:multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles
1873:multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles
1210:of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons.
1101:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
8361:
4941:
4813:. World Scientific, Singapore. pp. 166–169.
4544:"North Korea announces it conducted nuclear test"
4176:. Hearst Magazines. October 1945. pp. 18–19.
3882:After learning about the German fission in 1939,
3614:
3098:the B-52G carried, three were found on land near
3059:were never recovered. It was not until 1989 that
3022:nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the
2643:For statistics on possession and deployment, see
989:. The ethics of these bombings and their role in
901:can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and
12270:
6791:
6789:
6734:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
6727:"Public Health Assessment – Iodine-131 Releases"
5091:"The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better"
4474:Institute for Science and International Security
3288:
2522:Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons
2432:(IAEA) was established under the mandate of the
2369:Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
27:Explosive weapon that utilizes nuclear reactions
7664:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition).
6736:. U.S. Center for Disease Control. March 2008.
6297:"US left nuclear weapon under ice in Greenland"
6077:
5411:
5328:, November/December 2015, vol. 71 no. 6, 11–17.
3747:, the nucleus of a fissile atom (in this case,
3539:Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs
3521:between the U.S./NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981
2960:accidentally caused the core to become briefly
2835:Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and
2602:, which eventually entered into force in 2021.
2265:
1566:Research has been done into the possibility of
839:(fission bomb) or a combination of fission and
12027:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll
8063:. The book became the basis for a 2-hour 2017
7995:write that "the old equilibrium" between the
5812:
5547:"America prepares for a new nuclear-arms race"
4762:"Details on antimatter triggered fusion bombs"
4727:(January 1, 2002), accessed November 20, 2011.
4461:
4264:
3182:
3002:May 22, 1957: a 42,000-pound (19,000 kg)
1202:). This has long been noted as something of a
851:. Both bomb types release large quantities of
161:National Museum of the United States Air Force
11828:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll
11823:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
11765:
11376:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
9926:
9526:
9252:
8347:
8274:The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb
7736:The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
7143:
7125:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power
7112:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power
7049:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power
6917:"Nuclear Famine: Two Billion People at Risk?"
6786:
6215:America's Lost H-Bomb: Palomares, Spain, 1966
4983:. New York: Oxford University Press. p.
4322:
3306:Effects of nuclear explosions on human health
3300:Effects of nuclear explosions on human health
2922:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
2813:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs
1617:antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion
874:). The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb
804:
443:
7798:. Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979.
6100:
5602:
4808:
4735:
4733:
4162:
3964:was set up following the work of Frisch and
3846:reported that they had detected the element
2600:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
2552:Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated
2469:, as well as non-binding agreements such as
2403:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
2308:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
1860:Montage of an inert test of a United States
1853:, which is being improved upon to this day.
11950:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident
11833:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country
9266:
7427:
6795:
6574:
5789:
5007:
4652:
4189:"Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons"
2995:in history. The accident was designated a "
2821:established in January 1998 as part of the
2742:workers use equipment provided by the U.S.
1637:
11772:
11758:
9933:
9919:
9533:
9519:
9259:
9245:
8354:
8340:
8304:, PBS website on the history of the H-bomb
8195:Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette
7724:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
7088:"Early defections in march to Aldermaston"
6796:Diaz-Maurin, François (October 20, 2022).
6376:. Arkansas Historic Preservation Program.
5919:. United Nations. A/51/950. Archived from
5914:
5211:
5209:
4935:
4622:Simha, Rakesh Krishnan (January 5, 2016).
3973:probably cover the centre of a big city."
3755:In the first decades of the 20th century,
3278:, and to others exposed to the radiation.
3263:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
3063:revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.
2138:. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen.
2020:in the late 1980s. Each missile, like the
1693:, or SADM, sometimes popularly known as a
811:
797:
472:
450:
436:
207:
12299:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1945
12118:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
12095:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
12015:Three Mile Island accident health effects
8262:Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources
7806:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
7693:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.
7515:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 (
7478:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 (
7459:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 (
7366:
7043:
7041:
7013:
7003:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6318:
6184:"H-bomb incident crippled pilot's career"
5848:
5354:
5336:
5334:
4818:
4745:
4730:
4523:What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?
4431:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4214:"The U S Army Air Forces in World War II"
3799:, contained a substance—which they named
3701:
3529:Demonstration against nuclear testing in
3406:
2382:(1963) restricted all nuclear testing to
1801:; also known by the NATO reporting name:
1628:different yields for different situations
1002:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
932:
137:Learn how and when to remove this message
12113:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)
11956:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident
11288:
9541:Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the
8226:Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
8166:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
8149:
7170:
7150:
6583:"US nuclear dump is leaking toxic waste"
5940:
5938:
5676:"Obama Prague Speech On Nuclear Weapons"
5514:
5402:International Committee of the Red Cross
5177:
5133:Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age
5085:
5083:
4588:
4381:
4373:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJungk1958 (
4186:
3923:
3870:
3850:after bombarding uranium with neutrons.
3738:
3524:
3512:
3432:
3309:
3211:
3204:Black dot indicates the location of the
3198:
3165:occurred in Damascus, Arkansas, where a
2887:
2734:
2649:
2609:measures the likelihood of a human-made
2546:International Committee of the Red Cross
2503:
2396:
2317:
2280:Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
2211:
2102:
2003:
1855:
1784:
1760:
1641:
1457:than fission reactions, but because all
1441:
1312:
1177:
1146:
1116:
831:that derives its destructive force from
150:
12155:International Day against Nuclear Tests
11803:Crimes involving radioactive substances
8280:Los Alamos National Laboratory: History
8081:Tom Stevenson, "A Tiny Sun" (review of
8019:The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a
7661:Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J.
7529:
7193:"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"
6570:from the original on September 7, 2009.
6380:from the original on September 12, 2014
6059:from the original on September 10, 2014
5802:from the original on February 13, 2014.
5648:
5405:
5383:, Fact Sheet, Arms Control Association.
5218:"How to Keep the Bomb From Terrorist s"
5215:
5206:
5125:
5121:from the original on November 23, 2016.
4975:"Technology and War II:Postmodern War?"
4972:
4942:Michael I. Handel (November 12, 2012).
4739:
4541:
4353:Ian Lowe, "Three minutes to midnight",
3733:History of nuclear weapons § Background
3509:International Day against Nuclear Tests
2258:According to the Pentagon's June 2019 "
1056:, it does not acknowledge having them.
973:implosion-type fission bomb nicknamed "
14:
12271:
11945:Instituto OncolĂłgico Nacional#Accident
11303:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
9940:
9500:France and weapons of mass destruction
7808:. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995.
7640:. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991.
7591:
7560:
7510:
7473:
7454:
7399:"Status of Signature and Ratification"
7320:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
7274:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
7038:
6828:
6679:from the original on August 31, 2011.
6407:
6398:
6308:from the original on January 10, 2022.
6212:
5673:
5331:
4923:from the original on December 17, 2023
4698:from the original on November 29, 2023
4634:from the original on November 29, 2023
4465:; Kramer, Kimberly (August 22, 2005).
4412:
4180:
3944:Roosevelt responded by setting up the
2499:Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone
2008:The now decommissioned United States'
1971:Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence
11753:
11545:
11308:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
10717:
10704:
9914:
9902:Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom
9514:
9240:
8335:
7824:. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986
7656:Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy
7191:Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.
7100:from the original on October 8, 2006.
7051:, Oxford University Press, pp. 96–97.
6965:from the original on October 26, 2022
6810:from the original on October 26, 2022
6761:
6538:from the original on January 18, 2023
6520:
6453:from the original on December 4, 2013
6418:
6246:from the original on December 3, 2008
6181:
6175:
6055:. Associated Press. August 27, 1986.
5973:from the original on October 12, 2023
5935:
5527:from the original on January 24, 2023
5496:from the original on November 3, 2019
5481:
5260:from the original on December 7, 2019
5080:
4910:
4621:
4368:
4304:from the original on December 7, 2010
4243:Radiation Effects Research Foundation
4218:Air Force Historical Support Division
4148:authorize the use of nuclear weapons.
4045:Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom
3696:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
3602:In 1963, many countries ratified the
3562:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment
3437:Mushroom cloud from the explosion of
2991:atomic bomb. This was the first such
2675:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
2542:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
2439:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
2296:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
2292:Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
2260:Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations
1892:submarine-launched ballistic missiles
12150:History of the anti-nuclear movement
11732:
10705:
7776:Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.
7054:
6237:
6231:
6071:
5515:Spinazze, Gayle (January 24, 2023).
5342:Status of Signature and Ratification
4962:from the original on March 31, 2017.
4772:from the original on April 22, 2017.
4668:from the original on August 27, 2023
4594:
4554:from the original on January 7, 2016
4483:from the original on January 3, 2012
4408:from the original on March 31, 2017.
4278:from the original on January 2, 2013
4055:Nuclear weapons of the United States
3498:
3462:smaller stockpiles, may lead to the
3395:—which is represented by 80 days in
2873:History of the anti-nuclear movement
2174:. Interest in proliferation and the
1757:Submarine-launched ballistic missile
1548:was conducted under the DOD program
75:adding citations to reliable sources
46:
11808:Criticality accidents and incidents
11313:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
8722:Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition
8013:, "The Nuclear Worrier" (review of
7955:, "Missile Mania: The death of the
7763:). The book is a fiction about the
7755:, Éditions Payot et rivages, 2007 (
6914:
6593:from the original on April 13, 2016
6580:
6266:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs"
6019:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs"
5999:from the original on April 24, 2018
5963:"Atomic Accidents – Nuclear Museum"
5849:Reichmann, Kelsey (June 16, 2019).
4868:from the original on March 23, 2016
4862:"Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons"
4790:from the original on April 24, 2013
4390:"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists"
4025:List of states with nuclear weapons
3664:
3272:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
2645:List of states with nuclear weapons
1946:
1888:intercontinental ballistic missiles
1809:missile delivery system ever built.
1734:
1712:. Missile interceptors such as the
190:, LGM-30A/B/F Minuteman I or II,
157:intercontinental ballistic missiles
24:
11912:Nuclear power accidents by country
11122:
10273:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
8716:Special Atomic Demolition Munition
8136:
7933:plans are being driven largely by
7884:
7734:The Manhattan Engineer District, "
7627:List of books about nuclear issues
7367:Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T.
7302:from the original on April 3, 2024
7068:from the original on June 17, 2004
6935:from the original on April 5, 2016
6861:from the original on April 4, 2020
6762:Meyer, Robinson (April 29, 2016).
6649:from the original on June 20, 2017
6367:
6276:from the original on June 27, 2019
6029:from the original on June 27, 2019
5863:from the original on July 28, 2020
5726:
5290:from the original on June 19, 2019
5216:Allison, Graham (March 13, 2009).
5131:See, for example: Feldman, Noah. "
4603:from the original on March 1, 2007
4050:Nuclear weapons in popular culture
3913:to develop fission-based weapons,
3109:. The fourth, which fell into the
2926:List of military nuclear accidents
2430:International Atomic Energy Agency
2324:International Atomic Energy Agency
2074:in military situations are called
1975:Single Integrated Operational Plan
1941:Special Atomic Demolition Munition
1836:; this was the method used by the
1753:Intercontinental ballistic missile
1691:Special Atomic Demolition Munition
1572:United States Department of Energy
1173:
897:A nuclear device no larger than a
155:An assortment of American nuclear
25:
12310:
12144:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
10296:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
10195:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
8710:Medium Atomic Demolition Munition
8206:Federation of American Scientists
8117:
7856:Nuclear Fear: A History of Images
7839:The War that Must Never be Fought
7256:from the original on May 14, 2024
7138:Nuclear Fear: A History of Images
7127:, Oxford University Press, p. 98.
7114:, Oxford University Press, p. 93.
6803:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
6743:from the original on May 11, 2016
6085:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5952:, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191–192.
5896:from the original on July 2, 2019
5823:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5591:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5521:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5482:Koran, Laura (January 25, 2018).
5463:from the original on June 5, 2023
5325:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5158:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
4911:Mehta, Aaron (October 27, 2023).
4842:from the original on June 9, 2012
4662:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
4542:McKirdy, Euan (January 6, 2016).
4187:Sublette, Carey (June 12, 2020).
3726:History of the Teller–Ulam design
3577:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
3138:. The aircraft was carrying four
2916:Notable nuclear weapons accidents
2806:
2615:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2613:and is published annually by the
2510:Federation of American Scientists
1302:
1206:, as their energy comes from the
1020:(succeeded as a nuclear power by
855:from relatively small amounts of
12256:
12233:
12232:
12222:
12005:Kramatorsk radiological accident
11731:
11720:
11719:
11707:
11396:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
8182:
8148:
7554:
7530:Herrera, Geoffrey Lucas (2006).
7523:
7494:"Leo Szilard | Biographies"
7486:
7421:
7391:
7360:
7328:
7282:
7236:
7206:
7130:
7117:
7104:
6977:
6947:
6908:
6873:
6831:"Critique of nuclear extinction"
6774:from the original on May 1, 2016
5790:Ben Goddard (January 27, 2010).
5682:from the original on May 9, 2013
5605:"Nuclear energy after Fukushima"
5603:Jim Hoagland (October 6, 2011).
4980:The Oxford History of Modern War
4170:"Atomic Power for War and Peace"
3731:This section is an excerpt from
3675:Peaceful nuclear explosions are
3550:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
3174:fuel explosion, jettisoning the
3158:. One of the bombs remains lost.
3113:, was recovered intact after a 2
2823:United Nations Secretary-General
2679:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
2673:and continuing through the 1996
1727:weapons. These included nuclear
1626:is for the purpose of achieving
911:proliferation of nuclear weapons
780:
779:
51:
11907:List of orphan source incidents
10485:Historical stockpiles and tests
7620:
7373:The American Presidency Project
6822:
6755:
6719:
6687:
6661:
6631:
6618:
6605:
6550:
6465:
6439:
6392:
6361:
6312:
6288:
6258:
6238:Long, Tony (January 17, 2008).
6206:
6182:Hayes, Ron (January 17, 2007).
6154:
6135:
6041:
6011:
5985:
5955:
5908:
5888:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
5875:
5842:
5806:
5783:
5757:
5720:
5694:
5667:
5642:
5629:
5596:
5572:
5539:
5508:
5475:
5445:
5386:
5367:
5302:
5272:
5240:
5171:
5149:
5107:
5067:
5001:
4966:
4904:
4880:
4854:
4827:
4802:
4776:
4754:
4710:
4680:
4646:
4615:
4566:
4535:
4515:
4495:
4455:
4347:
4239:"Frequently Asked Questions #1"
4134:
3803:—that emitted large amounts of
2964:. He received a lethal dose of
2750:In January 1986, Soviet leader
2744:Defense Threat Reduction Agency
2598:voted in favor of adopting the
2558:for the initiation of the 2003
2380:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
2276:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
2036:difficult for an enemy country.
1897:More advanced systems, such as
1765:The first nuclear weapons were
1260:All fission reactions generate
62:needs additional citations for
11386:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
10268:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
8025:, New York, Bloomsbury, 2017,
7959:has escalated the arms race",
6611:Philip Yam. Nuclear Exchange,
6217:. Sunflower University Press.
5674:Graham, Nick (April 5, 2009).
4977:. In Charles Townshend (ed.).
4945:War, Strategy and Intelligence
4290:
4231:
4206:
4122:
4090:
3657:, for example cleaning up the
3615:Costs and technology spin-offs
3587:in the sea 19 kilometres from
3128:1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash
2939:Los Alamos National Laboratory
2862:
2632:
2518:International Court of Justice
2097:International Court of Justice
1529:) creates a weapon known as a
1477:
1287:. Less commonly used has been
1213:In fission weapons, a mass of
1054:policy of deliberate ambiguity
13:
1:
12229:Nuclear technology portal
11714:Nuclear technology portal
9890:Blue Peacock nuclear landmine
8363:United States nuclear devices
7821:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
6894:10.1016/j.futures.2009.07.009
6080:"Big Bangs from Little Bombs"
5651:Gorbachev: His Life and Times
5075:The Spread of Nuclear Weapons
4073:
3763:including the discoveries in
3641:According to an audit by the
3629:History of computing hardware
3353:in the median lethal range –
3295:Effects of nuclear explosions
3289:Effects of nuclear explosions
3049:1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash
2895:protest march in Oxford, 1980
2780:stability–instability paradox
2619:escalation of nuclear threats
2176:stability-instability paradox
2070:Nuclear weapons for use on a
2050:transporter erector launchers
1561:nuclear electromagnetic pulse
951:United States Army Air Forces
11999:Andreev Bay nuclear accident
11986:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident
11576:Field-reversed configuration
11186:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
9074:Reliable Replacement Warhead
8036:The New York Review of Books
7910:Resources in other libraries
7695:Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988
7185:American Antiquarian Society
7165:American Antiquarian Society
6700:. p. 22. Archived from
6370:"Titan II Missile Explosion"
6171:. May 9, 1989. p. A–27.
6108:"Ticonderoga Cruise Reports"
6078:Barry Schneider (May 1975).
5915:Kofi Annan (July 14, 1997).
5792:"Cold Warriors say no nukes"
4973:Creveld, Martin Van (2000).
4894:, an excerpt from the book.
4597:"The Nuclear Weapon Archive"
4325:"South African nuclear bomb"
4300:. Fas.org. January 8, 2007.
4066:Three Non-Nuclear Principles
3517:Protest in Bonn against the
3464:extinction of the human race
3024:BOMARC Missile Accident Site
3016:1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident
2266:Governance, control, and law
2195:mutually assured destruction
2108:Ballistic missile submarines
2086:mutually assured destruction
1871:, or re-entry phase, of the
1542:Strategic Defense Initiative
1088:is the only country to have
977:" over the Japanese city of
965:" over the Japanese city of
921:, both by the United States
7:
11933:Nyonoksa radiation accident
11533:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
10718:
10480:States with nuclear weapons
8093:, Cornell, 2020, 180 pp.),
6425:. Longman. pp. 54–55.
6213:Maydew, Randall C. (1997).
5585:September 17, 2008, at the
5163:September 19, 2015, at the
4948:. Routledge. pp. 85–.
4723:September 24, 2015, at the
4716:U.S. Department of Energy,
4528:September 27, 2011, at the
3987:
3544:In the United Kingdom, the
3183:Nuclear testing and fallout
3161:September 18–19, 1980: the
2932:List of nuclear close calls
2782:, including in south Asia.
2763:in an April 2009 speech in
2623:Russian invasion of Ukraine
2401:UN vote on adoption of the
2384:underground nuclear testing
2207:weapons of mass destruction
2203:September 11, 2001, attacks
1838:United States against Japan
907:weapons of mass destruction
466:Weapons of mass destruction
10:
12315:
12205:Russell–Einstein Manifesto
12128:Films about nuclear issues
12123:Books about nuclear issues
12011:Three Mile Island accident
11939:Fukushima nuclear accident
11818:Military nuclear accidents
11813:Nuclear meltdown accidents
11546:
11371:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
10495:Tests in the United States
8300:November 10, 2016, at the
7795:The Effects of Nuclear War
7705:December 30, 2016, at the
7624:
7592:Groves, Leslie R. (1983).
7561:Laucht, Christoph (2012).
7431:Nuclear Fusion and Fission
7005:10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0
6847:10.1177/002234338201900401
6628:, January 2010, pp. 74–81.
6147:September 1, 2013, at the
6127:The National Archives hold
5138:February 19, 2016, at the
5008:Mearsheimer, John (2006).
4898:November 21, 2008, at the
4886:Stephen I. Schwartz, ed.,
4440:December 30, 2016, at the
4329:Nuclear Threat Initiatives
4298:"Nuclear Weapons – Israel"
4142:National Command Authority
3730:
3714:Soviet atomic bomb project
3711:
3708:History of nuclear weapons
3705:
3683:including the creation of
3671:Peaceful nuclear explosion
3668:
3618:
3502:
3459:US–Soviet nuclear exchange
3410:
3303:
3292:
3240:hydrogen bomb test at the
3192:
3186:
3039:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
2929:
2919:
2881:
2866:
2819:United Nations Secretariat
2810:
2642:
2636:
2344:Russell–Einstein Manifesto
2311:
2269:
2182:nuclear deterrent against
1963:Pre-emptive nuclear strike
1960:
1950:
1738:
1481:
1306:
1154:, principal leader of the
1133:to recall verses from the
1110:
886:) and 50 megatons for the
32:Atom bomb (disambiguation)
29:
12218:
12165:Nuclear-Free Future Award
12103:
12074:Totskoye nuclear exercise
11920:
11902:Sunken nuclear submarines
11787:
11701:
11657:
11609:
11566:
11556:
11508:
11496:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
11409:
11391:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
11356:
11339:
11279:
11206:
11198:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
11172:
11163:
11115:
11095:
11048:
11030:
10986:
10891:
10873:
10741:
10728:
10713:
10700:
10655:
10588:
10533:
10524:
10472:
10380:
10371:
10338:
10281:
10243:
10234:
10155:
10087:
10010:
9952:
9948:
9898:
9877:
9857:
9828:
9817:
9792:
9776:
9757:
9746:
9726:
9709:
9698:
9648:
9617:
9595:
9569:
9558:
9549:
9485:French nuclear deterrence
9477:
9371:
9335:
9274:
9208:
9167:
9140:
9103:
9092:
8871:
8855:
8744:
8735:
8683:
8620:
8589:
8478:
8382:
8369:
8285:January 15, 2009, at the
8211:October 18, 1996, at the
7905:Resources in your library
7741:February 4, 2012, at the
7096:. London. April 5, 1958.
6835:Journal of Peace Research
6327:. Vol. 67. pp.
5649:Taubman, William (2017).
5379:January 19, 2011, at the
5097:December 1, 2010, at the
5077:(New York: Norton, 1995).
4112:, and colloquially as an
3970:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
3651:environmental remediation
3621:Global Positioning System
3575:In 1959, a letter in the
3267:National Cancer Institute
3156:radioactive contamination
3068:1966 Palomares B-52 crash
3035:Goldsboro, North Carolina
3031:1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash
2877:
2479:Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones
2222:Vandenberg Air Force Base
2142:of France, an adviser to
2134:between the U.S. and the
2116:reconnaissance satellites
2100:the state were at stake.
2016:developed to replace the
1665:purportedly conceived by
1535:radioactive contamination
1270:radioactive contamination
949:. On August 6, 1945, the
882:between 10 tons TNT (the
11401:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
11017:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
10353:Electron-beam processing
9878:Other cancelled projects
8324:August 28, 2015, at the
7983:U.S. Secretary of Energy
7870:The Rise of Nuclear Fear
7638:The Road from Los Alamos
7428:Young-Brown, F. (2016).
7062:"A brief history of CND"
6419:Rudig, Wolfgang (1990).
6319:Schlosser, Eric (2013).
5318:January 1, 2016, at the
5192:10.1177/0002716206290457
5029:10.1177/0047117806060939
4578:Arms control association
4512:, accessed May 10, 2011.
4078:
3909:that Germany might have
3864:up the possibility of a
3825:artificial radioactivity
3807:. Ernest Rutherford and
3655:nuclear waste management
3647:nuclear weapons delivery
3625:Nuclear weapons delivery
3581:Atomic Energy Commission
3009:University of New Mexico
2669:Beginning with the 1963
2568:bombed a nuclear reactor
2114:, as they can hide from
2042:nuclear weapons delivery
1741:Nuclear weapons delivery
1656:tactical nuclear weapons
1638:Tactical nuclear weapons
1331:or more colloquially as
1106:
1094:renounced and dismantled
1008:and demonstration. Only
165:Clockwise from top left:
12180:Nuclear power phase-out
11516:Organic nuclear reactor
10688:Nuclear power phase-out
10611:Nuclear decommissioning
10551:Reactor-grade plutonium
10301:Targeted alpha-particle
10180:Accidents and incidents
9268:French nuclear armament
8254:March 27, 2021, at the
7781:April 21, 2017, at the
7669:Available online (PDF).
5818:"The new abolitionists"
5398:April 21, 2010, at the
5364:New York: Norton, 2006.
5313:Today's nuclear dilemma
5144:New York Times Magazine
5017:International Relations
4020:List of nuclear weapons
3604:Partial Test Ban Treaty
3533:, France, in the 1980s.
3242:Pacific Proving Grounds
3178:beyond the launch site.
3132:United States Air Force
2791:. But former Secretary
2671:Partial Test Ban Treaty
2152:international stability
2146:, argued in books like
1795:Strategic Rocket Forces
1540:In connection with the
1354:Only six countries—the
1235:nuclear chain reactions
1090:independently developed
1082:nuclear weapons sharing
993:are to this day, still
915:international relations
36:A-bomb (disambiguation)
12185:Nuclear weapons debate
9336:Pre-strategic missiles
8294:Race for the Superbomb
8289:(U.S. nuclear history)
8231:March 2, 2001, at the
8144:
8124:Listen to this article
8096:London Review of Books
7947:reducing nuclear risks
7841:, Hoover Press, 2015,
7753:Réveillez le président
7680:April 8, 2015, at the
6829:Martin, Brian (1982).
6643:k1project.columbia.edu
5967:ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/
5678:. Huffingtonpost.com.
5639:, January 2010, p. 26.
5347:April 6, 2011, at the
4768:. September 22, 2015.
4508:March 3, 2016, at the
4193:Nuclear weapon archive
4030:Nth Country Experiment
3941:
3879:
3866:nuclear chain reaction
3752:
3702:History of development
3637:Swords to ploughshares
3534:
3522:
3442:
3407:Effects of nuclear war
3319:
3229:
3216:This view of downtown
3209:
3126:January 21, 1968: the
3066:January 17, 1966: the
3029:January 24, 1961: the
2896:
2869:Nuclear weapons debate
2747:
2663:
2580:bombed another reactor
2513:
2425:
2327:
2237:
2220:ICBM test launch from
2119:
2037:
1929:anti-submarine warfare
1875:
1810:
1782:
1651:
1506:boosted fission weapon
1496:Induced gamma emission
1484:Boosted fission weapon
1450:
1322:
1187:
1159:
1144:
933:Testing and deployment
194:
12043:K-19 nuclear accident
11838:Nuclear weapons tests
10678:Anti-nuclear movement
8267:May 15, 2021, at the
8143:
8076:nuclear-weapon states
7837:and Goodby, James E.
7498:www.atomicarchive.com
7218:Brookings Institution
6673:Fallout Radiation.com
6304:. November 11, 2008.
6272:. November 14, 2008.
6025:. November 14, 2008.
5745:on September 24, 2015
5453:"History of the TPNW"
5433:on September 27, 2013
4335:on September 28, 2012
4249:on September 19, 2007
4040:Nuclear bunker buster
4015:List of global issues
3927:
3874:
3821:Frédéric Joliot-Curie
3742:
3643:Brookings Institution
3528:
3516:
3436:
3313:
3215:
3202:
3043:Mark 39 nuclear bombs
3004:Mark-17 hydrogen bomb
2981:Convair B-36B crashed
2979:February 13, 1950: a
2891:
2738:
2653:
2582:being constructed in
2570:being constructed in
2507:
2400:
2371:, held in July 1957.
2321:
2314:Anti-nuclear movement
2215:
2128:nuclear proliferation
2106:
2032:was to make complete
2007:
1921:nuclear depth charges
1859:
1819:nuclear weapon design
1788:
1764:
1645:
1624:nuclear weapon design
1461:contain at least one
1459:thermonuclear weapons
1445:
1328:thermonuclear weapons
1316:
1295:and some isotopes of
1181:
1152:J. Robert Oppenheimer
1150:
1131:J. Robert Oppenheimer
1120:
1113:Nuclear weapon design
1096:its nuclear weapons.
184:LGM-30G Minuteman III
154:
40:Nuke (disambiguation)
12175:Nuclear power debate
12037:Cuban Missile Crisis
11888:in the United States
11586:Reversed field pinch
11381:Traveling-wave (TWR)
10865:Supercritical (SCWR)
10363:Gemstone irradiation
9784:Polaris A3T and A3TK
8276:at AtomicArchive.com
8191:at Wikimedia Commons
8175:More spoken articles
7634:Bethe, Hans Albrecht
7457:, pp. 263, 268.
7409:on December 28, 2016
6707:on November 26, 2013
6508:on September 7, 2014
6117:on September 7, 2004
5830:on February 17, 2014
5360:Richelson, Jeffrey.
4656:(October 29, 2021).
4359:, March 2016, p. 49.
4356:Australasian Science
4005:Cuban Missile Crisis
4000:Cosmic bomb (phrase)
3681:economic development
3609:fears of nuclear war
3552:(CND) took place at
3020:Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc
2987:after jettisoning a
2893:Anti-nuclear weapons
2849:conventional weapons
2699:collapse of the USSR
2483:Treaty of Tlatelolco
2365:Pugwash, Nova Scotia
2350:on July 9, 1955, by
2140:Pierre Marie Gallois
1983:On Thermonuclear War
1773:" weapon dropped on
1603:resembling ordinary
1599:, which consists of
1546:nuclear pumped laser
1544:, research into the
1492:Radiological warfare
1437:Livermore Laboratory
1380:thermonuclear weapon
1309:Thermonuclear weapon
953:(USAAF) detonated a
332:Nuclear-armed states
71:improve this article
12284:American inventions
12160:Nuclear close calls
10751:Aqueous homogeneous
10546:Reprocessed uranium
10219:Safety and security
9587:Handley Page Victor
8109:Scientific American
8068:American Experience
7926:Scientific American
7771:Smyth, Henry DeWolf
7751:Jean-Hugues Oppel,
7722:Stalin and the Bomb
7540:. pp. 179–80.
7513:, pp. 305–312.
6961:. August 16, 2022.
6669:"Decay Information"
6626:Scientific American
6615:, June 2010, p. 24.
6613:Scientific American
6337:2014PhT....67d..48W
6302:The Daily Telegraph
6164:The Washington Post
5771:on January 12, 2015
5637:Scientific American
5610:The Washington Post
5553:. August 12, 2024.
5146:(October 29, 2006).
4323:Executive release.
3861:splitting of a cell
3689:Operation Plowshare
3546:Aldermaston Marches
3505:Nuclear disarmament
3447:habitat destruction
3234:Radioactive fallout
3123:-month-long search.
2993:nuclear weapon loss
2951:radiation poisoning
2728:. In January 2010,
2639:Nuclear disarmament
2495:Treaty of Pelindaba
2461:(never in effect),
2040:Different forms of
2010:Peacekeeper missile
1813:The system used to
1683:short range missile
1591:hafnium controversy
188:LGM-118 Peacekeeper
12263:Nuclear technology
12068:Operation Plumbbob
12031:Operation Fishbowl
11968:Chernobyl disaster
11665:Dense plasma focus
10580:Actinide chemistry
10045:Isotope separation
9942:Nuclear technology
9885:Blue Water missile
9275:Strategic missiles
8145:
8104:hypersonic weapons
7868:Weart, Spencer R.
7571:. pp. 31–33.
7569:Palgrave Macmillan
7093:Guardian Unlimited
5995:. April 23, 2018.
5816:(March 30, 2012).
5617:on October 1, 2013
5593:(January 8, 2007).
5580:Finding Article VI
5578:Gusterson, Hugh, "
4584:on April 21, 2020.
3950:Lyman James Briggs
3942:
3934:Robert Oppenheimer
3880:
3856:Otto Robert Frisch
3838:In December 1938,
3815:In Paris in 1934,
3753:
3677:nuclear explosions
3535:
3523:
3476:India and Pakistan
3472:societal breakdown
3443:
3351:ionizing radiation
3320:
3316:Sumiteru Taniguchi
3230:
3210:
3084:mid-air refuelling
3014:June 7, 1960: the
2947:prompt criticality
2897:
2845:biological weapons
2748:
2730:Lawrence M. Krauss
2664:
2611:global catastrophe
2564:not to be the case
2530:Geneva Conventions
2514:
2449:(never ratified),
2426:
2423: Did not vote
2392:nuclear technology
2333:head of government
2328:
2300:Lahore Declaration
2238:
2158:scholars, such as
2120:
2038:
1990:nuclear deterrence
1882:, which can use a
1876:
1811:
1783:
1652:
1632:radiation hardness
1622:Most variation in
1451:
1392:Teller-Ulam design
1382:is controversial.
1323:
1319:Teller–Ulam design
1317:The basics of the
1231:exponential growth
1188:
1160:
1145:
995:subjects of debate
987:military personnel
845:thermonuclear bomb
195:
12244:
12243:
12170:Nuclear-free zone
12133:Anti-war movement
12089:Rocky Flats Plant
11747:
11746:
11697:
11696:
11693:
11692:
11644:Magnetized-target
11541:
11540:
11504:
11503:
11335:
11334:
11331:
11330:
11275:
11274:
11159:
11158:
11091:
11090:
10696:
10695:
10651:
10650:
10520:
10519:
10507:Weapon-free zones
10334:
10333:
10326:Radiopharmacology
9908:
9907:
9873:
9872:
9813:
9812:
9805:Chevaline upgrade
9742:
9741:
9703:(1960, cancelled)
9694:
9693:
9508:
9507:
9234:
9233:
9163:
9162:
9088:
9087:
8731:
8730:
8685:Atomic demolition
8238:Video archive of
8187:Media related to
8141:
7891:Library resources
7853:Weart, Spencer R.
7847:978-0-8179-1845-3
7835:Shultz, George P.
7818:Rhodes, Richard.
7761:978-2-7436-1630-4
7720:Holloway, David.
7715:978-0-9791915-0-3
7609:978-0-786-74822-8
7578:978-1-137-22295-4
7547:978-0-7914-6868-5
7441:978-1-502-61949-5
7123:Jim Falk (1982).
7110:Jim Falk (1982).
7047:Jim Falk (1982).
6695:"Nuclear Warfare"
6493:978-0-309-08713-1
6354:978-1-59420-227-8
6345:10.1063/PT.3.2350
6224:978-0-89745-214-4
6053:Los Angeles Times
5923:on March 18, 2017
5892:. June 17, 2019.
5727:Krepon, Michael.
5660:978-1-4711-4796-8
5286:. June 19, 2019.
5256:. June 21, 2019.
4994:978-0-19-285373-8
4955:978-1-136-28624-7
4766:NextBigFuture.com
4694:. July 15, 2021.
4654:Wellerstein, Alex
4595:Sublette, Carey.
4450:978-0-9791915-0-3
4174:Popular Mechanics
4096:also known as an
4084:Explanatory Notes
3946:Uranium Committee
3781:Ernest Rutherford
3718:Manhattan Project
3597:Nobel Peace Prize
3585:radioactive waste
3560:, London, to the
3548:organised by the
3519:nuclear arms race
3499:Public opposition
3457:estimated that a
3413:Nuclear holocaust
3163:Damascus Accident
3111:Mediterranean Sea
3086:off the coast of
2970:neutron radiation
2905:Japan's surrender
2901:Manhattan Project
2837:non-proliferation
2752:Mikhail Gorbachev
2534:Hague Conventions
2526:international law
2252:nuclear forensics
2224:, United States.
2191:nuclear terrorism
2154:. Some prominent
2144:Charles de Gaulle
2126:position is that
2066:strategic weapons
2018:Minuteman missile
1957:Deterrence theory
1843:strategic bombers
1791:commercial launch
1789:A demilitarized,
1568:pure fusion bombs
1550:Project Excalibur
1519:neutron radiation
1500:Antimatter weapon
1404:lithium deuteride
1225:) is forced into
1156:Manhattan Project
1127:Manhattan Project
991:Japan's surrender
905:. Since they are
899:conventional bomb
849:nuclear explosion
833:nuclear reactions
821:
820:
460:
459:
224:Nuclear explosion
147:
146:
139:
121:
16:(Redirected from
12306:
12261:
12260:
12259:
12252:
12236:
12235:
12227:
12226:
12225:
12056:Kyshtym disaster
12051:nuclear meltdown
11978:Related articles
11962:Goiânia accident
11774:
11767:
11760:
11751:
11750:
11735:
11734:
11723:
11722:
11712:
11711:
11710:
11622:
11581:Levitated dipole
11551:
11543:
11542:
11491:Helium gas (GFR)
11354:
11353:
11349:
11286:
11285:
11170:
11169:
11120:
11119:
11113:
11112:
11108:
11107:
10889:
10888:
10885:
10884:
10723:
10715:
10714:
10707:Nuclear reactors
10702:
10701:
10601:High-level (HLW)
10531:
10530:
10378:
10377:
10358:Food irradiation
10348:Atomic gardening
10241:
10240:
10224:Nuclear meltdown
10050:Nuclear material
10040:Fissile material
10035:Fertile material
9950:
9949:
9935:
9928:
9921:
9912:
9911:
9848:-class submarine
9839:-class submarine
9829:launch platforms
9826:
9825:
9768:-class submarine
9755:
9754:
9707:
9706:
9567:
9566:
9535:
9528:
9521:
9512:
9511:
9478:Related subjects
9372:Nuclear warheads
9261:
9254:
9247:
9238:
9237:
9101:
9100:
8742:
8741:
8380:
8379:
8356:
8349:
8342:
8333:
8332:
8186:
8165:
8163:
8152:
8151:
8142:
8132:
8130:
8125:
7969:Moniz, Ernest J.
7953:Michael T. Klare
7750:
7698:Hansen, Chuck, "
7614:
7613:
7589:
7583:
7582:
7558:
7552:
7551:
7527:
7521:
7520:
7508:
7502:
7501:
7490:
7484:
7483:
7471:
7465:
7464:
7452:
7446:
7445:
7425:
7419:
7418:
7416:
7414:
7395:
7389:
7388:
7386:
7384:
7379:on March 3, 2016
7364:
7358:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7348:on March 5, 2016
7347:
7340:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7319:
7311:
7309:
7307:
7301:
7294:
7286:
7280:
7279:
7273:
7265:
7263:
7261:
7255:
7248:
7240:
7234:
7233:
7231:
7229:
7224:on March 5, 2004
7220:. Archived from
7210:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7199:
7188:
7182:
7168:
7162:
7147:
7141:
7134:
7128:
7121:
7115:
7108:
7102:
7101:
7084:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7073:
7058:
7052:
7045:
7036:
7035:
7017:
7007:
6981:
6975:
6974:
6972:
6970:
6951:
6945:
6944:
6942:
6940:
6934:
6921:
6912:
6906:
6905:
6877:
6871:
6870:
6868:
6866:
6826:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6815:
6793:
6784:
6783:
6781:
6779:
6759:
6753:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6742:
6731:
6723:
6717:
6716:
6714:
6712:
6706:
6699:
6691:
6685:
6684:
6665:
6659:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6635:
6629:
6622:
6616:
6609:
6603:
6602:
6600:
6598:
6578:
6572:
6571:
6569:
6562:
6554:
6548:
6547:
6545:
6543:
6524:
6518:
6517:
6515:
6513:
6504:. Archived from
6469:
6463:
6462:
6460:
6458:
6443:
6437:
6436:
6416:
6405:
6404:
6396:
6390:
6389:
6387:
6385:
6368:Christ, Mark K.
6365:
6359:
6358:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6299:
6292:
6286:
6285:
6283:
6281:
6262:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6235:
6229:
6228:
6210:
6204:
6203:
6201:
6199:
6194:on June 16, 2011
6190:. Archived from
6179:
6173:
6172:
6158:
6152:
6139:
6133:
6132:
6124:
6122:
6116:
6110:. Archived from
6104:
6098:
6097:
6095:
6093:
6075:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6045:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6034:
6015:
6009:
6008:
6006:
6004:
5989:
5983:
5982:
5980:
5978:
5959:
5953:
5944:Jerry Brown and
5942:
5933:
5932:
5930:
5928:
5912:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5901:
5879:
5873:
5872:
5870:
5868:
5846:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5835:
5826:. Archived from
5810:
5804:
5803:
5787:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5776:
5767:. Archived from
5761:
5755:
5754:
5752:
5750:
5744:
5738:. Archived from
5733:
5724:
5718:
5717:
5715:
5713:
5708:on July 21, 2013
5698:
5692:
5691:
5689:
5687:
5671:
5665:
5664:
5646:
5640:
5633:
5627:
5626:
5624:
5622:
5613:. Archived from
5600:
5594:
5576:
5570:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5534:
5532:
5512:
5506:
5505:
5503:
5501:
5479:
5473:
5472:
5470:
5468:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5438:
5432:
5426:. Archived from
5421:
5409:
5403:
5390:
5384:
5371:
5365:
5358:
5352:
5338:
5329:
5306:
5300:
5299:
5297:
5295:
5276:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5244:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5233:
5224:. Archived from
5213:
5204:
5203:
5175:
5169:
5153:
5147:
5129:
5123:
5122:
5111:
5105:
5087:
5078:
5071:
5065:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5053:
5047:. Archived from
5014:
5005:
4999:
4998:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4939:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4917:Breaking Defense
4908:
4902:
4884:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4831:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4806:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4795:
4786:. Cui.unige.ch.
4780:
4774:
4773:
4758:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4737:
4728:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4684:
4678:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4610:
4608:
4592:
4586:
4585:
4580:. Archived from
4570:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4559:
4539:
4533:
4519:
4513:
4501:Carey Sublette,
4499:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4482:
4471:
4459:
4453:
4427:
4410:
4409:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4366:
4360:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4294:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4268:
4262:
4261:
4256:
4254:
4245:. Archived from
4235:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4224:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4184:
4178:
4177:
4166:
4149:
4138:
4132:
4130:Mordechai Vanunu
4126:
4120:
4094:
4035:Nuclear blackout
3980:Shinkolobwe Mine
3978:, a director of
3844:Fritz Strassmann
3823:discovered that
3791:discovered that
3749:enriched uranium
3665:Non-weapons uses
3558:Trafalgar Square
3377:shelter in place
3314:A photograph of
3276:Nevada Test Site
3226:Nevada Test Site
3122:
3121:
3117:
3078:collided with a
3070:occurred when a
3057:B43 nuclear bomb
2985:British Columbia
2830:General Assembly
2778:and through the
2528:, including the
2422:
2416:
2410:
2352:Bertrand Russell
2164:John Mearsheimer
2093:advisory opinion
2077:tactical weapons
1953:Nuclear strategy
1947:Nuclear strategy
1909:Tactical weapons
1823:nuclear strategy
1769:, such as this "
1749:Strategic bomber
1735:Weapons delivery
1677:and 155 mm
1420:depleted uranium
1335:(abbreviated as
1262:fission products
1256:
1239:explosive lenses
1227:supercriticality
1219:enriched uranium
1215:fissile material
1198:(abbreviated as
829:explosive device
813:
806:
799:
783:
782:
764:List of treaties
476:
462:
461:
452:
445:
438:
389:
283:Target selection
211:
197:
196:
172:LGM-25C Titan II
142:
135:
131:
128:
122:
120:
86:"Nuclear weapon"
79:
55:
47:
21:
12314:
12313:
12309:
12308:
12307:
12305:
12304:
12303:
12279:Nuclear weapons
12269:
12268:
12267:
12257:
12255:
12247:
12245:
12240:
12223:
12221:
12214:
12190:Peace activists
12105:
12099:
11924:
11922:
11916:
11794:
11792:
11790:
11783:
11778:
11748:
11743:
11708:
11706:
11689:
11653:
11620:
11605:
11562:
11552:
11547:
11537:
11500:
11405:
11350:
11343:
11342:
11327:
11271:
11202:
11177:
11155:
11127:
11109:
11102:
11101:
11100:
11087:
11053:
11044:
11026:
10991:
10982:
10896:
10879:
10878:
10877:
10869:
10783:Natural fission
10737:
10736:
10724:
10719:
10709:
10692:
10668:Nuclear weapons
10647:
10606:Low-level (LLW)
10584:
10516:
10468:
10367:
10330:
10277:
10230:
10151:
10083:
10006:
9944:
9939:
9909:
9904:
9894:
9869:
9853:
9821:
9809:
9788:
9772:
9758:Launch platform
9750:
9738:
9722:
9702:
9690:
9644:
9613:
9591:
9577:Vickers Valiant
9562:
9554:
9545:
9539:
9509:
9504:
9473:
9367:
9331:
9270:
9265:
9235:
9230:
9204:
9159:
9136:
9095:
9084:
8867:
8851:
8727:
8686:
8679:
8616:
8585:
8474:
8374:
8372:
8365:
8360:
8326:Wayback Machine
8302:Wayback Machine
8287:Wayback Machine
8269:Wayback Machine
8256:Wayback Machine
8233:Wayback Machine
8217:nuclear weapons
8213:Wayback Machine
8189:Nuclear weapons
8179:
8178:
8167:
8161:
8159:
8156:This audio file
8153:
8146:
8137:
8134:
8128:
8127:
8123:
8120:
8115:
8015:Daniel Ellsberg
7978:Foreign Affairs
7931:missile defense
7916:
7915:
7914:
7899:
7898:
7894:
7887:
7885:Further reading
7882:
7802:Rhodes, Richard
7783:Wayback Machine
7765:nuclear weapons
7748:
7743:Wayback Machine
7707:Wayback Machine
7682:Wayback Machine
7629:
7623:
7618:
7617:
7610:
7590:
7586:
7579:
7559:
7555:
7548:
7528:
7524:
7514:
7509:
7505:
7492:
7491:
7487:
7477:
7472:
7468:
7458:
7453:
7449:
7442:
7426:
7422:
7412:
7410:
7397:
7396:
7392:
7382:
7380:
7365:
7361:
7351:
7349:
7345:
7338:
7334:
7333:
7329:
7313:
7312:
7305:
7303:
7299:
7292:
7290:"Archived copy"
7288:
7287:
7283:
7267:
7266:
7259:
7257:
7253:
7246:
7244:"Archived copy"
7242:
7241:
7237:
7227:
7225:
7212:
7211:
7207:
7197:
7195:
7180:
7172:McCusker, J. J.
7160:
7152:McCusker, J. J.
7148:
7144:
7136:Spencer Weart,
7135:
7131:
7122:
7118:
7109:
7105:
7086:
7085:
7081:
7071:
7069:
7060:
7059:
7055:
7046:
7039:
6982:
6978:
6968:
6966:
6953:
6952:
6948:
6938:
6936:
6932:
6919:
6913:
6909:
6888:(10): 706–714.
6878:
6874:
6864:
6862:
6827:
6823:
6813:
6811:
6794:
6787:
6777:
6775:
6760:
6756:
6746:
6744:
6740:
6729:
6725:
6724:
6720:
6710:
6708:
6704:
6697:
6693:
6692:
6688:
6667:
6666:
6662:
6652:
6650:
6637:
6636:
6632:
6623:
6619:
6610:
6606:
6596:
6594:
6581:Coghlan, Andy.
6579:
6575:
6567:
6560:
6556:
6555:
6551:
6541:
6539:
6526:
6525:
6521:
6511:
6509:
6494:
6470:
6466:
6456:
6454:
6445:
6444:
6440:
6433:
6417:
6408:
6397:
6393:
6383:
6381:
6366:
6362:
6355:
6317:
6313:
6294:
6293:
6289:
6279:
6277:
6264:
6263:
6259:
6249:
6247:
6236:
6232:
6225:
6211:
6207:
6197:
6195:
6188:Palm Beach Post
6180:
6176:
6160:
6159:
6155:
6149:Wayback Machine
6140:
6136:
6120:
6118:
6114:
6106:
6105:
6101:
6091:
6089:
6076:
6072:
6062:
6060:
6047:
6046:
6042:
6032:
6030:
6017:
6016:
6012:
6002:
6000:
5991:
5990:
5986:
5976:
5974:
5961:
5960:
5956:
5946:Rinaldo Brutoco
5943:
5936:
5926:
5924:
5913:
5909:
5899:
5897:
5881:
5880:
5876:
5866:
5864:
5847:
5843:
5833:
5831:
5811:
5807:
5788:
5784:
5774:
5772:
5763:
5762:
5758:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5731:
5725:
5721:
5711:
5709:
5700:
5699:
5695:
5685:
5683:
5672:
5668:
5661:
5647:
5643:
5634:
5630:
5620:
5618:
5601:
5597:
5587:Wayback Machine
5577:
5573:
5563:
5561:
5545:
5544:
5540:
5530:
5528:
5513:
5509:
5499:
5497:
5480:
5476:
5466:
5464:
5451:
5450:
5446:
5436:
5434:
5430:
5419:
5413:Mark Diesendorf
5410:
5406:
5400:Wayback Machine
5391:
5387:
5381:Wayback Machine
5372:
5368:
5359:
5355:
5349:Wayback Machine
5339:
5332:
5320:Wayback Machine
5307:
5303:
5293:
5291:
5278:
5277:
5273:
5263:
5261:
5246:
5245:
5241:
5231:
5229:
5228:on May 13, 2013
5214:
5207:
5176:
5172:
5165:Wayback Machine
5154:
5150:
5140:Wayback Machine
5130:
5126:
5113:
5112:
5108:
5099:Wayback Machine
5089:Kenneth Waltz,
5088:
5081:
5072:
5068:
5057:
5055:
5051:
5012:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4971:
4967:
4956:
4940:
4936:
4926:
4924:
4909:
4905:
4900:Wayback Machine
4885:
4881:
4871:
4869:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4845:
4843:
4832:
4828:
4820:physics/0507114
4807:
4803:
4793:
4791:
4782:
4781:
4777:
4760:
4759:
4755:
4747:physics/0510071
4738:
4731:
4725:Wayback Machine
4715:
4711:
4701:
4699:
4686:
4685:
4681:
4671:
4669:
4651:
4647:
4637:
4635:
4620:
4616:
4606:
4604:
4593:
4589:
4572:
4571:
4567:
4557:
4555:
4540:
4536:
4530:Wayback Machine
4520:
4516:
4510:Wayback Machine
4500:
4496:
4486:
4484:
4480:
4469:
4463:Albright, David
4460:
4456:
4442:Wayback Machine
4429:Hansen, Chuck.
4428:
4413:
4386:
4382:
4372:
4367:
4363:
4352:
4348:
4338:
4336:
4321:
4317:
4307:
4305:
4296:
4295:
4291:
4281:
4279:
4270:
4269:
4265:
4252:
4250:
4237:
4236:
4232:
4222:
4220:
4212:
4211:
4207:
4197:
4195:
4185:
4181:
4168:
4167:
4163:
4153:
4152:
4139:
4135:
4127:
4123:
4110:nuclear warhead
4095:
4091:
4081:
4076:
4071:
3990:
3985:
3984:
3915:Albert Einstein
3911:its own project
3886:concluded that
3829:alpha particles
3809:Frederick Soddy
3745:nuclear fission
3736:
3728:
3710:
3704:
3673:
3667:
3639:
3617:
3511:
3501:
3431:
3421:Doomsday device
3409:
3308:
3302:
3297:
3291:
3256:nuclear testing
3197:
3191:
3189:Nuclear fallout
3185:
3119:
3115:
3114:
2934:
2928:
2920:Main articles:
2918:
2907:and the U.S.'s
2886:
2880:
2875:
2865:
2815:
2809:
2793:Henry Kissinger
2714:Henry Kissinger
2648:
2641:
2635:
2591:Mark Diesendorf
2424:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2406:
2405:on July 7, 2017
2376:nuclear testing
2357:Albert Einstein
2316:
2310:
2270:Main articles:
2268:
2241:Robert Gallucci
2172:interventionist
2048:or land mobile
2034:missile defense
1985:
1979:Nuclear warfare
1959:
1951:Main articles:
1949:
1939:), such as the
1903:missile defense
1847:fighter-bombers
1793:of the Russian
1759:
1737:
1640:
1609:electric charge
1579:Nuclear isomers
1502:
1482:Main articles:
1480:
1455:nuclear fallout
1311:
1305:
1274:nuclear fallout
1254:
1176:
1174:Fission weapons
1164:nuclear fission
1115:
1109:
935:
925:in 1945 during
847:), producing a
817:
456:
407:
387:
377:
346:
201:Nuclear weapons
176:HGM-25A Titan I
143:
132:
126:
123:
80:
78:
68:
56:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12312:
12302:
12301:
12296:
12291:
12286:
12281:
12266:
12265:
12242:
12241:
12219:
12216:
12215:
12213:
12212:
12207:
12202:
12197:
12195:Peace movement
12192:
12187:
12182:
12177:
12172:
12167:
12162:
12157:
12152:
12147:
12140:
12135:
12130:
12125:
12120:
12115:
12109:
12107:
12101:
12100:
12098:
12097:
12091:
12086:
12081:
12076:
12070:
12064:
12062:Windscale fire
12058:
12052:
12045:
12039:
12033:
12023:
12021:Lucens reactor
12017:
12007:
12001:
11995:
11988:
11982:
11981:
11980:
11975:
11964:
11958:
11952:
11947:
11941:
11935:
11928:
11926:
11918:
11917:
11915:
11914:
11909:
11904:
11899:
11898:
11897:
11892:
11891:
11890:
11885:
11878:United Kingdom
11875:
11870:
11865:
11860:
11855:
11850:
11845:
11835:
11830:
11825:
11820:
11815:
11810:
11805:
11799:
11797:
11785:
11784:
11777:
11776:
11769:
11762:
11754:
11745:
11744:
11742:
11741:
11729:
11717:
11702:
11699:
11698:
11695:
11694:
11691:
11690:
11688:
11687:
11682:
11677:
11675:Muon-catalyzed
11672:
11667:
11661:
11659:
11655:
11654:
11652:
11651:
11646:
11641:
11636:
11635:
11634:
11624:
11615:
11613:
11607:
11606:
11604:
11603:
11598:
11593:
11588:
11583:
11578:
11572:
11570:
11564:
11563:
11557:
11554:
11553:
11539:
11538:
11536:
11535:
11530:
11529:
11528:
11523:
11512:
11510:
11506:
11505:
11502:
11501:
11499:
11498:
11493:
11488:
11483:
11482:
11481:
11476:
11471:
11466:
11461:
11456:
11451:
11446:
11441:
11436:
11431:
11426:
11415:
11413:
11407:
11406:
11404:
11403:
11398:
11393:
11388:
11383:
11378:
11373:
11368:
11366:Integral (IFR)
11363:
11357:
11351:
11340:
11337:
11336:
11333:
11332:
11329:
11328:
11326:
11325:
11320:
11315:
11310:
11305:
11300:
11294:
11292:
11283:
11277:
11276:
11273:
11272:
11270:
11269:
11268:
11267:
11262:
11261:
11260:
11255:
11250:
11245:
11230:
11225:
11224:
11223:
11212:
11210:
11204:
11203:
11201:
11200:
11195:
11190:
11181:
11179:
11175:
11167:
11161:
11160:
11157:
11156:
11154:
11153:
11148:
11143:
11138:
11132:
11130:
11125:
11117:
11110:
11096:
11093:
11092:
11089:
11088:
11086:
11085:
11084:
11083:
11078:
11073:
11068:
11057:
11055:
11051:
11046:
11045:
11043:
11042:
11036:
11034:
11028:
11027:
11025:
11024:
11019:
11014:
11013:
11012:
11007:
10996:
10994:
10989:
10984:
10983:
10981:
10980:
10979:
10978:
10973:
10968:
10963:
10958:
10957:
10956:
10951:
10946:
10936:
10931:
10930:
10929:
10924:
10921:
10918:
10915:
10901:
10899:
10894:
10886:
10871:
10870:
10868:
10867:
10862:
10861:
10860:
10857:
10852:
10847:
10846:
10845:
10840:
10830:
10825:
10820:
10815:
10810:
10805:
10800:
10795:
10785:
10780:
10779:
10778:
10773:
10768:
10763:
10753:
10747:
10745:
10739:
10738:
10730:
10729:
10726:
10725:
10711:
10710:
10698:
10697:
10694:
10693:
10691:
10690:
10685:
10683:Uranium mining
10680:
10675:
10670:
10665:
10659:
10657:
10653:
10652:
10649:
10648:
10646:
10645:
10640:
10639:
10638:
10633:
10623:
10618:
10613:
10608:
10603:
10598:
10592:
10590:
10586:
10585:
10583:
10582:
10577:
10576:
10575:
10565:
10560:
10559:
10558:
10556:Minor actinide
10553:
10548:
10537:
10535:
10528:
10522:
10521:
10518:
10517:
10515:
10514:
10509:
10504:
10499:
10498:
10497:
10492:
10482:
10476:
10474:
10470:
10469:
10467:
10466:
10465:
10464:
10454:
10449:
10448:
10447:
10442:
10432:
10427:
10422:
10421:
10420:
10410:
10405:
10400:
10395:
10390:
10384:
10382:
10375:
10369:
10368:
10366:
10365:
10360:
10355:
10350:
10344:
10342:
10336:
10335:
10332:
10331:
10329:
10328:
10323:
10318:
10313:
10308:
10303:
10298:
10293:
10287:
10285:
10279:
10278:
10276:
10275:
10270:
10265:
10260:
10255:
10253:Autoradiograph
10249:
10247:
10238:
10232:
10231:
10229:
10228:
10227:
10226:
10216:
10215:
10214:
10204:
10203:
10202:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10172:
10167:
10161:
10159:
10153:
10152:
10150:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10134:
10129:
10124:
10119:
10114:
10109:
10104:
10099:
10093:
10091:
10085:
10084:
10082:
10081:
10080:
10079:
10074:
10069:
10068:
10067:
10062:
10047:
10042:
10037:
10032:
10027:
10022:
10016:
10014:
10008:
10007:
10005:
10004:
10003:
10002:
9997:
9987:
9982:
9977:
9975:Atomic nucleus
9972:
9967:
9962:
9956:
9954:
9946:
9945:
9938:
9937:
9930:
9923:
9915:
9906:
9905:
9899:
9896:
9895:
9893:
9892:
9887:
9881:
9879:
9875:
9874:
9871:
9870:
9868:
9867:
9861:
9859:
9855:
9854:
9852:
9851:
9842:
9841:(1994–present)
9832:
9830:
9823:
9822:(1994–present)
9815:
9814:
9811:
9810:
9808:
9807:
9802:
9796:
9794:
9790:
9789:
9787:
9786:
9780:
9778:
9774:
9773:
9771:
9770:
9761:
9759:
9752:
9744:
9743:
9740:
9739:
9737:
9736:
9730:
9728:
9724:
9723:
9721:
9720:
9713:
9711:
9704:
9696:
9695:
9692:
9691:
9689:
9688:
9683:
9678:
9673:
9668:
9663:
9658:
9656:Mk.1 atom bomb
9652:
9650:
9646:
9645:
9643:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9621:
9619:
9615:
9614:
9612:
9611:
9605:
9599:
9597:
9593:
9592:
9590:
9589:
9584:
9579:
9573:
9571:
9564:
9560:V bomber force
9556:
9555:
9550:
9547:
9546:
9543:United Kingdom
9538:
9537:
9530:
9523:
9515:
9506:
9505:
9503:
9502:
9497:
9492:
9487:
9481:
9479:
9475:
9474:
9472:
9471:
9466:
9461:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9436:
9431:
9426:
9421:
9416:
9411:
9406:
9401:
9396:
9391:
9386:
9381:
9375:
9373:
9369:
9368:
9366:
9365:
9360:
9355:
9350:
9345:
9339:
9337:
9333:
9332:
9330:
9329:
9324:
9319:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9299:
9294:
9289:
9284:
9278:
9276:
9272:
9271:
9264:
9263:
9256:
9249:
9241:
9232:
9231:
9229:
9228:
9223:
9218:
9212:
9210:
9206:
9205:
9203:
9202:
9197:
9192:
9187:
9182:
9177:
9171:
9169:
9168:Primary stages
9165:
9164:
9161:
9160:
9158:
9157:
9151:
9144:
9142:
9138:
9137:
9135:
9134:
9128:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9107:
9105:
9098:
9090:
9089:
9086:
9085:
9083:
9082:
9077:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9051:
9046:
9041:
9036:
9031:
9026:
9021:
9016:
9011:
9006:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8986:
8981:
8976:
8971:
8966:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8946:
8941:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8906:
8901:
8896:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8875:
8873:
8869:
8868:
8866:
8865:
8859:
8857:
8853:
8852:
8850:
8849:
8844:
8839:
8834:
8829:
8824:
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8774:
8769:
8764:
8759:
8754:
8748:
8746:
8739:
8733:
8732:
8729:
8728:
8726:
8725:
8719:
8713:
8707:
8702:
8697:
8691:
8689:
8681:
8680:
8678:
8677:
8671:
8665:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8624:
8622:
8618:
8617:
8615:
8614:
8609:
8604:
8599:
8593:
8591:
8587:
8586:
8584:
8583:
8578:
8573:
8568:
8563:
8558:
8553:
8548:
8543:
8538:
8533:
8528:
8523:
8518:
8513:
8508:
8503:
8498:
8493:
8488:
8482:
8480:
8476:
8475:
8473:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8427:
8422:
8417:
8412:
8407:
8401:
8395:
8388:
8386:
8377:
8367:
8366:
8359:
8358:
8351:
8344:
8336:
8330:
8329:
8316:
8310:
8305:
8290:
8277:
8271:
8259:
8246:
8236:
8223:
8202:
8192:
8168:
8154:
8147:
8135:
8122:
8121:
8119:
8118:External links
8116:
8114:
8113:
8100:
8079:
8043:Eric Schlosser
8040:
8008:
7966:
7950:
7917:
7913:
7912:
7907:
7901:
7900:
7896:Nuclear weapon
7889:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7880:
7866:
7850:
7832:
7816:
7799:
7791:
7768:
7746:
7732:
7718:
7696:
7686:
7671:
7659:
7648:
7630:
7622:
7619:
7616:
7615:
7608:
7602:. p. 33.
7584:
7577:
7553:
7546:
7522:
7503:
7485:
7476:, p. 268.
7466:
7447:
7440:
7420:
7390:
7359:
7327:
7281:
7235:
7205:
7189:1800–present:
7142:
7129:
7116:
7103:
7079:
7053:
7037:
6998:(8): 586–596.
6976:
6946:
6915:Helfand, Ira.
6907:
6872:
6841:(4): 287–300.
6821:
6785:
6754:
6718:
6686:
6660:
6630:
6617:
6604:
6573:
6549:
6519:
6492:
6484:10.17226/10621
6464:
6438:
6432:978-0582902695
6431:
6406:
6391:
6360:
6353:
6311:
6287:
6257:
6230:
6223:
6205:
6174:
6153:
6134:
6099:
6070:
6040:
6010:
5984:
5954:
5934:
5907:
5874:
5841:
5814:Hugh Gusterson
5805:
5782:
5756:
5719:
5693:
5666:
5659:
5641:
5628:
5595:
5571:
5538:
5507:
5474:
5444:
5404:
5385:
5366:
5353:
5330:
5309:Eric Schlosser
5301:
5271:
5239:
5205:
5170:
5148:
5124:
5106:
5102:Adelphi Papers
5079:
5066:
5054:on May 1, 2013
5023:(1): 105–123.
5000:
4993:
4965:
4954:
4934:
4903:
4879:
4853:
4838:. Sfgate.com.
4826:
4801:
4775:
4753:
4729:
4709:
4679:
4645:
4614:
4587:
4565:
4534:
4514:
4494:
4454:
4411:
4380:
4371:, p. 201.
4361:
4346:
4315:
4289:
4263:
4230:
4205:
4179:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4133:
4121:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3966:Rudolf Peierls
3962:Maud Committee
3928:Major General
3777:Ernest Marsden
3737:
3729:
3706:Main article:
3703:
3700:
3669:Main article:
3666:
3663:
3616:
3613:
3611:in the 1980s.
3500:
3497:
3478:involving 100
3451:nuclear winter
3429:Nuclear famine
3417:Doomsday Clock
3408:
3405:
3401:Thyroid cancer
3373:
3372:
3360:
3357:
3347:
3333:nuclear winter
3304:Main article:
3301:
3298:
3293:Main article:
3290:
3287:
3222:mushroom cloud
3187:Main article:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3159:
3140:hydrogen bombs
3124:
3096:hydrogen bombs
3064:
3046:
3033:occurred near
3027:
3026:in New Jersey.
3012:
3000:
2977:
2954:
2943:Harry Daghlian
2917:
2914:
2884:Nuclear ethics
2882:Main article:
2879:
2876:
2864:
2861:
2832:in July 1997.
2811:Main article:
2808:
2807:United Nations
2805:
2637:Main article:
2634:
2631:
2607:Doomsday Clock
2434:United Nations
2419:
2413:
2407:
2361:Cyrus S. Eaton
2346:was issued in
2267:
2264:
2248:Graham Allison
2234:striking first
2095:issued by the
1948:
1945:
1937:suitcase bombs
1736:
1733:
1639:
1636:
1557:Starfish Prime
1479:
1476:
1364:United Kingdom
1333:hydrogen bombs
1307:Main article:
1304:
1303:Fusion weapons
1301:
1186:weapon designs
1182:The two basic
1175:
1172:
1168:nuclear fusion
1111:Main article:
1108:
1105:
1026:United Kingdom
945:at the end of
934:
931:
913:is a focus of
892:TNT equivalent
825:nuclear weapon
819:
818:
816:
815:
808:
801:
793:
790:
789:
788:
787:
774:
773:
772:
771:
768:treaty parties
758:
757:
753:
752:
751:
750:
745:
740:
732:
731:
727:
726:
725:
724:
719:
714:
712:United Kingdom
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
516:
515:
509:
508:
507:
506:
501:
496:
491:
483:
482:
478:
477:
469:
468:
458:
457:
455:
454:
447:
440:
432:
429:
428:
427:
426:
421:
416:
411:
401:
400:
395:
390:
381:
371:
370:
365:
360:
358:United Kingdom
355:
350:
335:
334:
328:
327:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
274:
273:
268:
263:
257:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
218:
217:
213:
212:
204:
203:
192:PGM-19 Jupiter
145:
144:
59:
57:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12311:
12300:
12297:
12295:
12294:Nuclear bombs
12292:
12290:
12287:
12285:
12282:
12280:
12277:
12276:
12274:
12264:
12254:
12253:
12250:
12239:
12231:
12230:
12217:
12211:
12208:
12206:
12203:
12201:
12198:
12196:
12193:
12191:
12188:
12186:
12183:
12181:
12178:
12176:
12173:
12171:
12168:
12166:
12163:
12161:
12158:
12156:
12153:
12151:
12148:
12146:
12145:
12141:
12139:
12136:
12134:
12131:
12129:
12126:
12124:
12121:
12119:
12116:
12114:
12111:
12110:
12108:
12102:
12096:
12092:
12090:
12087:
12085:
12082:
12080:
12077:
12075:
12071:
12069:
12065:
12063:
12059:
12057:
12053:
12050:
12046:
12044:
12040:
12038:
12034:
12032:
12028:
12024:
12022:
12018:
12016:
12012:
12008:
12006:
12002:
12000:
11996:
11993:
11989:
11987:
11983:
11979:
11976:
11974:
11971:
11970:
11969:
11965:
11963:
11959:
11957:
11953:
11951:
11948:
11946:
11942:
11940:
11936:
11934:
11930:
11929:
11927:
11919:
11913:
11910:
11908:
11905:
11903:
11900:
11896:
11895:United States
11893:
11889:
11886:
11884:
11881:
11880:
11879:
11876:
11874:
11871:
11869:
11866:
11864:
11861:
11859:
11856:
11854:
11851:
11849:
11846:
11844:
11841:
11840:
11839:
11836:
11834:
11831:
11829:
11826:
11824:
11821:
11819:
11816:
11814:
11811:
11809:
11806:
11804:
11801:
11800:
11798:
11796:
11786:
11782:
11775:
11770:
11768:
11763:
11761:
11756:
11755:
11752:
11740:
11739:
11730:
11728:
11727:
11718:
11716:
11715:
11704:
11703:
11700:
11686:
11683:
11681:
11678:
11676:
11673:
11671:
11668:
11666:
11663:
11662:
11660:
11656:
11650:
11647:
11645:
11642:
11640:
11637:
11633:
11632:electrostatic
11630:
11629:
11628:
11625:
11623:
11617:
11616:
11614:
11612:
11608:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11582:
11579:
11577:
11574:
11573:
11571:
11569:
11565:
11561:
11555:
11550:
11544:
11534:
11531:
11527:
11524:
11522:
11519:
11518:
11517:
11514:
11513:
11511:
11507:
11497:
11494:
11492:
11489:
11487:
11484:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11472:
11470:
11467:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11457:
11455:
11452:
11450:
11447:
11445:
11442:
11440:
11437:
11435:
11432:
11430:
11427:
11425:
11422:
11421:
11420:
11417:
11416:
11414:
11412:
11411:Generation IV
11408:
11402:
11399:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11377:
11374:
11372:
11369:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11361:Breeder (FBR)
11359:
11358:
11355:
11352:
11347:
11338:
11324:
11321:
11319:
11316:
11314:
11311:
11309:
11306:
11304:
11301:
11299:
11296:
11295:
11293:
11291:
11287:
11284:
11282:
11278:
11266:
11263:
11259:
11256:
11254:
11251:
11249:
11246:
11244:
11241:
11240:
11239:
11236:
11235:
11234:
11231:
11229:
11226:
11222:
11219:
11218:
11217:
11214:
11213:
11211:
11209:
11205:
11199:
11196:
11194:
11191:
11189:
11187:
11183:
11182:
11180:
11178:
11171:
11168:
11166:
11162:
11152:
11149:
11147:
11144:
11142:
11139:
11137:
11134:
11133:
11131:
11129:
11121:
11118:
11114:
11111:
11106:
11099:
11094:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11074:
11072:
11069:
11067:
11064:
11063:
11062:
11059:
11058:
11056:
11054:
11047:
11041:
11038:
11037:
11035:
11033:
11029:
11023:
11020:
11018:
11015:
11011:
11008:
11006:
11003:
11002:
11001:
10998:
10997:
10995:
10993:
10985:
10977:
10974:
10972:
10969:
10967:
10964:
10962:
10959:
10955:
10952:
10950:
10947:
10945:
10942:
10941:
10940:
10937:
10935:
10932:
10928:
10925:
10922:
10919:
10916:
10913:
10912:
10911:
10908:
10907:
10906:
10903:
10902:
10900:
10898:
10890:
10887:
10883:
10876:
10872:
10866:
10863:
10858:
10856:
10853:
10851:
10848:
10844:
10841:
10839:
10836:
10835:
10834:
10831:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10814:
10811:
10809:
10806:
10804:
10801:
10799:
10796:
10794:
10791:
10790:
10789:
10786:
10784:
10781:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10758:
10757:
10754:
10752:
10749:
10748:
10746:
10744:
10740:
10735:
10734:
10727:
10722:
10716:
10712:
10708:
10703:
10699:
10689:
10686:
10684:
10681:
10679:
10676:
10674:
10671:
10669:
10666:
10664:
10663:Nuclear power
10661:
10660:
10658:
10654:
10644:
10643:Transmutation
10641:
10637:
10634:
10632:
10629:
10628:
10627:
10624:
10622:
10619:
10617:
10614:
10612:
10609:
10607:
10604:
10602:
10599:
10597:
10594:
10593:
10591:
10587:
10581:
10578:
10574:
10571:
10570:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10557:
10554:
10552:
10549:
10547:
10544:
10543:
10542:
10539:
10538:
10536:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10523:
10513:
10510:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10496:
10493:
10491:
10488:
10487:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10477:
10475:
10471:
10463:
10460:
10459:
10458:
10455:
10453:
10450:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10440:high-altitude
10438:
10437:
10436:
10433:
10431:
10430:Proliferation
10428:
10426:
10423:
10419:
10416:
10415:
10414:
10411:
10409:
10406:
10404:
10401:
10399:
10396:
10394:
10391:
10389:
10386:
10385:
10383:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10370:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10346:
10345:
10343:
10341:
10337:
10327:
10324:
10322:
10319:
10317:
10316:Brachytherapy
10314:
10312:
10309:
10307:
10304:
10302:
10299:
10297:
10294:
10292:
10289:
10288:
10286:
10284:
10280:
10274:
10271:
10269:
10266:
10264:
10261:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10250:
10248:
10246:
10242:
10239:
10237:
10233:
10225:
10222:
10221:
10220:
10217:
10213:
10210:
10209:
10208:
10205:
10201:
10198:
10197:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10166:
10163:
10162:
10160:
10158:
10154:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10118:
10115:
10113:
10112:Cross section
10110:
10108:
10105:
10103:
10100:
10098:
10095:
10094:
10092:
10090:
10086:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10066:
10063:
10061:
10058:
10057:
10056:
10053:
10052:
10051:
10048:
10046:
10043:
10041:
10038:
10036:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10026:
10023:
10021:
10018:
10017:
10015:
10013:
10009:
10001:
9998:
9996:
9993:
9992:
9991:
9988:
9986:
9983:
9981:
9978:
9976:
9973:
9971:
9968:
9966:
9963:
9961:
9958:
9957:
9955:
9951:
9947:
9943:
9936:
9931:
9929:
9924:
9922:
9917:
9916:
9913:
9903:
9897:
9891:
9888:
9886:
9883:
9882:
9880:
9876:
9866:
9865:Trident II D5
9863:
9862:
9860:
9856:
9850:(replacement)
9849:
9847:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9834:
9833:
9831:
9827:
9824:
9820:
9816:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9797:
9795:
9791:
9785:
9782:
9781:
9779:
9775:
9769:
9767:
9763:
9762:
9760:
9756:
9753:
9749:
9745:
9735:
9732:
9731:
9729:
9725:
9719:
9718:RAF Spadeadam
9715:
9714:
9712:
9708:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9687:
9684:
9682:
9679:
9677:
9674:
9672:
9669:
9667:
9666:Orange Herald
9664:
9662:
9659:
9657:
9654:
9653:
9651:
9647:
9641:
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8755:
8753:
8750:
8749:
8747:
8745:Gravity bombs
8743:
8740:
8738:
8737:Thermonuclear
8734:
8723:
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8408:
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8393:
8390:
8389:
8387:
8385:
8384:Gravity bombs
8381:
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8357:
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8244:sonicbomb.com
8241:
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8053:Penguin Press
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8031:9781608196708
8028:
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8011:Thomas Powers
8009:
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7997:United States
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7879:
7878:0-674-05233-1
7875:
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7865:
7864:0-674-62836-5
7861:
7857:
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7848:
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7833:
7831:
7830:0-684-81378-5
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7814:0-684-82414-0
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7730:0-300-06056-4
7727:
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7704:
7701:
7697:
7694:
7690:
7689:Hansen, Chuck
7687:
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7672:
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7666:
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7660:
7657:
7653:
7649:
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7646:0-671-74012-1
7643:
7639:
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7632:
7631:
7628:
7611:
7605:
7601:
7600:Da Capo Press
7597:
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7403:ctbto dot org
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7064:. Cnduk.org.
7063:
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6587:New Scientist
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6325:Physics Today
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6142:Broken Arrows
6138:
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6103:
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5551:The Economist
5548:
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5429:
5425:
5424:Energy Policy
5418:
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4628:Russia Beyond
4625:
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4253:September 18,
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3981:
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3976:Edgar Sengier
3974:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
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3951:
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3930:Leslie Groves
3926:
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3765:atomic theory
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3593:Linus Pauling
3590:
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3425:World War III
3422:
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3414:
3404:
3402:
3398:
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3378:
3370:
3365:
3364:millisieverts
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3207:
3206:Vela incident
3201:
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3168:
3167:Titan Missile
3164:
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3144:ejection seat
3141:
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3080:KC-135 tanker
3077:
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3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:carrying two
3040:
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3017:
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3005:
3001:
2998:
2994:
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2986:
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2962:supercritical
2959:
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2804:
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2799:
2798:George Shultz
2794:
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2784:Kenneth Waltz
2781:
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2758:
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2737:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2726:William Perry
2723:
2719:
2718:George Shultz
2715:
2711:
2707:
2706:nuclear peace
2702:
2700:
2696:
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2601:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2556:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2516:In 1996, the
2511:
2506:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2487:Latin America
2484:
2480:
2475:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2442:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2428:In 1957, the
2404:
2399:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2338:
2337:head of state
2334:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2263:
2261:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:Minuteman III
2214:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2160:Kenneth Waltz
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2058:civil defense
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2002:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1967:Nuclear peace
1964:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1845:and tactical
1844:
1839:
1835:
1832:dropped from
1831:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1767:gravity bombs
1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1745:Nuclear triad
1742:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1725:antisubmarine
1721:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1710:Nike Hercules
1707:
1706:AIM-26 Falcon
1703:
1698:
1696:
1695:suitcase nuke
1692:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1649:
1648:OTR-21 Tochka
1644:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1447:Edward Teller
1444:
1440:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1356:United States
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1293:Neptunium-237
1290:
1286:
1285:plutonium-239
1282:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1257:10 GJ).
1252:
1248:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:—allowing an
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1180:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1141:
1140:Bhagavad Gita
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1104:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1014:United States
1011:
1010:a few nations
1007:
1003:
998:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
939:United States
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
814:
809:
807:
802:
800:
795:
794:
792:
791:
786:
778:
777:
776:
775:
769:
765:
762:
761:
760:
759:
755:
754:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
735:
734:
733:
730:Proliferation
729:
728:
723:
720:
718:
717:United States
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
662:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
519:
518:
517:
514:
511:
510:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
486:
485:
484:
480:
479:
475:
471:
470:
467:
464:
463:
453:
448:
446:
441:
439:
434:
433:
431:
430:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
406:
403:
402:
399:
396:
394:
391:
385:
382:
380:
376:
373:
372:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
348:United States
345:
343:
339:
338:
337:
336:
333:
330:
329:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
303:Proliferation
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
275:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
258:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
221:
220:
219:
215:
214:
210:
206:
205:
202:
199:
198:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
166:
162:
158:
153:
149:
141:
138:
130:
119:
116:
112:
109:
105:
102:
98:
95:
91:
88: –
87:
83:
82:Find sources:
76:
72:
66:
65:
60:This article
58:
54:
49:
48:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
12220:
12142:
12138:Bikini Atoll
12084:Hanford Site
12079:Bikini Atoll
11883:in Australia
11873:Soviet Union
11868:South Africa
11736:
11724:
11705:
11685:Pyroelectric
11639:Laser-driven
11419:Sodium (SFR)
11346:fast-neutron
11185:
10731:
10621:Reprocessing
10502:WMD treaties
10372:
10321:Radiosurgery
10291:Fast-neutron
10263:Scintigraphy
9900:part of the
9845:
9836:
9765:
9671:Green Bamboo
9618:bomb casings
9209:Experimental
8370:
8293:
8107:
8094:
8090:
8086:
8046:
8034:
8033:, 420 pp.),
8018:
8005:cyberweapons
7990:U.S. Senator
7986:Ernest Moniz
7976:
7960:
7924:
7895:
7869:
7855:
7838:
7819:
7805:
7793:
7788:Smyth Report
7774:
7752:
7721:
7692:
7673:
7662:
7655:
7651:
7637:
7621:Bibliography
7594:
7587:
7563:
7556:
7532:
7525:
7506:
7497:
7488:
7469:
7450:
7430:
7423:
7413:December 29,
7411:. Retrieved
7407:the original
7402:
7393:
7383:February 22,
7381:. Retrieved
7377:the original
7372:
7362:
7352:February 22,
7350:. Retrieved
7343:the original
7330:
7304:. Retrieved
7284:
7258:. Retrieved
7238:
7228:November 20,
7226:. Retrieved
7222:the original
7217:
7208:
7198:February 29,
7196:. Retrieved
7176:
7156:
7145:
7137:
7132:
7124:
7119:
7111:
7106:
7091:
7082:
7070:. Retrieved
7056:
7048:
6995:
6989:
6979:
6967:. Retrieved
6958:
6949:
6939:February 13,
6937:. Retrieved
6923:
6910:
6885:
6881:
6875:
6863:. Retrieved
6838:
6834:
6824:
6812:. Retrieved
6801:
6776:. Retrieved
6768:The Atlantic
6767:
6757:
6745:. Retrieved
6733:
6721:
6709:. Retrieved
6702:the original
6689:
6680:
6672:
6663:
6653:September 7,
6651:. Retrieved
6642:
6633:
6625:
6620:
6612:
6607:
6595:. Retrieved
6586:
6576:
6552:
6540:. Retrieved
6531:
6522:
6510:. Retrieved
6506:the original
6474:
6467:
6455:. Retrieved
6441:
6421:
6400:
6394:
6382:. Retrieved
6373:
6363:
6324:
6314:
6301:
6290:
6278:. Retrieved
6269:
6260:
6250:February 16,
6248:. Retrieved
6233:
6214:
6208:
6196:. Retrieved
6192:the original
6187:
6177:
6162:
6156:
6137:
6128:
6126:
6119:. Retrieved
6112:the original
6102:
6090:. Retrieved
6088:. p. 28
6083:
6073:
6061:. Retrieved
6052:
6043:
6031:. Retrieved
6022:
6013:
6001:. Retrieved
5987:
5977:November 28,
5975:. Retrieved
5966:
5957:
5949:
5925:. Retrieved
5921:the original
5910:
5898:. Retrieved
5886:
5877:
5865:. Retrieved
5856:Defense News
5854:
5844:
5832:. Retrieved
5828:the original
5821:
5808:
5795:
5785:
5773:. Retrieved
5769:the original
5759:
5749:November 20,
5747:. Retrieved
5740:the original
5735:
5722:
5710:. Retrieved
5706:the original
5696:
5684:. Retrieved
5669:
5650:
5644:
5636:
5631:
5621:September 6,
5619:. Retrieved
5615:the original
5608:
5598:
5590:
5574:
5562:. Retrieved
5550:
5541:
5529:. Retrieved
5520:
5510:
5498:. Retrieved
5487:
5477:
5465:. Retrieved
5456:
5447:
5435:. Retrieved
5428:the original
5423:
5407:
5388:
5369:
5361:
5356:
5323:
5304:
5292:. Retrieved
5284:The Guardian
5283:
5274:
5262:. Retrieved
5251:
5242:
5230:. Retrieved
5226:the original
5221:
5183:
5179:
5173:
5156:
5151:
5143:
5127:
5109:
5101:
5074:
5069:
5064:See page 116
5058:November 23,
5056:. Retrieved
5049:the original
5020:
5016:
5003:
4979:
4968:
4944:
4937:
4927:November 27,
4925:. Retrieved
4916:
4906:
4887:
4882:
4870:. Retrieved
4856:
4844:. Retrieved
4829:
4810:
4804:
4792:. Retrieved
4778:
4765:
4756:
4712:
4702:November 27,
4700:. Retrieved
4691:
4682:
4670:. Retrieved
4661:
4648:
4636:. Retrieved
4627:
4617:
4605:. Retrieved
4590:
4582:the original
4577:
4568:
4556:. Retrieved
4547:
4537:
4517:
4497:
4485:. Retrieved
4457:
4430:
4393:
4383:
4364:
4354:
4349:
4337:. Retrieved
4333:the original
4328:
4318:
4308:December 15,
4306:. Retrieved
4292:
4282:December 29,
4280:. Retrieved
4266:
4258:
4251:. Retrieved
4247:the original
4233:
4223:November 27,
4221:. Retrieved
4217:
4208:
4196:. Retrieved
4192:
4182:
4173:
4164:
4145:
4136:
4124:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4106:nuclear bomb
4105:
4101:
4097:
4092:
3955:
3943:
3940:site in 1945
3938:Trinity test
3907:
3892:
3881:
3852:Lise Meitner
3837:
3833:Enrico Fermi
3814:
3795:, an ore of
3754:
3693:
3674:
3659:Hanford site
3640:
3601:
3576:
3574:
3543:
3536:
3486:
3484:
3467:
3455:Brian Martin
3453:". In 1982,
3444:
3439:Castle Bravo
3382:
3374:
3337:
3324:
3321:
3283:Hanford site
3280:
3260:
3247:Lucky Dragon
3245:
3238:Castle Bravo
3231:
3176:W-53 warhead
3072:B-52G bomber
3061:the Pentagon
3018:destroyed a
2997:Broken Arrow
2983:in northern
2958:Louis Slotin
2941:, physicist
2898:
2834:
2816:
2802:
2789:World War II
2773:
2761:Barack Obama
2749:
2703:
2684:
2668:
2665:
2627:
2604:
2596:Global South
2588:
2553:
2550:
2515:
2476:
2443:
2427:
2373:
2341:
2329:
2257:
2246:
2239:
2188:
2180:South Korean
2147:
2136:Soviet Union
2121:
2090:
2082:
2075:
2064:
2062:
2054:missile silo
2039:
2022:heavier lift
1994:first strike
1986:
1931:. An atomic
1907:
1896:
1890:(ICBMs) and
1877:
1830:gravity bomb
1827:
1812:
1807:throw weight
1779:heavy bomber
1722:
1708:and US Army
1699:
1688:
1663:neutron bomb
1660:
1653:
1621:
1595:
1577:
1565:
1554:
1539:
1516:
1503:
1488:Neutron bomb
1472:stratosphere
1452:
1424:
1389:
1353:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1324:
1278:
1259:
1243:
1212:
1199:
1195:
1192:atomic bombs
1191:
1189:
1161:
1138:
1123:Trinity test
1098:
1086:South Africa
1018:Soviet Union
999:
959:fission bomb
947:World War II
936:
927:World War II
896:
861:
824:
822:
672:South Africa
667:Saudi Arabia
661:Soviet Union
504:Radiological
498:
409:South Africa
404:
388:(undeclared)
374:
340:
200:
164:
148:
133:
124:
114:
107:
100:
93:
81:
69:Please help
64:verification
61:
44:
12210:Smiling Sun
11921:Individual
11858:North Korea
11596:Stellarator
11560:confinement
11454:Superphénix
11281:Molten-salt
11233:VHTR (HTGR)
11010:HW BLWR 250
10976:R4 Marviken
10905:Pressurized
10875:Heavy water
10859:many others
10788:Pressurized
10743:Light water
10445:underground
10403:Disarmament
10311:Tomotherapy
10306:Proton-beam
10170:Power plant
10132:Temperature
9965:Engineering
9846:Dreadnought
9751:(1968–1996)
9710:launch site
9700:Blue Streak
9676:Green Grass
9661:Violet Club
9625:Blue Danube
9610:(cancelled)
9582:Avro Vulcan
9563:(1955–1993)
9327:missile M51
9317:missile M45
9297:missile S1
9292:missile M20
8856:Depth bombs
8590:Depth bombs
8083:Fred Kaplan
8021:Nuclear War
7988:and former
7957:INF Treaty
7921:Laura Grego
7749:(in French)
7511:Rhodes 1986
7474:Rhodes 1986
7455:Rhodes 1986
7169:1700–1799:
7149:1634–1699:
6991:Nature Food
6969:October 26,
6865:October 25,
6814:October 26,
6542:October 24,
6512:October 24,
6457:December 7,
6270:Der Spiegel
6023:Der Spiegel
5834:February 2,
5775:October 24,
5500:November 3,
5232:January 28,
4872:October 24,
4487:October 13,
4274:. Fas.org.
4102:atomic bomb
3995:Cobalt bomb
3958:Tube Alloys
3899:uranium-235
3895:uranium-238
3884:Leo Szilard
3876:Leo Szilard
3831:; in Italy
3793:pitchblende
3789:Marie Curie
3773:Hans Geiger
3769:John Dalton
3591:. In 1962,
3566:Aldermaston
3488:Nature Food
3195:Downwinders
3136:B-52 bomber
3130:involved a
3104:radioactive
2863:Controversy
2757:Global Zero
2633:Disarmament
2621:during the
2555:casus belli
2453:(expired),
2228:land-based
2184:North Korea
2156:neo-realist
2072:battlefield
2026:SS-18 Satan
1999:game theory
1803:SS-18 Satan
1729:depth bombs
1702:AIR-2 Genie
1555:During the
1531:salted bomb
1478:Other types
1428:criticality
1384:North Korea
1289:uranium-233
1281:uranium-235
1266:radioactive
1253:(4.2 to 2.1
1074:Netherlands
1046:North Korea
961:nicknamed "
868:tons of TNT
843:reactions (
692:Switzerland
677:South Korea
637:Philippines
627:North Korea
622:Netherlands
398:North Korea
308:Disarmament
168:PGM-17 Thor
18:Atomic Bomb
12273:Categories
12200:Peace camp
11990:1985–1987
11923:accidents
11791:disasters
11621:(acoustic)
11238:PBR (PBMR)
10626:Spent fuel
10616:Repository
10596:Fuel cycle
10563:Activation
10340:Processing
10207:Propulsion
10165:by country
10097:Activation
9766:Resolution
9635:Yellow Sun
9603:Blue Steel
9389:AN-52 bomb
9384:AN-22 bomb
9379:AN-11 bomb
9322:missile M5
9312:missile M4
9307:missile S3
9302:missile S2
9287:missile M2
9282:missile M1
8392:Little Boy
8373:(including
8219:and their
8171:Audio help
8162:2005-12-01
8061:1594202273
7962:The Nation
7935:technology
7625:See also:
7538:SUNY Press
6384:August 31,
6280:August 20,
6063:August 31,
6033:August 20,
5564:August 13,
5294:October 9,
5264:October 9,
4672:October 8,
4638:October 8,
4558:January 7,
4369:Jungk 1958
4074:References
4010:Dirty bomb
3712:See also:
3619:See also:
3503:See also:
3493:starvation
3411:See also:
3393:half-lifes
3329:firestorms
3327:each city
3193:See also:
3172:hypergolic
3051:, where a
2974:demon core
2930:See also:
2867:See also:
2857:small arms
2853:land mines
2826:Kofi Annan
2776:deterrence
2691:Kazakhstan
2540:, and the
2538:UN Charter
2493:, and the
2312:See also:
2124:deterrence
2046:submarines
1961:See also:
1917:land mines
1739:See also:
1597:Antimatter
1468:tropopause
1432:Tsar Bomba
1408:gamma rays
1196:atom bombs
1137:scripture
1000:Since the
963:Little Boy
888:Tsar Bomba
864:first test
722:Yugoslavia
513:By country
489:Biological
419:Kazakhstan
344:recognized
318:Opposition
216:Background
180:Thor-Agena
97:newspapers
11992:Therac-25
11925:and sites
11795:incidents
11789:Lists of
11591:Spheromak
11290:Fluorides
10954:IPHWR-700
10949:IPHWR-540
10944:IPHWR-220
10733:Moderator
10413:Explosion
10388:Arms race
10175:Economics
10127:Reflector
10122:Radiation
10117:Generator
10072:Plutonium
10025:Deuterium
9990:Radiation
9960:Chemistry
9630:Red Beard
9414:AN 52 CTC
9409:AN 51 CTC
9404:MR 50 CTC
9141:Artillery
9096:radiation
8687:munitions
8621:Artillery
8319:NUKEMAP3D
7717:(2nd Ed.)
7032:251601831
6902:144553194
6855:110974484
6778:April 19,
6597:March 12,
6242:. WIRED.
6121:April 20,
6003:April 23,
5927:March 17,
5559:0013-0613
5186:: 51–58.
5045:220788933
5037:0047-1178
4452:(2nd Ed.)
4402:0096-3402
4339:March 13,
4198:March 18,
4156:Citations
4128:See also
4098:atom bomb
3840:Otto Hahn
3805:radiation
3779:and then
3570:Berkshire
3564:close to
3480:Hiroshima
3369:cataracts
3346:exposure.
3344:radiation
3218:Las Vegas
3152:Greenland
3107:plutonium
2740:Ukrainian
2589:In 2013,
2491:Caribbean
2467:New START
2411: Yes
2304:New START
2199:terrorist
2168:total war
1925:torpedoes
1913:artillery
1884:ballistic
1671:radiation
1667:Sam Cohen
1601:particles
1470:into the
1466:past the
1400:deuterium
1345:deuterium
1297:americium
1223:plutonium
1092:and then
983:civilians
971:plutonium
967:Hiroshima
957:gun-type
903:radiation
870:(84
835:, either
537:Australia
532:Argentina
313:Terrorism
298:Espionage
293:Blackmail
288:Arms race
12238:Category
12104:Related
11994:accident
11863:Pakistan
11726:Category
11680:Polywell
11611:Inertial
11568:Magnetic
11323:TMSR-LF1
11318:TMSR-500
11298:Fuji MSR
11258:THTR-300
11098:Graphite
10961:PHWR KWU
10927:ACR-1000
10855:IPWR-900
10838:ACPR1000
10833:HPR-1000
10823:CPR-1000
10798:APR-1400
10589:Disposal
10541:Actinide
10534:Products
10393:Delivery
10236:Medicine
10065:depleted
10060:enriched
10030:Helium-3
9995:ionizing
9837:Vanguard
9793:warheads
9777:missiles
9727:warheads
9681:Red Snow
9649:warheads
9596:missiles
9570:Aircraft
9552:Timeline
9226:RACER IV
9200:Starling
9104:Warheads
9094:Enhanced
8872:Warheads
8479:Warheads
8406:(Mark 3)
8400:(Mark 2)
8398:Thin Man
8394:(Mark 1)
8375:boosted)
8322:Archived
8298:Archived
8283:Archived
8265:Archived
8252:Archived
8229:Archived
8209:Archived
8173: ·
8055:, 2013,
7993:Sam Nunn
7973:Sam Nunn
7939:politics
7779:Archived
7745:" (1946)
7739:Archived
7703:Archived
7678:Archived
7316:cite web
7297:Archived
7270:cite web
7251:Archived
7174:(1992).
7154:(1997).
7098:Archived
7066:Archived
7024:37118594
6963:Archived
6959:CBS News
6930:Archived
6859:Archived
6808:Archived
6772:Archived
6738:Archived
6677:Archived
6647:Archived
6591:Archived
6565:Archived
6536:Archived
6532:ABC News
6502:25057651
6451:Archived
6378:Archived
6306:Archived
6274:Archived
6244:Archived
6145:Archived
6092:July 13,
6057:Archived
6027:Archived
5997:Archived
5971:Archived
5948:(1997).
5900:July 23,
5894:Archived
5890:(RFE/RL)
5867:July 23,
5861:Archived
5800:Archived
5796:The Hill
5680:Archived
5583:Archived
5525:Archived
5494:Archived
5461:Archived
5415:(2013).
5396:Archived
5377:Archived
5345:Archived
5316:Archived
5288:Archived
5258:Archived
5222:Newsweek
5200:68857650
5161:Archived
5136:Archived
5119:Archived
5095:Archived
4960:Archived
4921:Archived
4896:Archived
4866:Archived
4840:Archived
4788:Archived
4770:Archived
4721:Archived
4696:Archived
4666:Archived
4632:Archived
4607:March 7,
4601:Archived
4552:Archived
4526:Archived
4506:Archived
4478:Archived
4438:Archived
4406:Archived
4302:Archived
4276:Archived
4068:of Japan
3988:See also
3919:a letter
3722:Cold War
3595:won the
3583:dumping
3220:shows a
2841:chemical
2722:Sam Nunn
2710:Cold War
2660:Cold War
2560:Iraq War
2489:and the
2459:START II
2417: No
2288:START II
2132:Cold War
2122:Another
2112:Cold War
2024:Russian
1915:shells,
1869:terminal
1834:aircraft
1781:aircraft
1775:Nagasaki
1716:and the
1613:Cold War
1583:isotopes
1416:neutrons
1341:hydrogen
1247:kilotons
1204:misnomer
1084:states.
1042:Pakistan
979:Nagasaki
941:against
785:Category
756:Treaties
748:Missiles
738:Chemical
647:Rhodesia
632:Pakistan
547:Bulgaria
494:Chemical
414:Belarus
393:Pakistan
278:Arsenals
249:Delivery
127:May 2022
11973:Effects
11738:Commons
11649:Z-pinch
11619:Bubble
11601:Tokamak
11464:FBR-600
11444:CFR-600
11439:BN-1200
11105:coolant
11032:Organic
10917:CANDU 9
10914:CANDU 6
10882:coolant
10843:ACP1000
10818:CAP1400
10756:Boiling
10721:Fission
10568:Fission
10512:Weapons
10452:Warfare
10435:Testing
10425:History
10418:effects
10373:Weapons
10283:Therapy
10258:RadBall
10245:Imaging
10137:Thermal
10102:Capture
10089:Neutron
10077:Thorium
10055:Uranium
10020:Tritium
10000:braking
9980:Fission
9970:Physics
9953:Science
9858:missile
9819:Trident
9748:Polaris
9734:Ulysses
9608:Skybolt
9358:ASMP-A​
9221:Sausage
9195:Kinglet
8807:Mark 39
8802:Mark 36
8792:Mark 27
8787:Mark 26
8782:Mark 24
8772:Mark 21
8767:Mark 17
8757:Mark 15
8752:Mark 14
8695:XM1 ADM
8597:Mark 90
8460:Mark 20
8455:Mark 18
8450:Mark 13
8445:Mark 12
8440:Mark 11
8435:Mark 10
8404:Fat Man
8371:Fission
8221:effects
8160: (
8131:minutes
8023:Planner
7306:May 14,
7260:May 14,
7072:May 30,
6882:Futures
6747:May 21,
6711:May 21,
6449:. CDC.
6333:Bibcode
6198:May 24,
6169:Reuters
5736:Stimson
5712:May 30,
5686:May 30,
5531:June 5,
5467:June 5,
5437:July 9,
4846:May 30,
4794:May 30,
4692:Premium
4146:jointly
4144:, must
3936:at the
3917:signed
3903:fissile
3888:uranium
3797:uranium
3757:physics
3385:isotope
3148:sea ice
3134:(USAF)
3118:⁄
3100:AlmerĂa
3082:during
3074:of the
3053:Skyhawk
2989:Mark IV
2909:ethical
2695:Ukraine
2687:Belarus
2451:START I
2447:SALT II
2284:START I
2012:was an
1880:missile
1862:Trident
1815:deliver
1771:Fat Man
1718:Spartan
1646:Soviet
1463:fission
1396:tritium
1349:tritium
1337:H-bombs
1208:nucleus
1200:A-bombs
1184:fission
1125:of the
1078:Belarus
1070:Belgium
1058:Germany
1024:), the
1006:testing
975:Fat Man
955:uranium
837:fission
743:Nuclear
707:Ukraine
652:Romania
617:Myanmar
572:Germany
527:Algeria
522:Albania
499:Nuclear
481:By type
424:Ukraine
266:Workers
261:Effects
244:Testing
234:Warfare
229:History
159:at the
111:scholar
12249:Portal
12106:topics
12029:under
11848:France
11549:Fusion
11509:Others
11449:Phénix
11434:BN-800
11429:BN-600
11424:BN-350
11253:HTR-PM
11248:HTR-10
11228:UHTREX
11193:Magnox
11188:(UNGG)
11081:Lucens
11076:KS 150
10813:ATMEA1
10793:AP1000
10776:Kerena
10656:Debate
10408:Ethics
10398:Design
10381:Topics
10212:rocket
10190:Fusion
10185:Policy
10147:Fusion
10107:Poison
9985:Fusion
9800:ET.317
9686:WE.177
9640:WE.177
9343:Pluton
9216:Gadget
9190:Tsetse
9185:Python
8724:(TADM)
8718:(SADM)
8712:(MADM)
8700:T2 ADM
8607:Mk 105
8602:Mk 101
8465:Mk 105
8430:Mark 8
8425:Mark 7
8420:Mark 6
8415:Mark 5
8410:Mark 4
8059:
8029:
8001:Russia
7971:, and
7893:about
7876:
7862:
7845:
7828:
7812:
7759:
7728:
7713:
7644:
7606:
7575:
7544:
7438:
7030:
7022:
6900:
6853:
6500:
6490:
6429:
6351:
6221:
5657:
5557:
5198:
5043:
5035:
4991:
4952:
4448:
4400:
4114:A-bomb
4060:OPANAL
3948:under
3848:barium
3801:radium
3785:Pierre
3724:, and
3685:canals
3635:, and
3589:Boston
3554:Easter
3466:. The
3427:, and
3397:I-131s
2878:Ethics
2765:Prague
2724:, and
2693:, and
2572:Osirak
2536:, the
2532:, the
2471:SALT I
2465:, and
2421:
2415:
2409:
2378:. The
2348:London
2306:, and
2226:MIRVed
1981:, and
1933:mortar
1919:, and
1755:, and
1714:Sprint
1704:, the
1681:) and
1605:matter
1523:cobalt
1498:, and
1412:X-rays
1374:, and
1372:France
1362:, the
1360:Russia
1076:, and
1072:, the
1066:Turkey
1050:Israel
1044:, and
1030:France
1022:Russia
1016:, the
909:, the
880:yields
857:matter
853:energy
841:fusion
827:is an
702:Taiwan
687:Sweden
657:Russia
642:Poland
612:Mexico
592:Israel
567:France
552:Canada
542:Brazil
405:Former
386:
384:Israel
375:Others
363:France
353:Russia
323:Winter
271:Ethics
239:Design
113:
106:
99:
92:
84:
38:, and
12289:Bombs
12093:1945
12072:1954
12066:1957
12060:1957
12054:1957
12047:1961
12041:1961
12035:1962
12025:1962
12019:1969
12009:1979
12003:1980
11997:1982
11984:1985
11966:1986
11960:1987
11954:1990
11943:2001
11937:2011
11931:2019
11853:India
11843:China
11670:Migma
11658:Other
11627:Fusor
11526:Piqua
11521:Arbus
11479:PRISM
11221:MHR-T
11216:GTMHR
11146:EGP-6
11141:AMB-X
11116:Water
11061:HWGCR
11000:HWLWR
10939:IPHWR
10910:CANDU
10771:ESBWR
10526:Waste
10490:Tests
10473:Lists
10457:Yield
10200:MMRTG
10157:Power
9459:TN 90
9454:TN 81
9449:TN 80
9444:TN 76
9439:TN 75
9434:TN 71
9429:TN 70
9424:TN 61
9419:TN 60
9399:MR 41
9394:MR 31
9363:ASN4G
9348:Hadès
9175:Robin
9076:(RRW)
8919:XW-46
8899:XW-35
8576:W76-2
8561:XW-51
7346:(PDF)
7339:(PDF)
7300:(PDF)
7293:(PDF)
7254:(PDF)
7247:(PDF)
7181:(PDF)
7161:(PDF)
7028:S2CID
6933:(PDF)
6920:(PDF)
6898:S2CID
6851:S2CID
6741:(PDF)
6730:(PDF)
6705:(PDF)
6698:(PDF)
6682:value
6568:(PDF)
6561:(PDF)
6329:48–50
5743:(PDF)
5732:(PDF)
5431:(PDF)
5420:(PDF)
5196:S2CID
5052:(PDF)
5041:S2CID
5013:(PDF)
4815:arXiv
4742:arXiv
4481:(PDF)
4470:(PDF)
4108:, or
4079:Notes
3983:York.
3817:Irène
3761:atoms
3633:ENIAC
3389:I-131
3094:type
3088:Spain
2966:gamma
2584:Syria
2230:ICBMs
2030:MIRVs
1797:R-36
1402:, or
1376:India
1368:China
1249:) of
1135:Hindu
1107:Types
1062:Italy
1038:India
1034:China
943:Japan
890:(see
697:Syria
682:Spain
607:Libya
602:Japan
597:Italy
577:India
562:Egypt
557:China
379:India
368:China
254:Yield
118:JSTOR
104:books
12049:SL-1
12013:and
11793:and
11486:Lead
11469:CEFR
11459:PFBR
11341:None
11151:RBMK
11136:AM-1
11066:EL-4
11040:WR-1
11022:AHWR
10966:MZFR
10934:CVTR
10923:AFCR
10850:VVER
10808:APWR
10803:APR+
10766:ABWR
10636:cask
10631:pool
10573:LLFP
10462:TNTe
10142:Fast
10012:Fuel
9495:FOST
9353:ASMP
9180:Swan
8894:TX29
8822:TX46
8777:TX22
8762:TX16
8204:The
8057:ISBN
8027:ISBN
7999:and
7943:fear
7941:and
7874:ISBN
7860:ISBN
7843:ISBN
7826:ISBN
7810:ISBN
7757:ISBN
7726:ISBN
7711:ISBN
7642:ISBN
7604:ISBN
7573:ISBN
7542:ISBN
7517:help
7480:help
7461:help
7436:ISBN
7415:2016
7385:2016
7354:2016
7322:link
7308:2024
7276:link
7262:2024
7230:2015
7200:2024
7074:2013
7020:PMID
6971:2022
6941:2016
6867:2014
6816:2022
6780:2020
6749:2016
6713:2016
6655:2017
6599:2016
6544:2014
6514:2014
6498:PMID
6488:ISBN
6459:2013
6427:ISBN
6386:2014
6349:ISBN
6282:2019
6252:2008
6219:ISBN
6200:2006
6123:2012
6094:2009
6065:2014
6035:2019
6005:2018
5979:2023
5929:2017
5902:2019
5869:2019
5836:2014
5777:2014
5751:2015
5714:2013
5688:2013
5655:ISBN
5623:2017
5566:2024
5555:ISSN
5533:2023
5502:2019
5469:2023
5457:ICAN
5439:2013
5296:2019
5266:2019
5253:Vice
5234:2013
5060:2020
5033:ISSN
4989:ISBN
4950:ISBN
4929:2023
4874:2014
4848:2013
4796:2013
4704:2023
4674:2023
4640:2023
4609:2007
4560:2016
4489:2011
4446:ISBN
4398:ISSN
4375:help
4341:2012
4310:2010
4284:2012
4255:2007
4225:2023
4200:2021
4118:nuke
3932:and
3897:and
3854:and
3842:and
3819:and
3787:and
3775:and
3653:and
3531:Lyon
3507:and
3355:LD50
3252:tuna
3092:Mk28
3076:USAF
3037:. A
2968:and
2924:and
2871:and
2855:and
2843:and
2767:. A
2656:USSR
2654:The
2605:The
2576:Iraq
2463:SORT
2322:The
2162:and
2014:ICBM
1955:and
1927:for
1923:and
1865:SLBM
1821:and
1799:ICBM
1661:The
1527:gold
1511:USSR
1410:and
1347:and
1283:and
1121:The
1099:The
1080:are
985:and
876:test
862:The
587:Iraq
582:Iran
90:news
11558:by
11474:PFR
11265:PMR
11243:AVR
11165:Gas
11103:by
11071:KKN
11005:ATR
10920:EC6
10880:by
10828:EPR
10761:BWR
9490:FAS
9469:TNO
9464:TNA
9154:W82
9148:W79
9131:W70
9126:W66
9121:W65
9116:W64
9111:W63
9080:W93
9069:W91
9064:W89
9059:W88
9054:W87
9049:W86
9044:W85
9039:W84
9034:W80
9029:W78
9024:W76
9019:W73
9014:W71
9009:W70
9004:W69
8999:W68
8994:W67
8989:W64
8984:W63
8979:W62
8974:W61
8969:W60
8964:W59
8959:W58
8954:W56
8949:W55
8944:W53
8939:W52
8934:W50
8929:W49
8924:W47
8914:W41
8909:W39
8904:W38
8889:W28
8884:W27
8879:W15
8863:B90
8847:B90
8842:B83
8837:B77
8832:B61
8827:B53
8817:B43
8812:B41
8797:B28
8674:W82
8668:W79
8663:W75
8658:W74
8653:W54
8648:W48
8643:W33
8638:W23
8633:W19
8612:B57
8581:W81
8571:W72
8566:W54
8556:W45
8551:W44
8546:W42
8541:W40
8536:W37
8531:W34
8526:W31
8521:W30
8516:W25
8511:W13
8506:W12
8470:B57
8242:at
8199:FAQ
8065:PBS
7010:hdl
7000:doi
6890:doi
6843:doi
6480:doi
6341:doi
5489:CNN
5188:doi
5184:607
5142:",
5025:doi
4985:349
4548:CNN
4116:or
3767:by
3743:In
3568:in
3150:in
2769:CNN
2455:INF
2335:or
1851:B61
1679:W82
1675:W79
1525:or
1251:TNT
1233:of
1221:or
1194:or
919:war
884:W54
342:NPT
73:by
12275::
11208:He
11174:CO
11050:CO
10971:R3
9156:-0
9150:-0
9133:-3
8705:T4
8676:-1
8670:-1
8628:W9
8501:W8
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8491:W5
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8085:,
8074:,
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8045:,
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