Austro-Italian ironclad arms race

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Minister of the Navy, Diego Angioletti, realized Italy's naval strength lay primarily on paper only. In June 1866, the Regia Marina was in a state of disarray after years of unstable Italian governments, and consistent turnover among the ranks of the navy's officer corps. Italian sailors had received little to no training, and many warships did not have trained engineers, gunners, or officers. Indeed, despite Austria's multi-ethnic, multi-national Empire which had nearly torn the country apart in 1848, the multi-lingual Imperial Austrian Navy was far more united than its Italian counterpart. Regional divisions which first emerged shortly after the unification of Italy and the establishment of the Regia Marina had begun to flare up in the years shortly before the war. Neapolitan and Sardinian officers regularly quarreled. The naval traditions of Venice also strongly clashed with those of Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples. Many Venetian officers and sailors in Italian service viewed Sardinian, Sicilian, and Neapolitan sailors as inexperienced, leading to severe disputes between men from Venice and the rest of Italy.

714:. This fleet would be large enough not only to show the Austrian flag around the world, but also to protect its merchant marine as well as thwart any Adriatic ambitions from the growing Kingdom of Sardinia. However, constitutional reforms in Austria after the military defeat earlier that summer, as well as the recent introduction of ironclads into the navies of the world, would make the proposal more expensive than he had initially intended. While the Archduke had previously been given free rein over naval affairs, and had enjoyed an unprecedented allocation of new funds to complete his various expansion and modernization projects, Austria's financial difficulties in the immediate aftermath of the war stalled his plans for the time being. Despite these obstacles, the initiation of the Italian ironclad program between 1860 and 1861, coupled with Austrian fears of an Italian invasion or seaborne landing directed against Venice, Trieste, 1583:

the Navy Law of 1850. These arguments were rebutted by Wickenbug and Degenfeld on the grounds that the Navy Law of 1850 had been amended in 1858, and that the large technological advancements which had played out since the First War of Italian Independence had likewise necessitated larger naval spending, as ironclads were far more expensive than traditional wooden ships. Arguments against expanding the navy on the grounds that allocating additional funds for constructing new ironclads may negatively effect the Imperial Austrian Army were rejected by the members, and by a vote of six to five the commission voted to support the goal of maintaining an Imperial Austrian Navy that would be as large as the Italian Regia Marina. The commission had voted in favor of adopting most of Ferdinand Max's ironclad program, but only by a narrow margin, still placing the future of the Austrian ironclad program in doubt.

1313: 1133: 1071: 1531: 3555:. They were the first Austro-Hungarian ironclads to be built after the navy had finished its study of the results of the Battle of Lissa. Once more, Chief Engineer Josef von Romako, who had designed all of the navy's earlier ironclad vessels, was tasked with preparing designs for two new warships. The lessons Romako came away with from the Battle of Lissa lent credibility to the idea that the new ships should favor heavy armor and the capability of end-on fire to allow both ships to be able to effectively attack with their rams. This design change over previous ironclads however required compromises in the number of guns and the power of each ship's machinery; to make up for carrying fewer guns, Romako adopted the same casemate ship design as 2348:

strain on the newly unified Kingdom's finances. The dependence on foreign shipyards to construct many of the ironclads also helped to drastically raise costs, already high to begin with, even further. By 1865, Italian naval expenditures began to drastically outpace the budgetary outlays the Chamber of Deputies had authorized for the Regia Marina. Despite the fact that the Italian government had allocated larger naval budgets than their Austrian counterparts for every year between 1861 and 1865, for the first four years of its existence, the Regia Marina consistently spent million of lira more than what the Chamber of Deputies had authorized it. Indeed, the Regia Marina exceeded its budget by roughly 75,000,000 lira between 1861 and 1865.

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unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing. Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between 17 July and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack, which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main bases at Pola and Venice. By the morning of 19 July, however, he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective, and so he prepared his fleet to attack. As Tegetthoff's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July, Persano's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt. The latter's ships were divided into three groups, with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians. Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a wedge-shaped formation, leading with

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to look at the role of the Imperial Austrian Navy in Austrian foreign and military policy. The commission would also examine the various proposals for the direction of the navy, to include Ferdinand Max's ironclad project. The Emperor convened this commission in February. The key question Franz Joseph I asked the commission was whether or not it was essential to maintain the Imperial Austrian Navy in order for Austria to remain a Great Power in Europe, if it was necessary for the navy to expand to the same size as the Regia Marina, and whether or not it the navy should transition towards prioritizing coastal defense, as opposed to wrestling control of the Adriatic or Mediterranean Seas from Italy in the event of war.

4020:-class ironclads, Brin was appointed Italian Minister of the Navy in March 1876. After taking office, he began drawing up plans for a major fleet expansion, the largest in Italian history. Brin envisioned a modern Regia Marina of 16 ironclads, 10 cruisers, and 46 smaller warships. The project would take a decade to implement and cost 146 million lira. Brin obtained the support of King Victor Emmanuel II for the plan in November 1876, and nine months later the Chamber of Deputies approved the package, including multiple internal reforms within the Regia Marina designed to save money for the implementation of Brin's plan, including the decommissioning and scrapping of several older warships. By the time 3760: 1628:

appoint older Italian admirals as commission members, who had less experience with ironclad warships and had served most of their careers aboard wooden vessels. Using their recommendations, Menabrea proposed that four ships-of-the-line be constructed for the Regia Marina as part of the centerpiece of the Italian naval plan for 1862–1865. Menabrea attempted to placate all other factions within the Italian government by offering in the 1862–1865 naval program that the Regia Marina also acquire two ironclads from British shipyards for those who supported armored ships, twelve gunboats for those who supported coastal defense, and several transport ships for those who supported continuing the

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large part due to obstructionism from Hungarians and liberal Germans within the Austro-Hungarian government, the former viewing naval matters as an Austrian concern, and the latter opposed to naval expansion in light of the continued deterioration of the Regia Marina following the Battle of Lissa. Additionally, since he was not involved in Tegetthoff's victory at the Battle of Lissa, he lacked the personal prestige to command the respect of the government, which Tegetthoff had successfully used to secure the construction of four ironclads in the four years since the Seven Weeks War. As a result, Pöck had great difficulty securing the funding for new ironclad warships during his tenure.

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Navy, the Archduke had considerable leeway to carry out objectives which he himself had the freedom to set. Not even the Imperial Austrian Army had this sort of political and bureaucratic freedom. Ferdinand Max ultimately agreed to a reshuffling of the roles he held within the Imperial Austrian Navy on the condition that a naval ministry would be formed to preserve the achievements he had made over the past half-decade. In January 1862, Franz Joseph I established a new ministry which would oversee the affairs of both the Imperial Austrian Navy, and the Austrian merchant marine, and named Count Matthais von Wickenburg its head. Under this new system, Ferdinand Max continued to be the

1575:, a former Austrian Army engineer with experience in heavy artillery. Möring argued that new fortifications and coastal artillery would be sufficient to defend Austria's limited maritime interests and its coastline, and that the large sums of money Ferdinand Max supported spending on constructing ironclad warships would be better spent elsewhere. Möring went so far as to publish a pamphlet attacking the Archduke's program outright, calling it a waste of Austrian finances and resources, while also arguing that an ironclad battle fleet would be of no value against Italy in the event of a war, as the decisive engagements Austria would fight in such a conflict would be on land. 3524:

of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, securing its influence in the Adriatic and even Mediterranean Seas. As the Regia Marina was still recovering from the political chaos which gripped its ranks after the defeat at Lissa two years earlier, this proposal presented the opportunity for Austria-Hungary to finally secure naval dominance over its Italian counterpart and put an end to the ironclad arms race which the two nations had been engaged in since 1860. Tegetthoff's plan was the most expensive proposal ever submitted on behalf of the navy up to that point in time, with a final cost of 25,300,000 Florin, and construction on the ironclads would take place over a ten-year period.

2141:. In February 1863, this potential deal grew more likely, as the Archduke compiled a series of unarmored ships he believed the Imperial Austrian Navy could part with. This list included a frigate, two corvettes, 14 gunboats and schooners, and nine paddle steamers. Ferdinand Max offered all 26 ships to Merton for roughly six million florins, enough to theoretically enable him to construct the one large armored frigate which could serve as the flagship of the Imperial Austrian Navy. Unfortunately for the Archduke, Merton rejected the offer as the Confederate government had instructed him to only purchase ironclads, or ships capable of navigating the North American 3293: 3215: 3186: 3102: 3054: 3035: 3016: 736: 2183:

Joseph I dissolved the ministry and the Imperial Austrian Navy was again placed under the jurisdiction of the Austrian Ministry of War. Under the 1865 budget, just 7,100,000 Florins were allocated towards naval expenses, but once more, none of the funds were designated for warship construction. In 1866, the naval budget grew slightly to 7,800,000 Florins, but for the third consecutive year there would be no funds for additional ironclads, or other warships. Thus, when the Seven Weeks War began in June 1866, the Imperial Austrian Navy would possess only ships which had been constructed during Ferdinand Max's tenure as

2625: 4331:. For Austria-Hungary, the Triple Alliance ended the threat of Italian irridentism aimed at many of its coastal possessions, gave the Empire a relatively free hand in the Adriatic, and protected two of Austria-Hungary's land borders in the event of a war with Russia. However, the results of the alliance would prove to be disastrous for the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The lack of a strong potential opponent determined to contest the Adriatic Sea eliminated most arguments in favor of a large fleet. Indeed, it would not be until 1893 before the Austro-Hungarian Navy would construct another class of capital ships. 2521: 3284: 3263: 3240: 3161: 3138: 3119: 3077: 1323: 1286: 1189: 1152: 1096: 1453:

Austrian Navy needed a budget of 15,100,000 Florins for the year 1862, over twice what had been allocated earlier that year. Ferdinand Max argued that the additional funds were needed to construct three more ironclads in short order, lest Austria fall behind its Italian neighbor. The Archduke's modified ironclad program would give the Austrian Empire a navy he believed would be capable of defeating the Regia Marina by the summer of 1862. Despite objections from the Austrian Finance, State, and Foreign Ministries, Emperor Franz Joseph I approved the program in October.

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La Marmora argued before the Chamber of Deputies that the Regia Marina possessed or had under construction more than enough warships of all types, including ironclads, to defeat the Imperial Austrian Navy in battle. Despite strong opposition from Persano, Cugia, and Bixio, La Marmora's government began to reduce naval expenditures and ended further ironclad purchases and construction projects for the time being. The government would instead focus on completing ships already under construction or under contract in the lead up to the Seven Weeks War.

2149: 3369: 22: 1332: 1243: 1218: 1901: 2289: 4315: 3847: 1782: 1592: 550: 4119: 1379:, considered one of the largest and strongest in the world. This new fleet would thus increase the value of any military alliance Austria were to make with the other European powers, and potentially end the diplomatic isolation that the Empire had been facing since the Crimean War. Furthermore, the need for Austria to construct these warships was urgent in the eyes of Ferdinand Max, as the Italian government was devoting substantial amounts of money to building ironclads for the Regia Marina. 794:

Garibaldi or his men were to be "treated as pirates, regardless of their flag". While tensions eased slightly following the Sardinian Navy's withdrawal from Ancona in October after the city fell to Sardinian troops on land, Austrian fears of a potential naval invasion continued. The Austrian Empire refused to recognize the territorial changes since the Treaty of Zürich, but support from the other European powers proved to be insufficient to prevent the unification of Italy. France and the

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Austrians; Tegetthoff, having gotten the better of the action, kept his distance so as not to risk his success. Additionally, the Austrian ships were slower than their Italian counterparts, and so they could not force a second engagement. As night began to fall, the opposing fleets disengaged completely, heading for Ancona and Pola, respectively. In the course of the battle, the Imperial Austrian Navy only suffered 38 killed, compared to the 612 dead among the ranks of the Regia Marina.

1660: 4176: 2383: 2036:-class ironclads, but the funds appropriated for 1863 were only enough for two additional ironclads, as opposed to the three he had asked for. Despite this set back, construction on the two ships began in the late spring of 1863. Many of the same individuals who had been instrumental in the design and construction of Austria's earlier ironclads returned to play those roles once more, with Romako designing both ships. These two ironclads were significantly larger than the 3495: 1620:. Italian worries over a potential Austro-Spanish alliance directed at dismembering the recently unified Kingdom of Italy and restoring the historical influence both nations had enjoyed over the Italian Peninsula in past centuries, though ultimately unfounded, caused much concern among the Italian naval officer corps. This fear was caused in part by the hostile reaction of the Spanish government after the declaration of the Kingdom of Italy. The Spanish, ruled by the 1579:

Ferdinand Max's ironclad construction proposals were essential to protecting Austria's growing merchant marine, and that ignoring Austria's seaborne trade by favoring coastal defense would harm the Austrian economy. Despite these arguments, Austrian Foreign Minister Johann von Rechberg strongly opposed the construction of any further ironclads, arguing along the same lines as Möring that "Austria is a land power, whose fate in case of war will be determined on land."

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additional ironclads. Persano's plan included purchasing four ironclads from French shipyards, and constructing three additional ironclads domestically. This proposal was further revised in June, when Persano addressed the Chamber of Deputies and shared his support for incorporating Menabrea's earlier plan to purchase two ironclads from British shipyards, bringing the total number of proposed ironclads the Regia Marina would construct or purchase by 1865 to nine.

1604:-class ironclads to be constructed in New York City, he did not personally believe in the value of the warships and worked to undo the agreement almost as soon as he had signed it. Indeed, Menabrea doubted the value of armored warships altogether, and in the months after Cavour's death, he attempted to redirect the Regia Marina away from ironclad construction for its warships and more towards traditional wooden designs. Menabrea was supported in his skepticism by 209: 2932: 892: 2741: 1371:-class ships in the autumn of 1863. Ferdinand Max wrote that the recent technological revolution in naval affairs which had been caused by the emergence of ironclads provided for a clean slate in which the Imperial Austrian Navy could develop newer warships on the same scale and pace as the other Great Powers of Europe, as older wooden ships of any type or nationality had been rendered obsolete by the new armor-plated ships. 4265: 3627: 425: 4358: 1760:

8,900,000 Florins, a huge sum and far higher than previous budget outlays for naval affairs, but this was below the 10,900,000 Florins that Ferdinand Max had originally asked for. In compensation however, Wickenburg was able to acquire a further 4,000,000 Florins from the Reichsrat for the navy's 1862 budget. In November, the bill was approved and the Imperial Austrian Navy received its largest budget in history.

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of the pre-dreadnought is blurred by the fact that ironclad designs evolved into battleships over time. This can be seen in the outline of the last ironclads built by Austria-Hungary and Italy, which when contrasted with each nation's oldest ironclads, illustrate major differences in design and construction. The ironclads and pre-dreadnoughts of the 1870s and 1880s were largely built from steel, and protected by

3876:. This design incorporated an entirely iron and steel-built hull, and centered around four guns placed upon two large turrets. Brin's arguments in favor of constructing a warship of this scale rested upon Italy's diplomatic isolation following the Franco-Prussian War, as Italy had poor relations with both Austria-Hungary and France after failed negotiations to ally with both in the late 1860s. The opening of the 1437: 2218:. After roughly 10 minutes of fighting, there were 15 casualties, including Garibaldi himself who had been shot in the exchange of fire. The fighting ended quickly, as Garibaldi and his volunteers surrendered and were taken prisoner. The political backlash to the "battle" at Aspromonte and Garibaldi's subsequent arrest was enormous in Italy. December 1862, Rattazzi's government fell over the controversy, and 1608:, a veteran and key organizer of Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand, who had previously served in the Sardinian Navy prior to the unification of Italy. They found opposition in Vice-Admiral Persano, who had won recognition for his efforts in blockading Ancona and Gaeta during Garibaldi's conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Sardinian invasion of the Papal States which followed. 4041: 3528: 2234:

massive battle fleet of 40 ironclads. Additionally, previous opponents of ironclad warships such as Bixio, had since been convinced of their importance following the Battle of Hampton Roads. Indeed, Bixio subsequently became one of the most vocal supporters of Italy's ironclad program after having previously opposed the concept during Persano's years as head of the Ministry of the Navy.

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result, the Archduke was forced to look to France for the iron plating his new warships would require. His overtures to French firms had to be kept secret however due to a ban on armor exports issued by French Emperor Napoleon III, who wished to preserve French resources for France's own ironclad projects. The money to pay for the French-built armor which would be used on the

1856:, financial problems related to the construction of the ironclad resulted in the order being transferred to the shipyard Harrison, also located in Millwall. Saint-Bon had originally intended the ship to be unarmed, relying only on its ram to sink enemy ships, but Harrison engineers revised the plan to include two large-caliber guns. While based on the design of USS 3452:. These proposals would be shelved however while Austria continued to reel from the military defeats inflicted by Prussia, and several cabinet reshufflings by Emperor Franz Joseph I resulted in a government more interested in pursuing revenge against Prussia than constructing new ironclads, which would be of little use in a hypothetical second war with Prussia. 2105:, Austrian warships hardly ever ventured out beyond the Adriatic Sea. The smaller Austrian naval budgets also forced Ferdinand Max to reluctantly turn down proposals from foreign shipbuilders to construct additional ironclad warships for the Imperial Austrian Navy. Among those whose offers the Archduke had to reject for a lack of funds were American shipbuilder 4335:

the first place. Furthermore, enduring nationalism among Italians within Austria-Hungary, and Italian irredentist claims of important Austrian territories, such as Tyrol and Trieste, continued to concern Austria-Hungary. Likewise, Italy grew worried at the naval expansion Austria-Hungary engaged in at the onset of the 20th century, particularly under

1893:, were only the second class of ironclad warships to be domestically constructed in Italy. By the time construction on the ships would begin in February 1863, foreign navies had begun to experiment with the central battery ships, a design which discarded the usual broadside arrangement in favor of a shorter battery located amidships. This allowed the 628: 656:

separate the Imperial Austrian Navy from its dependence upon the Imperial Austrian Army, which had nominal control over its affairs. As the younger brother to Franz Joseph I, Ferdinand Max was given great freedom by the Emperor to manage the navy as he saw fit, especially with respect to the construction and acquisition of new warships.

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no doubt be challenging, as Austria had never possessed any ironclad warships in the past, much less constructed one from scratch, the Archduke did have a few tools at his disposal for such an ambitious undertaking. The Navale Adriatico shipyard in Trieste was owned by the Austrian government at the time, while additional yards in the

2460:"Incontestably superior" to the Imperial Austrian Navy. These sentiments were shared by the Italian public, the Chamber of Deputies, and the Regia Marina itself. A quick victory over the Imperial Austrian Navy was expected, to be followed by Italian naval dominance over both the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. 4286:. In an attempt to redirect Italian territorial ambitions away from Austria-Hungary, Haymerle encouraged Italian claims on Tunis, and promised Austria-Hungary's diplomatic support for Italian colonial plans in North Africa in exchange for Italian guarantees to respect Austro-Hungarian influence in the Balkans. 4334:

Even after Italy and Austria-Hungary became allies under the Triple Alliance however, mutual suspicions and areas of conflict remained between both nations. Italy would go on to improve its relations with France after 1902, negating one of the key issues which led to it joining the Triple Alliance in

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By the 1880s, the concept of the ironclad was giving way to that of the battleship. This decade marked the beginning of the era of the "Pre-dreadnought battleship", sea-going battleships built between the mid- to late 1880s and 1905. The distinction however between the era of the ironclad and the era

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Political and technological developments throughout the 1870s and 1880s would ultimately bring the naval arms race, which Austria-Hungary and Italy had been engaged in for roughly 20 years, to a close. The primary political and technological drivers of this would be the signing of the Triple Alliance

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in 1869 also greatly increased commercial traffic in the Mediterranean, which promised to grow the Italian economy and merchant marine in the coming years. A new fleet of ships would thus be necessary to protect Italian interests in the Mediterranean. Brin eventually obtained political support in the

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outlined his proposal to Emperor Franz Joseph I. The plan called for a massive reinvestment in Austria-Hungary's ironclad fleet, with the eventual goal of some 15 ironclad warships, and an additional 19 unarmored warships of various types. Tegetthoff intended for the ironclad fleet to be the backbone

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reforms, Austria-Hungary attempted to court France and Italy as potential allies to curb future Prussian expansion. This potential alliance and a re-orientation of Austro-Hungarian foreign policy back towards Germany threatened the development of the Austro-Hungarian Navy and thus the construction of

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The day after the Battle of Lissa, Tegetthoff was promoted by Emperor Franz Joseph I to the rank of vice admiral. Meanwhile, Admiral Persano claimed Lissa was an Italian victory despite the Italians losing two ironclads and failing to sink or capture a single Austrian ship. Shortly after returning to

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La Marmora resigned as Prime Minister on 17 June in order to become King Victor Emmanuel II's chief-of-staff. Angiolette likewise resigned as Minister of the Navy in order to be given a command with the Italian army, which was expected to see the bulk of the fighting with Austria. Their replacements,

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Ferdinand Max was forced to acquire the funds he needed to expand Austria's ironclad battle fleet by selling off older vessels in the Imperial Austrian Navy's possession. Indeed, the speed in which Italy had been constructing or purchasing new ironclads since 1860, coupled with his own desire to keep

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In Austria, the results of the battle were so decisive that Rechberg reversed his opinion completely upon learning of the engagement, and asked the Reichsrat to approve all the new naval expenditures Ferdinand Max had been calling for. In June, the Austrian Reichsrat approved Archduke Ferdinand Max's

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into the designs of warship hulls around the world. Within Austria and Italy, the Battle of Hampton Roads would prove to have a decisive impact on the course of the Austro-Italian ironclad arms race, influencing both nations' decision to continue with their ironclad programs and effectively resulting

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In order to address the gap between naval expenditures and construction plans with the will of the Reichsrat, which had rejected Ferdinand Max's ambitious proposals the year before, Emperor Franz Joseph I accepted a proposal from War Minister Count August von Degenfeld to convene a special commission

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While Austria continued to refuse to grant diplomatic recognition of the newly formed Kingdom of Italy, it could not continue to ignore the threat the Regia Marina's own naval expansion program, under the direction of Cavour, posed to the Austrian coastline. In response to the assembly of the Italian

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during the Crimean War. Despite these plans, the rapid expansion of the Kingdom of Sardinia and the subsequent unification of Italy resulted in the ships being converted into sea-going broadside ironclads. This change signaled the direction of Italian foreign and naval policy in the years immediately

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after walking home in a rainstorm, Tegetthoff died in April 1871. His death would also mark a period of substantial decline for the Austro-Hungarian Navy, as Europe's changing political outlook in the face of the recently concluded Franco-Prussian War, combined with improved Austro-Italian relations

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In the years after the Battle of Lissa, the Regia Marina fell into an era of steep decline. Having already having overspent its naval budgets by millions of lira in the years before Lissa, the Regia Marina saw its budget cut throughout the 1860s and 1870s. With Austrian control over the Adriatic Sea

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to attach the Regia Marina as he saw fit. Consequentially, Tegetthoff brought the Imperial Austrian Navy to Ancona on 26 June in an attempt to draw out the Italians, but the Italian commander, Admiral Persano, refused to engage. Tegetthoff made another sortie on 6 July, but again could not bring the

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as Minister of the Navy, set out to secure Italian dominance over the Adriatic. Shortly after Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June, Ricasoil laid out plans for Italy's annexation of Venice, Trentino, Trieste, the Dalmatian Coast, Istria, and Fiume. Depretis strongly believed the Regia Marina was

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to the office of Minister of the Navy, La Marmora worked the shrink the size of the Regia Marina's budget, and bring the era of overspending budgetary outlays to an end. Using Spain's decision to finally recognize the Kingdom of Italy as a catalyst to begin debates over the size of the naval budget,

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The Austrian naval budget of 1862 would prove to be the largest such outlay the Imperial Austrian Navy would receive until 1900. Even so, the 1863 budget of only 8,900,000 Florins was far less than what Archduke Ferdinand Max had hoped for. This limited his ability to construct additional ironclads,

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Two camps quickly formed: Those who supported Ferdinand Max's ironclad program and wished to continue the arms race with Italy, and those who supported transitioning the Imperial Austrian Navy into a coastal defense force centered upon protecting the Austrian Empire from naval invasion as opposed to

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In April 1861, the Archduke drew up his first plans for a modernized and armored Imperial Austrian Navy. In his submission to Emperor Franz Joseph I, he argued that nearly all of Austria's diplomatic and military challenges could be addressed by engaging in a large ironclad construction program. His

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over 100 years prior. Despite these efforts however, the Imperial Austrian Navy was still considerably smaller than its French, British, or Sardinian counterparts. Indeed, the Imperial Austrian Navy was still attempting to catch up to the technological developments which had emerged during the first

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The changing nature of political alliances in the 1880s also spelled the end of the arms race. For 20 years, both Italy and Austria-Hungary had used the threat of the other to justify engaging in constructing and purchasing numerous ironclad warships. However, following the first dissolution of the

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Despite its relatively limited impact on the outcome of the Seven Weeks War, the Battle of Lissa would prove to have a major impact on the development of naval warfare for the next 60 years. As the first naval engagement between multiple armored warships in history, the Battle of Lissa would be the

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s unarmored bow, but these shots caused little damage. The melee which followed Tegetthoff's second pass was to his advantage, as the Austrian commander wished to rely upon ramming tactics in order to compensate for the Regia Marina's advantage in ironclads and the Imperial Austrian Navy's inferior

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opening fire at a range of roughly 1,000 yards (910 m) on the approaching Austrians. The Italian gunnery was poor, and their initial shooting missed the Austrian ships, allowing Tegetthoff to make a pass through the gap in the Italian line. This attempt failed however to ram any of the Italian

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in the years immediately after the war meant that Ferdinand Max could not follow Cavour's lead and seek to construct the ships he needed in another country. Ferdinand Max was thus forced to construct Austria's first ironclads using resources the Austrian Empire had on hand. While this project would

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These concerns were so great that in September 1860, Emperor Franz Joseph I issued an order to the Imperial Austrian Navy which stipulated that all Sardinian ships of any kind were to be barred entry into any Austrian-controlled port. Franz Joseph also ordered that any vessel identified as carrying

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Italy would continue to build up its naval force in the years after the signing of the Triple Alliance, but the terms of the treaty led Italy to concede the Adriatic Sea to the interests of Austria-Hungary. Instead, Italian naval plans were redirected towards France. Brin's naval program thus went

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was laid down in April 1876, the only ironclad to be constructed for the next eight years. Confronted with an unwillingness within the Austro-Hungarian government to strengthen the fleet further, Pöck resorted to subterfuge to acquire the funds he needed. In 1875, he asked for a budget increase to

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In the autumn of 1867, Menabrea, who had previously been the primary objector to the construction of Italy's ironclad battle fleet after Cavour's death in 1861, came to power as Prime Minister of Italy. Meanbrea continued his record of opposing ironclad warships and scrapped all plans to construct

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to have two turrets as opposed to one. She would become the most expensive warship the Regia Marina had ever ordered at the time. Indeed, the costs to construct the ironclad were so high that Persano had to substitute the two British-built ironclads Menabrea had initially proposed and which he had

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Rechberg began the commission's second meeting by attacking Ferdinand Max's proposal on financial grounds, arguing that the Imperial Austrian Navy had drastically overstepped financial allotments over the past decade, with the navy consistently overspending the monetary limits placed upon it under

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then deployed the Imperial Austrian Navy to the waters off of Naples in order to prevent Garibaldi from attacking the city by sea. However, the defection of the Neapolitan Navy and Garibaldi's rapid advance up the Italian Peninsula after making landfall at Calabria rendered this fleet useless. The

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The rest of Southern Italy fell in short order and in March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed. By this time, the vast majority of the former navies of the various Italian states had been brought into the Sardinian Navy. Two weeks after the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, the Italian

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Garibaldi's conquest of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies marked the beginning of the Sardinian Navy's transformation into the Italian Regia Marina. When the Italian revolutionary landed in Sicily in May 1860, only two steamships were at the disposal of his thousand volunteers. By the time Garibaldi had

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class, the first ironclads to serve in the Italian Peninsula. While foreign powers such as Austria watched the growth of Sardinia and the expansion of its army closely, the consolidation of the Sardinian Navy after the incorporation of multiple states across the Italian Peninsula received far less

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produced overwhelming majorities in favor of annexation by Sardinia. This expansion of Sardinia likewise resulted in the growth of the kingdom's navy. In April, Cavour oversaw the incorporation of Tuscany's small fleet into the Sardinian Navy. Immediately after the Tuscan fleet had been integrated

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began negotiations with Rome to improve relations between Italy and Austria-Hungary. Pöck argued strongly against improving relations with Italy, recognizing that a friendly Italy would effectively render all arguments for a sea-going Austro-Hungarian Navy largely pointless. Nevertheless, Italian

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Throughout this period, the navy's annual budget continued to fall, from a peak of 11,100,000 Florins in 1872 to 8,500,000 Florins in 1880. Pöck continued to push for another new ironclad, but by 1880 his efforts were only symbolic: in his proposed budget estimates for the year, he included a new

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in the Second Schleswig War, Pöck had been given shore assignments throughout the Seven Weeks War, denying him the same sort of fame and public admiration that Tegetthoff had enjoyed after the Battle of Lissa. Almost immediately after taking office, Pöck faced chronic budgetary problems, owing in

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and retired Admiral Bernhard von Wüllerstorf-Urbair. Wüllerstorf's and Franck's primary arguments in favor of continuing with the ironclad program Austria had engaged in prior to the Seven Weeks War lay largely along economic grounds. The two believed that constructing new ironclad warships would

2711:

below the ship's waterline, though the Austrian ironclad sustained no significant damage herself. Tegetthoff reversed course, allowing the Italian ironclad to lurch back to port and quickly sink. He initially ordered his crew to lower boats to pick up the Italians struggling in the water, but the

2528:

On 16 July, Persano took the Italian fleet, with twelve ironclads, out of Ancona, bound for the island of Lissa, where they arrived on 18 July. With them, they brought troop transports carrying 3,000 soldiers. Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and

2233:

Cugia inherited a Regia Marina rapidly growing in size and quickly acquiring ironclad warships. Support among the general public and the Regia Marina's officer corps for expanding the navy and constructing new ironclads remained high, with a new naval commission even going so far as to call for a

2182:

In the years after Ferdinand Max's departure from Austria, the Imperial Austrian Navy suffered under further political and budgetary constraints. In April 1864, it was proposed that the naval ministry, which the former Archduke had helped to establish, be disbanded. In January 1865, Emperor Franz

1741:

the following day, left an impression on most of the major navies in the world. Indeed, the battle received worldwide attention. The preeminent naval powers, the United Kingdom and France, halted further construction of wooden-hulled ships after receiving reports of the battle. The use of a small

1627:

Unlike their Austrian counterparts, the Italian naval commission overwhelmingly opposed the construction of further ironclads, and supported a Regia Marina built around screw-frigates, ships-of-the-line, and other unarmored ships. This decision can in part be contributed to Menabrea's decision to

1359:-class ironclads, both the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy possessed at least one ironclad warship, with more on the way. Over the next five years, the ironclad arms race between the two countries would only grow, as each country worked to gain a naval advantage over the other. While the 1018:

cost 2,300,000 Florins each, a staggering amount of money at the time, and over six times the cost of previous Austrian warships. Despite the expensive nature of the ships involved, and before either the Austrians or Italians had commissioned a single ship into their respective navies, plans were

789:

volunteers in the ranks of his army. Vienna calculated that should a landing along the Austrian coastline by Garibaldi be successful, the whole southern and eastern portions of the country could potentially erupt into revolution, much like the revolutions in 1848 which nearly toppled the Austrian

748:

in early 1860, the rapid growth of Sardinia's territory and armed forces quickly earned the attention of the Austrian government in Vienna. While Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I ordered Austria's army to mobilize in anticipation of a potential Sardinian attack directed at Venice, little focus was

3863:

instead. These findings resulted in the Italy's 1871 naval budget being cut to 26,800,000 lira, the lowest amount ever afforded to the Regia Marina in the years after Lissa. Incidentally, the 1871 budget would also mark the only time in history where the Regia Marina received less funds than the

3858:

Italy's defeat at the Battle of Lissa continued to inhibit naval expansion in the 1870s. A naval commission convened in 1871 concluded that the Regia Marina's capabilities in the Adriatic and Mediterranean were so poor in comparison to Italy's neighbors that future Italian naval policy should be

3311:

The battle of Lissa proved to be the climax of the Austro-Italian ironclad arms race, though the naval competition between the two nations would continue for another 16 years. Following the signing of the Treaty of Vienna, Austria was diplomatically isolated which caused a considerable amount of

2951:

had occurred earlier in the month, resulting in heavy Austrian casualties and signaling Prussia's eventual victory over Austria in the war. Just six days after the Battle of Lissa, Austria and Prussia signed a preliminary peace agreement at Nikolsburg. With Austrian dominance of the Adriatic Sea

2916:

explosion. Persano broke off the engagement, having lost two ships, and though his squadron still outnumbered the Austrians, he refused to counter-attack with his badly demoralized forces. In addition, the fleet was low on coal and ammunition. The Italian fleet began to withdraw, followed by the

2347:

class would be the last two ships of this first generation of Italian ironclads however. The sheer number of ironclads the Regia Marina was constructing and ordering, combined with the relatively short time-span in which Italy had engaged in its ironclad build up, was beginning to place a severe

1767:

wreaked havoc on the Union's unarmored warships. When news of the battle reached the Italian government, Persano addressed the Chamber of Deputies about the battle and argued Menabrea's proposed four ships-of-the-line were technologically obsolete, and that Regia Marina instead needed to acquire

1578:

At the commission's meeting in March 1862, Degenfeld disagreed with Möring's analysis and declared that it was imperative for the Imperial Austrian Navy possess an ironclad fleet as powerful as the Regia Marina. Matthais von Wickenburg, the recently appointed naval minister, argued strongly that

1554:

circumventing the traditional budget process threatened the future development of the Imperial Austrian Navy. Calls were made from within the Reichsrat for Ferdinand Max to be placed under the supervision of the government. As both the operational and administrative head of the Imperial Austrian

990:

for shipping, the armor was placed aboard merchant ships flying the flags of neither France or Austria. The entire operation was kept so secret that not even the captains of the ships carrying the plates knew where they would be delivering their cargo until just before they set sail. Despite the

3510:

in early 1868, making him the operational and political head of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. He quickly went to work reforming the operation, structure, and regulations which governed the Austro-Hungarian Navy. As part of this broad series of reforms, Tegetthoff also began work drafting the first

2100:

In a bid to maintain the navy's finances in the face of potential budget cuts, Ferdinand Max attempted to cut expenditures in nearly every aspect of the Imperial Austrian Navy outside of ironclad construction. Patrols conducted by the Imperial Austrian Navy were severely curtailed, and warships

1485:

class. Each ship was designed by Romako to be larger with more powerful engines and carry a larger gun battery than their predecessors. Having encountered political opposition from the Austrian Reichsrat earlier in the year when he requested for additional funds, Ferdinand Max attempted to grow

1452:

had rejected Ferdinand Max's naval expansion program, only allocating the Archduke 6,000,000 Florins to run the Imperial Austrian Navy in 1862. The following month, Ferdinand Max briefed the Austrian Council of Ministers in Vienna on the Italian naval expansion. He told the council the Imperial

798:

were locked in their own naval arms race at the time, which meant the only support the British were able to provide were firm commitments against an Italian attack on Istria or Dalmatia. This was sufficient to prevent the Sardinian government from sanctioning any expeditions directed at the two

2455:

At the onset of the war, Italy appeared to have a far stronger navy than Austria did, in large part to the massive ironclad program Cavour and Persano engaged in shortly after the unification of Italy. While the Regia Marina possessed far more ironclads than the Imperial Austrian Navy, Italian

1759:

to cut expenditures not related to training, naval construction and ship maintenance. The Reichsrat also ordered Ferdinand Max to purchase more coal from domestic sources, and to only rarely send warships out beyond the Mediterranean Sea. For 1863, the Imperial Austrian Navy was allocated some

1611:

Similar to their Austrian counterparts who were debating the practicality and usefulness of an ironclad battle fleet, in the autumn of 1861, Menabrea convened a naval commission intended to examine the state of the Regia Marina and determine the value of continuing the construction of ironclad

977:

Securing the armor contracts for the ships would be more difficult. Ferdinand Max had placed an order for the armor with domestic ironworks, but the sheer quantity of iron required for the ships, and the timescale involved with the construction project, was beyond the industry's capacity. As a

772:

Sardinia's annexation of most of Central Italy in early 1860 had caused concern for the Austrian Empire, but the collapse of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in just a matter of months sparked a diplomatic and military crisis in Vienna. While Garibaldi finished his conquests, the Sardinian Army

4425:

This table depicts Austria's approved naval budget between 1861 and 1865. It does not include any funds which the Imperial Austrian Navy overspent during this period, though existing estimates state the navy did not overspend more than 300,000 Florins in any given year. See Sondhaus (1989) p.

3871:

Brin began working on a new design for an Italian ironclad which would begin the transition of naval ships away from ironclads and closer to battleships which would come to dominate the navies of the early 20th century. His initial design rejected the casemate concept which formed the bulk of

3775:

These new orders marked not only a change in Austro-Hungarian naval policy, but also the end of the Empire's participation in the ironclad arms race, though two final ironclads would be built in 1884. Pöck succeeded in securing funding for the first of these two ships in 1881, having obtained

2160:

Further attempts to purchase ironclads from British shipyards which had been constructing them for the Confederacy in late 1863 failed as well, due to the sheer costs of the warships involved. Despite an increase in funds under the 1864 budget to some 12,100,000 Florins, none of the money the

655:

assumed command of the navy ten years earlier. Despite his age and his lack of experience in battle or command on the high seas, Ferdinand Max was described by naval historian Lawrence Sondhaus as "the most gifted leader the navy had ever had, or ever would have." Ferdinand Max worked hard to

969:

Ferdinand Max ordered the ships and their engines in December 1860 from domestic shipyards. This work was done before any formal approval for the project could be granted by Franz Joseph I, but in February 1861 the Emperor allowed the construction to proceed. Ten days later, the Emperor also

939:

class were enormous. Austria had recently lost Eugène Sandfort, the French-born shipbuilding director for the Imperial Austrian Navy, who had resigned his post during the Second War of Italian Independence. Usually, the Austrian Navy would simply place an order for the vessels with a foreign

3542:

still had to obtain approval from the Austrian and Hungarian Delegations for Common Affairs in order to proceed with the plan. Laying out his proposal to the delegations in December 1868, Tegetthoff won approval to begin proceeding with his plans, with 8,800,000 Florins being devoted to the

3641:

and securing funds to rush completion of the ironclads already under construction, the new ironclads Austria-Hungary was constructing had begun to bring Tegetthoff close to his ambitious goal of 15 armored warships by 1878. However, after obtaining new funds in January 1871 to speed up the

3988:

class not only presented Italy's desire to rebuild its naval power following the Battle of Lissa, but it also signaled an era of changing technology which would soon put the ironclad arms race between Italy and Austria-Hungary, and indeed the ironclad itself, to an end. The design of the

2459:

Nevertheless, Italy's ironclad advantage of 12 to 7, led to great expectations. Nino Bixio, who had previously opposed the concept of ironclads only to enthusiastically endorse their acquisition by the Kingdom of Italy following the Battle of Hampton Roads, described the Regia Marina as

2446:

once and for all by force of arms. In April 1866, the Prussian government signed a secret agreement with Italy, committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria. On 14 June, the Seven Weeks War began when Prussia attacked Austria's allies in the German Confederation.

1797:

One week after presenting his ironclad plan to the Chamber of Deputies, Persano obtained approval from Prime Minister Rattazzi's cabinet to proceed. Soon after, Persano signed contracts for four ironclads to begin construction in French shipyards. These ships would ultimately form the

773:

invaded the Papal States and the growing Sardinian Navy entered the Adriatic to blockade the port of Ancona. The Austrian Empire viewed Sardinian warships in the Adriatic as an overtly hostile act, and fears of Garibaldi continuing his military campaigns by attempting a landing in

3346:

solidified following the Seven Weeks War, it entered the post-war era in a state of political and financial disarray as most of the Regia Marina's leadership, including Persano, had been disgraced by the Battle of Lissa and the failure to achieve any naval gains in the Adriatic.

2253:

Cugia attempted to carry on the work which began under Cavour and had continued under Persano. In addition to ordering additional transports, shallow-draft gunboats which could be used to seize Venice by sea, Cugia also ordered yet another class of Italian ironclads, named the

498:, capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Troops from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies defending Calabria offered little resistance, as several units of the Bourbon army disbanded or even joined Garibaldi's ranks. On 30 August a Sicilian army was officially disbanded at 173:

entered its own period of neglect, with just five additional ironclads being constructed in the ensuing thirteen years. Both navies engaged in further construction projects throughout the 1870s and early 1880s, but the arms race ended in the 1880s due to the signing of the

2137:

pace with Italian ironclad acquisitions, forced the Archduke to consider selling nearly all of Austria's wooden vessels. His first opportunity to do so came in November 1862 when he attempted to negotiate the sale of older frigates and corvettes to Confederate arms dealer

529:, the only organized Bourbon force left in Italy remained at Gaeta. On 21 October, a plebiscite confirmed the annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the Kingdom of Sardinia by an overwhelming majority, while on 26 October, Victor Emmanuel II and Garibaldi met at 3594:, would establish near the turn of the century. This time however, Tegetthoff emerged from the political debates in Vienna and Pest with only a partial victory. While the Austro-Hungarian Navy's 1870 budget was increased to 9,800,000 Florins, the delegations rejected the 3439:

Seizing upon the decline of the Regia Marina in the years immediately after the Battle of Lissa, Tegetthoff worked to continue the efforts of Archduke Ferdinand Max of expanding the ironclad fleet of the now Austro-Hungarian Navy. Tegetthoff found political allies in the

1374:

Ferdinand Max was also sure to include the diplomatic benefits of engaging in an ambitious ironclad construction program. He argued that constructing a further seven ironclads by 1863 would allow the Imperial Austrian Navy to possess a fleet one-third the size of the

953:

likewise possessed iron ore mines and ironworks necessary to make the armor for the warships. Furthermore, the Imperial Austrian Navy could also count on its own group of engineers to design the ships, as Ferdinand Max had dispatched a group of naval cadets, led by

3432:) was the label for institutions common to both parts of the Monarchy. This meant that following the transformation of the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Imperial Austrian Navy was itself reformed into the Imperial and Royal Navy (German: 2200:

and bring the Papal States into Italy, sailed from Genoa and landed at Palermo, intending to gather volunteers for the impending campaign to Rome. By the time he crossed over into mainland Italy, he had a force of some two thousand volunteers. After landing at

2285:. He had initially planned on using entirely wooden hulls for the ships, but had changed to composite wood and iron construction by the time the ships were laid down. The two ships were also the last Italian ironclads to feature sailing rigs and wooden hulls. 409:

would emerge as a leader for the unification of Italy. Garibaldi, initially supported a republican revolution to bring the peninsula together. However, he eventually concluded that only the Kingdom of Sardinia could unify the Italian states into one nation.

4136:

steel armor, as opposed to the iron plating and casemate designs of older ironclads. The distinctions between later ironclads and pre-dreadnought battleships can also be found in the armament and propulsion systems of each ship. Pre-dreadnoughts carried a

863:

after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, as the ships were aimed at defeating the Imperial Austrian Navy in open combat. Indeed, even after the unification of Italy and the establishment of a single Kingdom of Italy in 1861, many Italians believed the

336:, the Austrian Empire appeared on the brink of collapse. On 23 March 1848, just one day after Radetzky was forced to retreat from Milan, The Kingdom of Sardinia sought to capitalize on the chaos engulfing the Austrian Empire and declared war, sparking the 1624:, were among the first nations to condemn the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and had joined Austria in withholding diplomatic recognition of both the unified kingdom and Victor Emmanuel's claim to the title of King of Italy. 2940:

Ancona with his fleet on 21 July however, Persano saw his story fall apart as the truth about the battle's results swiftly turned public opinion about the conduct of the Regia Marina against the Italian commander. As an Italian Senator, Persano saw the

3316:

on behalf of the Austrian Empire, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, who had overseen the construction of Austria's entire ironclad fleet as Archduke Ferdinand Max, congratulated Tegetthoff for his victory and awarded the Austrian vice admiral the

2011:

As a result of Persano's work, by the spring of 1863 the Regia Marina had over a dozen ironclads under contract or under construction, though only the first two ships built during Cavour's tenure as Prime Minister had actually been completed.

799:

regions, and fears within Vienna of an Italian naval invasion evaporated by 1861. Nevertheless, the Austrian Empire refused to recognize the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861, nor King Victor Emmanuel II's claim to be the "

596:

to Southern Italy. These numbers were bolstered by the desertion of most of the Neapolitan Navy in July 1860 to Garibaldi's cause. Following Garibaldi's conquest of Naples in September, the remainder of the Neapolitan Navy was handed over to

659:

Ferdinand Max immediately went to work expanding the Imperial Austrian Navy. Fears of over-dependence upon foreign shipyards to supply Austrian warships enabled him to convince his brother to authorize the construction of a new drydock at

2476:

While Italy prepared for a naval offensive in the Adriatic in order to put pressure on Trieste, Venice, and Fiume, Austria's naval strategy at the beginning of the war was primarily defensive-oriented. The two latest Austrian ironclads,

2096:

had to be delayed due to a lack of funds. As a result, Austria was only able to construct seven ironclads between 1860 and 1865, as opposed to the nine Ferdinand Max had previously advocated for to the Austrian Reichsrat in April 1861.

351:, which had initially allied with Sardinia against Austria, pulled out of the war, having barely participated in the fighting at all. Austrian reinforcements also bolstered Radetzky's forces in the Italian peninsula and following the 3693:-class ironclads. In fact, Pöck sold the old ships for scrap, reusing only their machinery, armor plates, and other fittings for the construction of three new ships, which were given the same names to obscure his sleight of hand. 2161:

Reichsrat had allocated to the Imperial Austrian Navy were earmarked for ironclad construction or purchases, leaving Ferdinand Max with the same seven ironclads as before. Faced with political gridlock and having been offered

4188:

In contrast to the chaotic development of ironclad warships in preceding decades, the 1890s saw navies worldwide start to build battleships to a common design as dozens of ships essentially followed the design of the British

2008:-class ships were likewise redesigned with the implicit purpose of wrestling control of the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas from the Austrian Empire in the event of a war for control of Italian-speaking parts of the Empire. 3713:

ironclad warship, but did not actually allocate any funds for it. Unable to increase the strength of the ironclad fleet, Pöck turned to less expensive means to defend Austria-Hungary's coastline, including development of

2056:. At any rate, the Imperial Austrian Navy was forced to hastily complete the ships with only sixteen of the original 48-pounder guns due to the outbreak of the Seven Weeks War in 1866. Named after the Archduke himself, 145:

by the much smaller Imperial Austrian Navy. Their poor performance led to a period of neglect with reduced naval budgets and a halt to new ship construction; Italy would not have another ironclad laid down until 1873.

1599:

The death of Italian Prime Minister Cavour in June 1861 was a major setback for the development of the Italian Regia Marina. While Menabrea, the new head of the navy, had secured the deal Cavour had worked on for the

1567:

securing the Adriatic against the Regia Marina. Political and nationalist lines helped to divide the two camps. Among those opposing the navy's ironclad program were German liberals from the Austrian interior and the

4297:

as part of its own colonial ambitions. Anti-French sentiment subsequently gripped the Italian public, press, and politicians, but lacking any allies, Italy was powerless to stop the incorporation of Tunisia into the

2497:. Owing to the Italian advantage in ironclads, Tegetthoff worked to upgrade his existing wooden vessels for combat as well, draping many in chains and scrap iron to increase their protection in battle. Following the 2195:

Political chaos and budgetary restraints in Italy likewise forced a slowdown in the rapid pace in which the Regia Marina had been arming itself with ironclad warships. In June 1862, Garibaldi, determined to conquer

4075:, the first ship of her namesake class, was laid down by Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia on 3 August 1881, the ironclad arms race between Italy and Austria-Hungary was coming to an end. The completion of 2427:

began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the border into Schleswig in February 1864. After eight months of fighting, the Danes were defeated and the two nations won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the

3859:

oriented more towards coastal defense than constructing a powerful battle fleet. The commission's findings recommended future funds should be diverted away from further ironclads and towards establishing over 30

664:, and the expansion of existing shipyards in Trieste. Furthermore, Ferdinand Max initiated an ambitious construction program in the ports of Pola, Trieste, and Venice, the largest the Adriatic had seen since the 4435:

This table depicts Italy's approved naval budget between 1861 and 1865. It does not include the estimated 30,000,000 Florin the Regia Marina overspent between 1861 and 1865. See Gabriele & Fritz (1982) pp.

4346:. These trends would spark a second naval arms race centered around the construction of battleships at the turn of the century, which would later intensify considerably in the years leading up to World War I. 2205:

on 14 August, Garibaldi and his forces marched at once into the Calabrian mountains. Far from supporting this second expedition however, the Italian government strongly opposed Garibaldi's actions. General

1644:

replaced Ricasoli as Prime Minister, and selected Persano as Italy's Minister of the Navy. Persano quickly went to work scrapping Menabrea's fleet plans, replacing it with plans for more ironclad warships.

557:

In March 1860, Cavour became the Kingdom of Sardinia's naval minister. He assumed this role at a time when Sardinia was rapidly expanding into Northern and Central Italy. Earlier that month, plebiscites in

743:

Austria's defeat in the Second War of Italian Independence in 1859 marked the end of the Italian Peninsula being divided up among several independent states. As the Kingdom of Sardinia swiftly annexed the

999:, was to set sail from Marseilles. They seized the ship and confiscated its cargo, initially believing the vessel was smuggling arms to Garibaldi's forces in Italy. After the Austrian government used 2473:

strong enough to secure these conquests. On 25 June, the Regia Marina's main battle fleet, led by Persano, made port at Ancona in anticipation of engaging the Imperial Austrian Navy in the Adriatic.

1571:, as well as other nationalities hailing from the inland parts of the Empire who had little interest in expanding Austrian sea power. The leader of the anti-ironclad, pro-coastal defense faction was 4081:

in February 1895, the final ironclad of the Regia Marina, gave Italy the third largest navy in the world, behind only the United Kingdom and France. Despite this, by the time the final ships of the

122:

ironclads in 1860. This began a naval arms race between Austria and Italy, centered around the construction and acquisition of ironclads. This continued for the next six years, and by the time the

2861:

initially attempted to follow Tegetthoff in his second pass, but quickly lost contact with Tegetthoff's flagship in the chaos. Italian ironclads surrounded the Austrian ship, forcing the ironclad

4152:

The distinction between ironclads and pre-dreadnought battleships became blurred in foreign navies outside of Italy and Austria-Hungary as well, most notably in the British Royal Navy with the

2643: 710:

Following Austria's defeat during the Second War of Italian Independence, Ferdinand Max proposed an even larger naval construction program than the one he had initiated upon his appointment as

3864:

Austro-Hungarian Navy. The 1871 budget would signal the nadir of Italian naval fortunes however, as subsequent budgets would slowly rise throughout the 1870s as newly appointed naval engineer

1632:

to the shores of Austria. Rather than win over the various different naval factions within Italy however, Menabrea's proposal disappointed nearly everyone and gained few supporters within the

1550:

While Emperor Franz Joseph I's support enabled Ferdinand Max's project to proceed despite the objections of several Austrian ministries and the Reichsrat, the political damage caused by the

541:

in February 1861. With the capture of Gaeta, a unified Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed on 17 March 1861. King Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy was then declared King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy.

2952:

confirmed, and with reinforcements arriving on the Italian front from Germany, Austria's negotiating position with the Italians improved significantly and Italy was thus forced to sign the

580: 3448:

rejuvenate Austria-Hungary's economy following the defeat at the hands of Prussia and Italy, and that such a fleet would help to open up new commercial opportunities in the Levant and the

3387:

had primarily been found in Italy and Germany. The Empire thus reformed itself into the Austria-Hungarian Empire following the adoption of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (German:

2282: 1897:-class ships to use a significantly shorter and much lighter section of side armor to protect the guns of each ship, which in turn permitted the carrying of heavier, more powerful guns. 1559:, but he was no longer responsible for the political management of the fleet. This move was made once again in opposition to the wishes of the Imperial Austrian Army, and the Reichsrat. 3511:

battle fleet proposal the navy had seen since Ferdinand Max's proposal in 1858. While the 1868 budget had included funds which would eventually be used to convert the ship-of-the-line

328:

insurgents in Lombardy–Venetia, and had to order his forces to evacuate western Italy, pulling his troops back to a chain of defensive fortresses between Milan and Venice known as the

3787: 2359:

succeeded him on 28 September 1864. La Marmora's first objective as prime minister was to cut government expenditures and finally balance the Italian budget. After appointing General

1936: 3831:

in July 1889. After the construction of these two final ironclads, nearly another decade would pass before the Austro-Hungarian Navy secured funding for new capital ships, the three

1870:

In early 1863, Persano also went to work constructing a class of domestically-built ironclads. Shortly after negotiating contracts for French and British-built ships, orders for two

2689:

s disabled rudder presented another opportunity for Tegetthoff to ram the vessel at full speed. After two collisions which occurred at angles too oblique to inflict serious damage,

4092:, the first pre-dreadnought battleships, which rendered older ironclad battleships obsolete. In addition, technological progress, particularly in armor production techniques—first 3350:

new ships which had not already been ordered shortly after taking office. These events caused construction of new ironclad warships to come to a halt after the competition of the

2791: 553:

Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, the first Prime Minister of Italy. Cavour was instrumental in the establishment of the Regia Marina and the initiation of Italy's ironclad program.

3543:

Austro-Hungarian Navy's 1869 budget. While this was only a slight increase over 1868, the additional funds were enough for the navy to begin construction on two new ironclads,

609:

budget to expand the Regia Marina beyond its newly acquired ships. The funds would also be used to construct additional ironclads as well as establish an Italian naval base at

605:

Regia Marina was created as a single unified naval force for the newly formed kingdom. Cavour immediately asked the Italian Chamber of Deputies for an unprecedented 20,000,000-

502:, while only minor and dispersed units continued the fight. The Neapolitan fleet behaved in a similar way and offered little to no resistance against Garibaldi's forces. King 3383:

Austria's defeat in the Seven Weeks War forced Austria to determine a new set of foreign and domestic policies for the future, as Austria's interests since the days of the

2597:

to strike an unidentified Italian ironclad. Instead, the ships employed converging fire, though largely without success. During this period, the leading Italian ironclads,

2568:, though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change. They were thus left to fight as individuals without direction. More dangerously, by stopping 1014:, was commissioned into the Imperial Austrian Navy in May 1862, she was the most expensive warship ever constructed for the Imperial Austrian Navy. She and her sister ship 4381: 3729:, from Britain in 1875, followed by five more from Britain and four more from domestic shipyards thereafter. In the late 1870s and early 1880s, he also ordered the four 1382:

While Ferdinand Max was laying out plans for Austria's ironclad program, the Regia Marina was already executing its own program. Following up on the construction of the

2101:

rarely left the Mediterranean Sea. Indeed, with the exception of Tegetthoff's patrol off the coast of Greece to protect Austrian interests in the Balkan kingdom during

1978:, led to efforts to redesign the ships. In an attempt to grow his ironclad program even further, Persano followed the lead Cavour established earlier in converting the 3312:

uncertainty over the future of its naval forces. Tegetthoff however was widely praised for his performance at Lissa. In addition to being promoted and receiving the

588:

attention. This allowed Cavour to continue his work incorporating the various fleets Sardinia inherited as more and more Italian states joined the growing kingdom.

447:

in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an opportunity to begin the conquest of Southern Italy. He gathered about a thousand volunteers – called

32:. The Battle of Lissa served as the climax of the Austro-Italian ironclad arms race and was the first naval engagement between multiple armored warships in history. 2720: 9297: 827:. The ships of this class were the first ironclads of the Italian Regia Marina and their construction marked the beginning of the Austro-Italian naval arms race. 3930: 3708: 2249: 2132: 3609:. Nevertheless, in the four years since the Battle of Lissa, the Austro-Hungarian Navy had begun work on three new ironclads, and the older ship-of-the-line 1990:

was too far advanced in her construction to allow for this conversion, leading to her completion as a wooden vessel. To replace her, a new ship was ordered,

873:

would be the first Italian ironclad to be commissioned into the Regia Marina, joining the fleet in September 1861. She was soon followed by her sister ship

752:

When Garibaldi's conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies began in May 1860, the Austrian Empire responded by recalling its small fleet stationed in the

8920: 4196:. The similarity in appearance of battleships in the 1890s was underlined by the increasing number of ships being built. New naval powers such as Germany, 932:. However, the emergence of Italy's own ironclad program led to these concerns being rendered irrelevant in the face of the threat the Regia Marina posed. 592:

conquered the island, he had in his possession over 12 steam ships of various types which would later assist in transporting his army across the Strait of

1964:. Despite plans to initially construct the class as wooden vessels, changing technology and the emergence of ironclads in foreign navies such as with the 1363:-class ships were still under construction in Trieste, Ferdinand Max began work in securing the necessary funding to continue Austria's ironclad program. 4302:. As a result, Austro-Hungarian attempts to improve relations with Italy began to be warmly received in Rome, eventually leading to a visit to Vienna by 4246:

engines also made her faster. The existing pre-dreadnoughts were decisively outclassed, and new and more powerful battleships were from then on known as

3934:

Before either of these ships were even launched however, the Chamber of Deputies agreed to the construction of two additional ironclads to accompany the

216:

The creation of the Kingdom of Italy and a unified Italian navy was the result of concerted efforts of Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the

9262: 7975:

Schmidt-Brentano, Antonio (1977). "Österreichs Weg zur Seemacht: Die Marinepolitik Österreichs in der Ära Erzherzog Ferdinand Maximilian (1854-1864)".

1595:

Italian Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano. Persano championed of Italy's ironclad program and would later command Italian forces at the Battle of Lissa.

847:, were ordered by Cavour in the spring of 1860, before Garibaldi had even landed in Sicily. The ships had originally been intended to serve as armored 4282:

foreign policy views since the 1860s had altered considerably, and Italy's attention had since turned away from Tyrol and Trieste and instead towards

3915:

of each ship, as well as their engines, were constructed in the United Kingdom and imported, which raised the cost of the already expensive warships.

2395:

Austria's attention was drawn away from Italy at a time when it appeared the ironclad arms race between the two nations was fading. In late 1863, the

3444: 1498:

Zeltweg works were likewise contracted to deliver armor plates for the ironclads, as were the same French firms which had provided the armor for the

4145:

in either open or armored gunhouses which were supported by one or more secondary batteries of smaller guns. They were also powered by coal-fuelled

2296:-class ironclads would be the last ships of their type to be laid down by Italy before the outbreak of the Seven Weeks War in 1866, however neither 9252: 4172:

to save weight. Some historians see these ships as a vital step towards pre-dreadnoughts; others view them as a confused and unsuccessful design.

3337:. Most of the world's major navies adopted Tegetthoff's ramming tactics and subsequently incorporated ram bows onto warships well into the 1920s. 2889:, damaging the latter's ram bow. The melee further hampered Italian efforts to use their superior numbers against the Austrians when the ironclad 1572: 9179: 9026: 8459: 8315: 5143: 363:

abdicating the throne of Sardinia in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II. The ensuing peace in August 1849 ended the war in an Austrian victory.

7718:

The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships and Battlecruisers: A Technical Directory of All the World's Capital Ships From 1860 to the Present Day

1456:

Construction of Austria's second class of ironclads thus began in October 1861 by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino. Again designed by Romako, the

9302: 9287: 2138: 3993:

class, such as their speed, light armor, and armament of very large 17-inch (430 mm) guns, has led some naval historians to refer to the

852: 697: 9312: 1986:

class. His efforts were successful and most of these ships were converted into ironclads despite being in the middle of construction, though

831:

The Italian ironclad program began before there even was a "Kingdom of Italy". The first two ironclad warships in the Italian Peninsula, the

652: 635:

Even before the unification of Italy, the Imperial Austrian Navy had been undergoing its own expansion ever since the promotion of Archduke

274:

to take several different forms. Liberal sentiments prevailed extensively among the German Austrians, which were further complicated by the

8929: 8373: 4371: 3984:

As the second class in Italy's new warship program designed to give the Regia Marina favorable numbers over the Austro-Hungarian Navy, the

3582:

Tegetthoff followed up on this progress with a new proposal for the 1870 budget, which would establish fixed annual budgets similar to the

1003:

to negotiate with French authorities, the cargo was released and the ships were allowed to leave Marseilles without any further incidents.

631:

Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria served as Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Austrian Navy at the onset of the ironclad arms race.

537:, where Garibaldi shook Victor Emmanuel's hand and hailed him as "King of Italy". The last Bourbon stronghold at Gaeta finally surrendered 7928:

Ordovini, Aldo F.; Petronio, Fulvio; Sullivan, David M. (December 2014). "Capital Ships of the Royal Italian Navy, 1860–1918: Part I: The

3601:

s proposal for a fixed naval budget, and no additional funds were allocated for new ironclads. These budgetary restraints would result in

186:. Despite their alliance, however, Italy and Austria-Hungary would engage in a second naval arms race centered around the construction of 9090: 8368: 4005:

was laid down at Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia in January 1876, while Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando began construction on

949:

both had experience building engines which would be large enough to theoretically power the ironclads Ferdinand Max wished to construct.

795: 4204:, and Italy and Austria-Hungary, began to establish themselves with fleets of pre-dreadnoughts, while the navies of the United Kingdom, 4306:

in October 1881. This was followed up with the signing of the Triple Alliance between Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany in May 1882.

2593:

were not as heavily engaged in the ensuing melee and did not attempt to ram any Italian vessels, apart from a single failed attempt by

389:

of 1858, Napoleon III and Cavour signed a secret treaty of alliance against Austria whereby France would assist Sardinia in return for

271: 8469: 1957: 366:

After the failure of the First Italian War of Independence, Sardinia began the search for potential allies. Sardinian Prime Minister

9267: 9041: 8913: 3798: 3414:

From 1867 onwards, the abbreviations heading the names of official institutions in Austria-Hungary reflected their responsibility:

3227: 2210:

dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Emilio Pallavicini, against Garibaldi's volunteer corps. On 28 August the

169:

would oversee the construction of three additional ironclads and the rebuilding of a fourth. After Tegetthoff's death in 1871, the

2028:, lead ship of her namesake class and named after Archduke Ferdinand Max, who had overseen Austria's ironclad construction program 1394:

in late 1860, and concluded a deal was made for his shipyard to construct two armored frigates, which would eventually become the

8324: 2066:. She was laid down by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste in May 1863 and was followed a month later by her sister ship, 1733:

The battle was the first ever engagement between ironclad warships, and the difference between the first day of the battle when

9257: 8959: 2072:. The construction of these ships meant that despite financial challenges, Austria was poised to have seven ironclads by 1865. 2063: 1924: 1675:

forever changed naval warfare and solidified both Austria's and Italy's decisions to continue with their own ironclad programs.

1140: 920:, would be the first ironclad warships of the Imperial Austrian Navy. Austria had considered constructing ironclads before the 672:

was under construction in Pola after failed bids to construct the ship with British and American shipbuilding firms, while two

343:

After nearly driving Austrian forces out of the Italian peninsula altogether, fortunes turned for the Kingdom of Sardinia. The

249: 1506:

for the warships. These efforts proved to be far easier for Austrian agents based in Geneva than before, due to the growth in

8664: 8113: 8058: 7997: 7918: 7636: 4401: 4123: 867:

had not yet been complete, as the Austrian Empire still possessed several Italian-speaking territories, most notably Venice.

3907:

being constructed at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia, and her sister ship

9282: 9122: 4238:

followed the trend in battleship design to heavier, longer-ranged guns by adopting an "all-big-gun" armament scheme of ten

1917: 1805:. All four ships were designed by French naval architects, but three different shipyards were used to construct them, with 397:

being ceded to France. The Franco-Sardinian forces quickly defeated the Austrians during the spring of 1859 and after the

8906: 8308: 4070: 3363: 3089: 3083: 2415:

of 1852, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the independent Duchies of Schleswig and

1612:

warships. The commission immediately concluded that the Regia Marina needed to be as large as the combined navies of the

1019:

already being made in both countries to develop more ironclad warships, each to counter the naval strength of the other.

992: 150: 2737:

was attempting to pick up the Italian survivors, and so opened fire on her, driving her away from the men in the water.

2557:

were on his left. The Austrian wooden warships of the second and third divisions followed behind in the same formation.

2156:. Due to financial constraints, plans to convert her into an ironclad had to be delayed until after the Seven Weeks War. 1448:

News of the Italian project, which became public in August 1861, sparked panic in Vienna. Just four months earlier, the

9317: 9099: 8745: 8621: 8226: 8094: 8035: 7899: 7857: 7617: 7552: 7514: 4376: 3832: 3804: 3436:), though the navy was commonly referred to either as the "k.u.k. Kriegsmarine" or simply the "Austro-Hungarian Navy". 2572:, he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca's three ships and the rest of the fleet. The battle began with 2502: 2057: 1530: 1224: 303: 4001:, blurring the lines between "ironclads" and the future warships which would come to dominate the early 20th century. 765: 9208: 8800: 8694: 8265: 8207: 8132: 8016: 7880: 7772: 7753: 7725: 7706: 7683: 7664: 7571: 7533: 7472: 4056: 3881:

Chamber of Deputies for the construction of two ships built to his design. These two ships would go on to become the

3860: 3441: 2377: 1943: 1806: 1408: 1207: 1102: 745: 337: 299: 275: 123: 4168:

guns, the Admirals continued the trend of ironclad warships towards gigantic weapons. The guns were mounted in open

2581:

opened fire on Persano's lead ships with her bow guns but did not score any hits. In response, the Italian ironclad

2102: 974:

the Navale Adriatico shipyard, in order to increase private sector interest in Austria's emerging ironclad program.

525:. Sardinian troops then entered the Kingdom of Two Sicilies from the north and joined Garibaldi's forces. After the 9007: 8952: 4386: 4278: 4086: 3872:

existing ironclads of the era, and instead built upon the turret ship design which existed in the Italian ironclad

3198: 2442:

began to lay the foundations for diplomatically isolating Austria and giving Prussia the opportunity to settle the

2262: 2001: 1948:, were much like their predecessors in that they were initially conceived as screw-frigates by the Sardinian Navy. 1476: 1457: 1292: 1274: 355:, the tide of the war turned in Austria's favor. This victory was followed up by Sardinia's decisive defeat at the 95:

These actions captured the attention of the Austrian Empire, which viewed Italy with great suspicion and worry, as

924:

class, but the expensive cost of British shipbuilding offers in December 1858 led to the offers being rejected by

490:, nearly the entire island was under Garibaldi's control by the end of July. On 19 August, his men disembarked in 9277: 9136: 9083: 4396: 3898: 3313: 3150: 1799: 1746:

but soon became standard in warships of all types. Shipbuilders also incorporated rams like the kind employed by

1417:, and it would not be until after his death in June 1861 that the contracts for the ships were signed by General 1402: 1201: 130: 88:, as the Italians believed that a strong navy would play a crucial role in making the recently unified kingdom a 7581:

Clowes, W. Laird (1901). Eberle, E. W. (ed.). "The Naval Campaign of Lissa; Its History, Strategy and Tactics".

3827:

of the ironclad's construction was accepted by the delegations and the new ship was commissioned under the name

3807:. Sterneck ultimately had to resort to the same budgetary tricks employed earlier by Pöck in order to construct 2386:

A map of alliances during the Seven Weeks War. Note Italy in the bottom of the map is shaded as a Prussian ally.

9272: 9163: 9034: 8638: 8633: 8301: 7965: 7491: 4290: 3777: 3680:, in 1875 but he could not convince the delegations to allocate funds for a sister ship he had planned to name 3221: 2941: 2255: 1822: 1613: 1114: 917: 526: 517:

While Garibaldi conquered Southern Italy, the Kingdom of Sardinia invaded the Papal States, conquering most of

503: 367: 8163:

Tamborra, Angelo (October–December 1957). "Balcani, Italia ed Europa nel problema della Venezia (1859–1861)".

4289:

Italy was further distracted from Austria-Hungary and the naval arms race between the two nations when France

3477:, was laid down at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in San Marco in June 1867. As part of the post- 9307: 9129: 8648: 4146: 3125: 2947:

Despite the Austrian victory at Lissa, the Seven Weeks War would ultimately be decided on land. The decisive

2436: 2419:. The annexation of the largely German populations of Schleswig and Holstein gave the German Confederation a 1519: 1395: 63:

in this time period resulted in the amalgamation of the various navies of the former Italian states into the

4156:, ordered in 1880. These ships reflected developments in ironclad design, being protected by iron-and-steel 3655:

in the decade to come, severely undermined future arguments for the expansion of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.

777:

or the Dalmatian Coast resulted in even greater alarm. The Austrian government knew these lands were deemed

514:

river, north of Naples. On 7 September, Garibaldi entered Naples and was hailed as a liberator by the city.

9187: 8709: 8554: 8428: 4391: 3945:

would prove to be among the largest ironclad warships in the world at the time of their commissioning. The

2913: 2577:

ships, forcing him to turn around and make another pass. During this first approach, the Austrian ironclad

1991: 1861: 1812: 1176: 1158: 1108: 1078: 836: 283: 2332:

class, already under construction, were being converted into armored ships, and two more ironclads of the

1486:

political support for the construction of future ironclads by purchasing some of the armor plating from a

1444:-class ironclad, Italy's second class of ironclad warships and the first to be originally designed as such 991:

level of secrecy employed, French officials discovered the operation shortly before the first vessel, the

115:. In response to the growing strength of Sardinia—soon to be Italy—the Imperial Austrian Navy ordered two 9322: 8825: 8584: 8515: 8237: 3759: 3167: 2396: 1633: 935:

The financial, logistical, and political hurdles Ferdinand Max had to overcome in order to construct the

348: 2716:

was approaching, and he could not allow his ship to become a stationary target. Instead, he ordered the

2090:

class. Ferdinand Max ran into even more financial issues when his plans to convert the ship-of-the-line

749:

given to the similar growth of the Sardinian Navy as it inherited the fleets of several Italian states.

647:(Commander-in-Chief of the Navy) in September 1854. At the age of 22, Ferdinand Max became the youngest 282:

within the Empire largely sought to establish their own independent kingdom or republic, which led to a

9292: 9115: 9076: 8616: 8589: 4109: 3482:

additional ironclads, though the talks ultimately failed after France and Italy could not agree on the

2356: 1742:

number of very heavy guns, mounted so that they could fire in all directions was first demonstrated by

1515: 1084: 842: 692: 563: 405:, who transferred it to Sardinia in exchange for Savoy and Nice. During the war, Italian revolutionary 360: 183: 81: 74: 5139: 1817:

both being constructed at the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in

781:(Unredeemed Italy) by revolutionaries such as Garibaldi, due to their historical ties with the former 691:

in active service in the Mediterranean Sea. This would be the largest Austrian fleet since before the

270:. Across the Austrian Empire, nationalist sentiments among Austria's various ethnic groups led to the 48:, steam-propelled vessels protected by iron or steel armor plates and far more powerful than all-wood 9215: 8454: 7823:

The History of Europe from 1862–1914: From the Accession of Bismarck to the Outbreak of the Great War

4239: 4190: 4076: 4063: 3587: 3506:

Tegetthoff was appointed Chief of the Naval Section of the War Ministry and appointed to the post of

3269: 2948: 2869:

and the Austrian ironclads exchanged broadsides for around half an hour before the Austrians engaged

2272: 1367:

proposal outlined a battle fleet of nine armored ironclads, with seven more warships to join the two

1298: 735: 707:

would signal the beginning of the emergence of ironclad warships over the course of the next decade.

476: 229: 3571:

would be constructed with iron, the first major Austro-Hungarian warships to feature such a design.

2944:

place him on political trial in April 1867 and ultimately forced the admiral to retire in disgrace.

2632: 8815: 8481: 8416: 4201: 4153: 3956: 3811:. She was laid down in November 1884 using funds that had been allocated to modernize the ironclad 3471:

guns from the United Kingdom. Furthermore, the first post-war ironclad of the Austro-Hungary Navy,

3252: 3173: 2498: 2328:

class were under construction in French shipyards. Furthermore, three wooden steam frigates of the

1930: 1888: 1853: 1495: 1195: 1170: 859: 598: 352: 7799:

Higham, Robin (February 1961). "William H. Webb: Foreign Warship Construction and the Civil War".

2758:, the largest unarmored Austrian ship in the battle. After the melee had begun, the Italian ships 2585:

attempted to ram her, but narrowly missed the Austrian warship. Meanwhile, the Austrian ironclads

2277:, which was laid down the same month by Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia. The design for 8878: 8868: 8810: 8750: 8596: 8423: 8406: 4212:

expanded to meet these new threats. The decisive clash of pre-dreadnought fleets was between the

3950: 3892: 3322: 3246: 3144: 2957: 2926: 2624: 2429: 2404: 1961: 1828: 1684: 1654: 1120: 941: 903:

were Austria's first ironclad warships and were intended to counter Italy's own ironclad program.

522: 435:, depicting the meeting between Giuseppe Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II on 26 October 1860 356: 154: 134: 2435:

The Peace of Vienna was not to last however. Shortly after concluding the Second Schleswig War,

2222:

succeeded him as Prime Minister. Persano was thus removed as Italy's Minister of the Navy. When

1502:

class. Once more, the same subterfuge was employed to obtain the French-made plates and armored

386: 8993: 8669: 8606: 8389: 8142:

Sullivan, Brian (1988). "A Fleet in Being: The Rise and Fall of Italian Sea Power, 1861-1943".

7583: 4299: 4259: 4228: 4217: 3966: 3550: 3204: 3108: 2515: 2412: 1965: 1621: 1470: 1414: 1268: 722:, necessitated an Austrian naval response to counter the growing strength of the Regia Marina. 636: 622: 559: 267: 263: 252: 237: 175: 166: 142: 9201: 9194: 9014: 8945: 8755: 8611: 8433: 8343: 7938: 4324: 4213: 4205: 3939: 3882: 3675: 3408: 3192: 3041: 2520: 2268: 2166: 2142: 2049: 1882: 1710: 1640:, who had succeeded Cavour as Prime Minister, was forced to resign the office in March 1862. 1464: 1262: 1256: 1164: 878: 538: 321: 170: 116: 3663: 2812:, and killing or wounding a number of Austrian gunners before the warship could break free. 9155: 8971: 8760: 8679: 8674: 8394: 7605: 6968: 2953: 2424: 2400: 2352: 2211: 2113:, and the Arman Brothers shipyard in Bordeaux, which was constructing the Italian ironclad 1737:

easily destroyed two wooden frigates, compared to the draw in her battle with the ironclad

576: 70: 60: 2656:. The latter attempted to withdraw, and was able to use her superior speed to escape from 2048:

guns, though during the construction process the Navy decided to opt for a battery of new

769:

Austrian fleet was instead tasked with transporting King Francis II from Naples to Gaeta.

8: 9143: 8740: 8549: 8503: 8474: 4343: 3638: 3330: 2621:, hitting her 35 times but failing to score any decisive hits or inflict serious damage. 2067: 2020: 1878: 1871: 1703: 1312: 1230: 1132: 1070: 703:

gained international attention following its use during the Crimean War in October 1855.

398: 241: 225: 203: 96: 8276: 8188: 7821: 402: 9107: 8937: 8898: 8873: 8840: 8805: 8684: 8601: 8579: 8559: 8525: 8177: 8047: 7869: 7812: 7695: 7503: 4221: 3912: 3591: 3429: 3392: 3334: 2708: 2668:

along with several other Austrian vessels. One of them disabled the Italian ironclad's

2408: 2219: 1972: 1763:

In Italy, the new Italian government convened on 7 March 1862, just one day before the

1511: 1449: 1000: 959: 696:

half of the 19th century with respect to steam power, when the emergence of the French

483: 419: 406: 325: 260: 162: 8293: 3459:, funds were appropriated to renovate and upgrade Austria-Hungary's oldest ironclads, 3395:

and placed Hungarians within the Empire on an equal footing with Austrians. Under the

2351:

Italy once again had a turnover in Prime Ministers following public backlash over the

2312:

class, the Regia Marina had already acquired the French-built armored frigates of the

651:

in the history of the Imperial Austrian Navy, being a year younger than when Archduke

9000: 8860: 8845: 8721: 8689: 8643: 8282: 8261: 8222: 8203: 8128: 8109: 8090: 8073: 8054: 8031: 8012: 7993: 7961: 7914: 7895: 7876: 7853: 7827: 7787: 7768: 7749: 7721: 7702: 7679: 7660: 7632: 7613: 7592: 7567: 7548: 7529: 7510: 7487: 7468: 7451: 7434: 4339: 3815:. Sterneck attempted to conceal the deception by referring to the ship officially as 3583: 3516: 3384: 3066: 2469: 2439: 2174: 2162: 2091: 1250: 946: 782: 627: 452: 333: 221: 29: 21: 7930:

Formidabile, Principe di Carignano, Re d'Italia, Regina Maria Pia, Affondatore, Roma

4318:

A map of Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1899, with the Adriatic Sea lying between them

4250:

while the ships that had been laid down before were designated as pre-dreadnoughts.

4012:

After his success with designing and obtaining the necessary money to construct the

3763:

A painting by Alexander Kircher depicting the final two Austro-Hungarian ironclads,

877:, which was commissioned in May 1862, the same month that Austria's first ironclad, 8855: 8735: 8530: 8464: 8411: 8353: 8151: 7808: 4448:

A nominal exchange rate of 2.5 lira to 1 Florin is used. See Sondhaus (1989) p. 234

3575:

was laid down by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste in November 1869, while

3283: 3262: 3239: 3160: 3137: 3118: 3076: 2465: 2360: 2336:

class had been ordered from Italian shipyards. This meant the two new ships of the

2288: 1664: 1637: 1507: 1322: 1285: 1188: 1151: 1095: 955: 929: 848: 786: 684: 669: 499: 287: 233: 49: 45: 41: 8155: 2524:

The initial deployment of Tegetthoff's and Persano's fleets at the Battle of Lissa

8835: 8830: 8498: 8358: 8338: 4294: 4197: 3730: 3400: 3292: 3214: 3185: 3101: 3053: 3034: 3015: 2560:

Shortly before the action began, Admiral Persano left his flagship, the ironclad

2443: 2373: 2223: 2207: 2148: 1641: 1617: 1387: 1386:

class with another order for more warships, Cavour met with New York shipbuilder

1331: 1242: 1217: 719: 680: 665: 549: 317: 309: 190:

at the turn of the century. This arms race would continue until the beginning of

158: 37: 4118: 3538:

While Tegetthoff found support for the project from Emperor Franz Joseph I, the

3368: 2304:

would be commissioned into the Regia Marina until nearly a decade after the war.

1849: 1844:

In October 1862, Persano also placed an order with the British shipyard Mare of

1781: 1591: 182:

in 1882 and the introduction of new technologies that led to the development of

8779: 8626: 8508: 8493: 8401: 8363: 4328: 4323:

forward within the Regia Marina, but Italian attentions were redirected to the

4303: 4269: 4227:

The pre-dreadnoughts themselves would later be made obsolete by the arrival of

4209: 4165: 4157: 4133: 4024:

was commissioned into the Regia Marina in October 1885, all three ships of the

3865: 3483: 3468: 2897:, allowing a group of Austrian wooden ships to escape the engagement unharmed. 2494: 1900: 1680: 1418: 567: 440: 432: 382: 371: 217: 7746:

Ironclads at War: The Origin and Development of the Armored Warship, 1854–1891

4950: 3961:. Both ships were designed by Brin, who chose to discard traditional ironclad 2677: 1542:. She and her sister ships were designed as Austria's response to the Italian 613:

on the Adriatic Sea. The stage was thus set for the Italian ironclad program.

583:

to construct two armored warships in Toulon. These two ships would become the

286:. Italians within the Austrian Empire likewise sought to unify with the other 84:. The country quickly began a substantial construction program to bolster the 9246: 9068: 8772: 8767: 8438: 8348: 8077: 7831: 7438: 5974: 5972: 4243: 3998: 3972: 3404: 2106: 1793:

and her sister ships marked the second stage of the Italian ironclad program.

1695: 1426: 950: 815: 800: 688: 676:

and two screw-corvettes were being built in Trieste and Venice respectively.

673: 518: 179: 4877: 4875: 4175: 4085:

class had been completed, the United Kingdom had already begun building the

3965:

entirely, relying instead on a combination of very high speed and extensive

2340:

class would bring the Regia Marina's total number of ironclads to 16 ships.

2032:

The 1862 naval budget presented to Ferdinand Max allowed him to pay for the

1667:

depicting the Battle of Hampton Roads. The battle between the ironclads CSS

8286: 7850:

Battleships in Transition: The Creation of the Steam Battlefleet, 1815-1860

7791: 7596: 7526:

From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1866 – 1914

7455: 4363: 4283: 4180: 4161: 4138: 4093: 3745: 3722: 2840: 2748: 2407:

became King of Denmark and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein. He declared the

2227: 2045: 1688: 1659: 1487: 606: 401:, Austria ceded most of Lombardy and the city of Milan to France under the 374: 344: 329: 65: 53: 5969: 5030: 5028: 3494: 2672:, leaving her incapable of maneuvering. In the ensuing firefight however, 2044:-class ships, and were originally intended to carry thirty-two 48-pounder 1687:

reached both Italy and Austria. On 8 March 1862, the Confederate ironclad

982:-class ships were therefore supplied via Austrian agents operating out of 506:

was thus forced to abandon Naples and entrench himself in the fortress of

9175: 8986: 8887: 8850: 8820: 8784: 8715: 8700: 8544: 4872: 4247: 4097: 3790:, the Director of Naval Construction and Romako's successor to the post. 3739: 3544: 3449: 3060: 2881:

guns. Indeed, the ensuing melee was so chaotic that the Italian ironclad

2649: 2493:

of his fleet and began training exercises with its crew off the coast of

2324:

had also been ordered in the United Kingdom, while the four ships of the

1834: 1724: 1721: 1568: 1376: 912:

class, Archduke Ferdinand Max personally ordered the construction of the

378: 191: 100: 89: 8249:

Sein Schiff Heiss Novara. Bernhard von Wüllerstorf, Admiral und Minister

7198: 6891: 6831: 6662: 5885: 5775: 4277:

League of the Three Emperors in 1878, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister

3846: 2382: 8520: 8486: 5712: 5292: 5025: 4113: 3962: 3877: 3751: 3714: 2808:

fired her light guns into the ship in response, starting a fire aboard

2215: 1605: 987: 971: 963: 804: 616: 279: 187: 4314: 3498:

Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, Austrian commander at the Battle of Lissa and

3467:. Additional funds were set aside to re-arm the entire fleet with new 891: 208: 8979: 8535: 8258:

The Austro-Prussian War: Austria's war with Prussia and Italy in 1866

6597: 4668: 4632: 3651: 3472: 3023: 2931: 5991: 5989: 5987: 5335: 679:

By the spring of 1855, the Imperial Austrian Navy consisted of four

475:. Garibaldi rapidly gained control of the island, declaring himself 129:

While Italy emerged on the winning side of the war and acquired the

7697:

Political Democracy and Ethnic Diversity in Modern European History

6720: 6718: 6716: 5661: 5659: 5437: 4169: 4142: 3888: 3733: 2839:

s deck, badly holing it and starting a fire, while riflemen in her

2804:

also struck a glancing blow, however, and inflicted little damage.

2740: 2490: 2416: 1845: 1838: 1818: 534: 511: 491: 108: 80:

ironclads, ordered from France in 1860, which became Italy's first

7958:

Die Armee in Österreich: Militär, Staat und Gesellschaft 1848–1867

7484:

Die Torpedoschiffe und Zerstörer der k.u.k. Kriegsmarine 1867–1918

7150: 4827: 4656: 4264: 3519:, Tegetthoff had far more ambitious plans. In September 1868, the 2782:, but missed and struck only a glancing blow. Shortly thereafter, 8087:

The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy, 1797-1866

7162: 6055: 6031: 5984: 4608: 3718: 3626: 2320:

class were under construction in the United States. The ironclad

1997: 1503: 916:-class ironclads at the end of 1860. These ships, constructed by 725: 593: 571: 487: 468: 444: 424: 112: 8278:

Ironclads in Action: A Sketch of Naval Warfare from 1855 to 1895

7407: 6713: 6563: 6561: 6387: 6334: 5858: 5656: 5569: 5557: 5545: 5347: 5216: 5214: 5212: 3633:, one of the last ironclad warships of the Austro-Hungarian Navy 1952:

was laid in Genoa by Cantiere della Foce in January 1861, while

1636:. The proposal never got beyond the planning stages however, as 1436: 730: 293: 7465:

Birth of the Battleship: British Capital Ship Design, 1870–1881

7234: 7210: 7186: 6534: 6021: 6019: 5933: 5804: 5802: 2961: 2676:

was hit several times; one shell struck her commander, Captain

2669: 2202: 1350: 983: 774: 753: 715: 610: 495: 472: 256: 245: 104: 7629:

Russian Battleship vs Japanese Battleship: Yellow Sea, 1904-05

5646: 5644: 5158: 4052:

in 1882, and the emergence of the pre-dreadnought battleship.

3928: 3706: 3527: 2501:

on 24 June, Tegetthoff was given permission by Field Marshall

2247: 2130: 858:

ironclad floating battery which had earned recognition at the

810: 332:. With Vienna itself in the middle of an uprising against the 290:

states of the Italian Peninsula to form a "Kingdom of Italy".

126:

in 1866, Austria possessed seven ironclads to Italy's twelve.

8030:(2nd ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 7911:

Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War

7126: 7075: 7034: 6730: 6650: 6558: 6202: 6067: 5787: 5209: 3534:, the first iron-hulled ironclad of the Austro-Hungarian Navy 3357: 3329:

largest fleet engagement to occur in the century between the

2717: 2617:, though the Italians only managed to score indirect hits on 2169:

in October 1863, Archduke Ferdinand Max resigned his post as

2053: 1916:

class, were under construction, the first two vessels of the

1491: 1391: 639:(the future Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico) to the office of 530: 507: 464: 394: 313: 52:. These ships were constructed to establish control over the 8242:(in German). Vienna: Druck und Verlag Ferdinand Berger Horn. 7431:

La marina militare italiana nella vita nazionale (1860–1914)

7395: 6585: 6163: 6043: 6016: 5945: 5921: 5909: 5799: 5763: 5751: 5700: 5617: 5398: 5170: 5057: 4887: 4764: 4752: 4716: 4704: 4596: 4040: 3823:

was still anchored in Pola as a school ship. Eventually the

3375:, the first Austro-Hungarian ironclad constructed after the 1730:, and the two ironclads fought one another to a standstill. 220:

to establish a united kingdom encompassing the whole of the

7610:

To Crown the Waves: The Great Navies of the First World War

7092: 7090: 7009: 7007: 6946: 6944: 6942: 6903: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6510: 6488: 6486: 6423: 6192: 6190: 6175: 6006: 6004: 5875: 5873: 5848: 5846: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5641: 5533: 5497: 5461: 5449: 5410: 5359: 5304: 5142:. Bulletin des lois de la Republique Française. July 1814. 5120: 5093: 5081: 5013: 4899: 4860: 4557: 3379:

and named after the Austrian victory at the Battle of Lissa

3354:

class. Italy did not lay down another ironclad until 1873.

2197: 661: 581:

Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée

390: 7676:

Steam, Steel & Shellfire: The Steam Warship, 1815-1905

7650:(in Italian). Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare. 7349: 7347: 7345: 7318: 7306: 7258: 7222: 7138: 7102: 7063: 7053: 7051: 7049: 6980: 6956: 6915: 6754: 6703: 6701: 6522: 6447: 6435: 6346: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6274: 6238: 6214: 5729: 5727: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5427: 5425: 5376: 5374: 5325: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5270: 5268: 5243: 5241: 5199: 5197: 5110: 5108: 5047: 5045: 5043: 5003: 5001: 4928: 4926: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4844: 4842: 4817: 4815: 4574: 4572: 3502:

of the Austro-Hungarian Navy following the Seven Weeks War

3319:

Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Our Lady of Guadalupe

2450: 2173:

in early 1864 before sailing to Mexico aboard the frigate

2075: 413: 266:

was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his nephew,

7591:(97). Annapolis: United States Naval Institute: 311–370. 7371: 7330: 6365: 6363: 6361: 6139: 5581: 4533: 4055:

Italy would construct two more classes of ironclads, the

3803:, was authorized shortly thereafter by Pöck's successor, 883:, would be commissioned into the Imperial Austrian Navy. 8928: 7927: 7282: 7174: 7087: 7004: 6939: 6814: 6778: 6686: 6674: 6621: 6573: 6546: 6483: 6187: 6127: 6115: 6001: 5957: 5897: 5870: 5843: 5814: 5781: 5718: 5485: 5034: 4974: 4800: 4788: 4776: 4740: 4728: 4692: 4680: 4644: 4620: 467:

on 5 May. On 11 May, Garibaldi and his forces landed at

8323: 8260:(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8239:

Die obersten Behörden der k.u.k. Kriegsmarine 1856-1918

7505:

The Habsburg Monarchy Among the Great Powers, 1815-1918

7342: 7270: 7114: 7046: 7024: 7022: 6992: 6927: 6879: 6867: 6855: 6843: 6802: 6766: 6698: 6471: 6103: 6091: 5739: 5724: 5683: 5629: 5521: 5509: 5473: 5422: 5371: 5316: 5265: 5253: 5238: 5226: 5194: 5182: 5105: 5040: 4998: 4986: 4962: 4923: 4911: 4839: 4812: 4569: 4545: 4509: 4382:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

4047:, one of the last ironclad warships of the Regia Marina 3455:

Nevertheless, in the first budget passed following the

3304:

Note that the dates refer to when ships were laid down.

2854:

s turrets, jamming it for the remainder of the battle.

2774:, trading broadsides with her. Persano also arrived in 2754:

Several Italian ironclads attempted to capture or sink

1481:

were all intended to be improvements over the previous

1343:

Note that the dates refer to when ships were laid down.

785:. To make matters worse, Garibaldi had several hundred 197: 7786:(in German). Linz: Oberösterreichischer Landesverlag. 7603: 7359: 7294: 6790: 6668: 6638: 6609: 6498: 6459: 6411: 6399: 6375: 6358: 6322: 6262: 6250: 6226: 5831: 5605: 5069: 4938: 4584: 3616: 2935:

Europe following the conclusion of the Seven Weeks War

2790:

in an attempt to protect the Austrian unarmored ships

2605:, opened fire at long range on the Austrian ironclads 886: 479:

in the name of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy on 14 May.

377:

supportive of an alliance with Sardinia following the

56:

in the event of a conflict between the two countries.

7246: 6151: 5671: 5593: 5386: 5280: 4473: 4444: 4442: 2824:

did score a hit with one of her guns, badly damaging

1833:

were constructed at the Gouin et Guibert shipyard in

7960:(in German). Boppard am Rhein: Haraod Boldt Verlag. 7781: 7383: 7019: 6897: 6837: 6742: 5891: 5298: 4956: 4485: 4353: 2967: 2733:. The other Italian ships, however, did not realize 2308:

By the time discussions were underway regarding the

2103:

Greece's constitutional crisis between 1862 and 1863

1421:, who succeeded Cavour as head of the Regia Marina. 851:, and their designs were thus based on the France's 617:

Development of the Imperial Austrian Navy: 1854–1860

544: 7509:(1st ed.). New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic. 6079: 4497: 2960:, signed on 12 October, Italy gained possession of 2745:

Admiral Tegethoff at the 1866 Naval Battle of Lissa

1425:was the first ship of the class to be laid down in 494:in anticipation of an offensive aimed at capturing 381:, in which France and Sardinia were allies against 8046: 7868: 7801:Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers 7744:Greene, Jack & Massignani, Alessandro (1998). 7694: 7502: 6977:, pp. 10, 21–23, 26, 37–39, 51–52, 57–58, 78. 4521: 4461: 4439: 3903:. Both ships were laid down in January 1873, with 3637:While Tegetthoff spent most of 1870 observing the 2843:shot at Italian sailors. In addition, a shot from 2411:an integral part of Denmark in a violation of the 899:, lead ship of her class. She and her sister ship 103:were directed at key Austrian territories such as 7782:Handel-Mazzetti, Peter; Sokol, Hans Hugo (1952). 7657:Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905 7566:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis. 3642:acquisition of the British-made armor plating of 2857:While the melee continued, the Austrian ironclad 2725:to remain behind and pick up the survivors while 2399:once again captured the attention of most of the 1494:owned by Reichsrat member Johann von Putzer. The 44:began in the 1860s when both ordered a series of 9244: 8072:. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute. 7974: 7955: 7784:Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, ein grosser Österreicher 7743: 7584:Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute 6724: 6393: 6340: 5864: 5443: 4419: 4179:The pre-dreadnought Austro-Hungarian battleship 3489: 2956:on 12 August. Under the terms of the subsequent 2816:then made a second, unsuccessful attempt to ram 8108:. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. 8089:. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. 7977:Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs 7767:. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 7673: 7240: 7216: 7204: 7192: 4429: 4100:—contributed to the ships' rapid obsolescence. 4032:, had either been broken up or decommissioned. 3650:, Tegetthoff's health failed rapidly. Catching 3407:with powers to enact laws for the lands of the 3391:), which re-established the sovereignty of the 3325:that could be bestowed by the Mexican Emperor. 2893:became entangled with the coastal defense ship 2086:having to scrap the third planned ship for the 1525: 9298:Ironclad warships of the Austro-Hungarian Navy 9098: 8106:The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867-1918 7692: 6736: 4253: 4103: 3797:A second ironclad and Austria-Hungary's last, 3786:. The design for the new ship was prepared by 3674:Pöck finally won approval for a new ironclad, 3605:being built to a slightly smaller design than 3340: 1912:At the same time Italy's first ironclads, the 1751:in the abandonment of wooden vessels forever. 1694:attacked the Union blockade fleet anchored in 1648: 1586: 1514:. Indeed, the Austrians merely had to pose as 1022: 726:Onset of the Austro-Italian ironclad arms race 212:The unification of Italy between 1829 and 1870 165:. In the years following the Battle of Lissa, 9084: 8914: 8309: 8049:Victor Emmanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento 7942:. Vol. 51, no. 4. pp. 323–360. 7645: 6061: 6037: 5995: 5978: 5793: 5665: 5575: 5563: 5551: 5404: 5164: 4881: 4833: 4164:. Equipped with 12–16-inch (305–406 mm) 3613:had been converted into a casemate ironclad. 3399:, Emperor Franz Joseph I would be crowned as 2964:, but nothing else from the Austrian Empire. 2226:became Prime Minister in March 1863, General 1776: 803:", a throne which had been left vacant since 731:Austrian reaction to the unification of Italy 312:sparked anti-Habsburg riots in the cities of 294:First and Second Wars of Italian Independence 8200:Blue & Gray Navies: the Civil War Afloat 8070:The Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Navy 7648:La Politica Navale Italiana Dal 1885 Al 1915 4372:List of ironclad warships of Austria-Hungary 3422: 3415: 2820:. Though she missed with her ram once more, 1351:Austrian and Italian ironclad orders in 1861 451:(the Thousand), or, as popularly known, the 308:Within the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, the 242:revolutionary fervor broke out across Europe 8006: 7701:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 7646:Gabriele, Mariano; Fritz, Giuliano (1982). 7450:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 5220: 2904:was burning badly from her engagement with 811:The Regia Marina orders its first ironclads 224:. This process began in earnest during the 9091: 9077: 8921: 8907: 8316: 8302: 7892:The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 7693:Gerrits, André; Wolfram, Dirk Jan (2005). 7674:Gardiner, Robert; Lambert, Andrew (2001). 7528:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 3666:. While he commanded the ship-of-the-line 3358:Establishment of the Austro-Hungarian Navy 2828:, killing or wounding twenty of her crew. 2179:to become Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. 1982:class, and worked to do the same with the 1413:. Cavour's agreement with Webb was made a 601:for incorporation into the Sardinia Navy. 359:in March 1849, which was followed by King 9263:1882 disestablishments in Austria-Hungary 8186: 8175: 7889: 7433:(in Italian). Milan: Ugo Mursia Editore. 7428: 7377: 7336: 7132: 7081: 7040: 6567: 4992: 4806: 4794: 4782: 4770: 4758: 4746: 4734: 4722: 4710: 4698: 4686: 4674: 4662: 4650: 4638: 4626: 4614: 4602: 4563: 4551: 4539: 3697:Austro-Hungarian Naval Budgets: 1867–1884 2971: 1958:Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia 1026: 8246: 8202:. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. 8162: 8141: 8122: 8103: 8084: 7875:. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. 7852:. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. 7765:Austro-Hungarian Warships of World War I 7737:Il Risorgimento nelle sue fasi di guerra 7654: 7612:. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. 7448:The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship 7413: 7401: 7353: 7288: 7276: 7168: 7156: 7144: 7096: 7069: 7057: 7013: 6998: 6986: 6974: 6962: 6950: 6933: 6921: 6909: 6885: 6873: 6861: 6849: 6825: 6808: 6796: 6784: 6760: 6707: 6692: 6680: 6656: 6644: 6632: 6603: 6591: 6579: 6552: 6492: 6477: 6268: 6208: 6196: 6169: 6133: 6121: 6073: 6049: 6025: 6010: 5963: 5951: 5927: 5915: 5903: 5879: 5852: 5825: 5808: 5769: 5757: 5745: 5733: 5706: 5694: 5650: 5635: 5623: 5539: 5527: 5515: 5503: 5479: 5467: 5455: 5431: 5416: 5380: 5365: 5353: 5341: 5329: 5310: 5274: 5259: 5247: 5232: 5203: 5188: 5176: 5126: 5114: 5099: 5087: 5075: 5063: 5051: 5019: 5007: 4968: 4932: 4917: 4905: 4893: 4866: 4854: 4821: 4578: 4313: 4263: 4174: 4117: 4039: 3971: 3845: 3758: 3658:Tegetthoff's successor to the office of 3625: 3526: 3493: 3367: 2976:Ironclad warship construction, 1867–1885 2930: 2739: 2648:with concentrated broadsides, including 2623: 2519: 2381: 2287: 2147: 2019: 2004:. As with their older counterparts, the 1899: 1780: 1658: 1590: 1529: 1435: 1031:Ironclad warship construction, 1860–1865 890: 814: 734: 626: 548: 423: 276:simultaneous events in the German states 255:resigned his post and left in exile for 207: 20: 9253:1860s establishments in Austria-Hungary 8281:. London: S. Low, Marston and Company. 7987: 7866: 7847: 7838: 7715: 7626: 7252: 7120: 7108: 6181: 6145: 6097: 5611: 4980: 4944: 4291:established a protectorate over Tunisia 4122:The pre-dreadnought Italian battleship 4035: 3911:at the Arsenale di La Spezia. The four 3854:, shortly before her completion in 1880 3434:kaiserliche und königliche Kriegsmarine 2451:Naval warfare between Austria and Italy 2076:Financial impact on the early arms race 1355:With the commissioning of the Austrian 940:shipyard, but the falling value of the 510:, while a last stand was set up on the 414:Garibaldi's campaigns in Southern Italy 9245: 8274: 8235: 8219:Austro-Hungarian Naval Policy: 1904–14 8197: 8193:. New York, NY: Logmans, Green and Co. 8182:. New York, NY: Logmans, Green and Co. 8009:Directory of the World's Capital Ships 7908: 7798: 7762: 7734: 7580: 7523: 7500: 7481: 7462: 7445: 7365: 7324: 7312: 7300: 7264: 7228: 7180: 6615: 6540: 6528: 6516: 6504: 6465: 6453: 6441: 6429: 6417: 6405: 6381: 6369: 6352: 6328: 6316: 6304: 6292: 6280: 6256: 6244: 6232: 6220: 5939: 5837: 5782:Ordovini, Petronio & Sullivan 2014 5719:Ordovini, Petronio & Sullivan 2014 5677: 5599: 5587: 5491: 5392: 5286: 5035:Ordovini, Petronio & Sullivan 2014 4491: 3588:German Secretary of State for the Navy 2680:, in the head, killing him instantly. 2652:, which started a serious fire aboard 2509: 2367: 9303:Ironclad warships of the Regia Marina 9288:Military history of the Mediterranean 9072: 8902: 8297: 8255: 8067: 8044: 8025: 7946: 7561: 7547:(in Italian). Torino: UTET libreria. 6772: 6748: 6157: 6109: 5146:from the original on 22 December 2011 4590: 4527: 4515: 4503: 4479: 4467: 3302: 3277: 2564:, and transferred to the turret ship 2545:were on the right, and the ironclads 1923:were ordered. These ships, initially 1837:, and the Arman Brothers shipyard in 1429:in November 1861 and her sister ship 1341: 1306: 9313:Foreign relations of Austria-Hungary 9043:Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 8930:Ironclad warships of Austria-Hungary 8216: 7819: 7542: 7389: 7028: 6085: 3868:worked to rebuild the Regia Marina. 3829:Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 3809:Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 3800:Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 3769:Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 3229:Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 2660:. Left without her original target, 2271:in August 1865. She was followed by 1867:supported, for this single warship. 1852:. Designed by Italian naval officer 1679:In April 1862, news from across the 1522:agents in order to avoid detection. 807:'s abdication of the title in 1814. 198:Background: The unification of Italy 178:between Italy, Austria-Hungary, and 8325:International relations (1814–1919) 8251:(in German). Vienna: Verlag Herold. 8127:(1st ed.). London: Routledge. 8053:. London: Oxford University Press. 7992:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 7843:(in Italian). Milan: Il Saggiatore. 7748:. Conshohocken, PA: Da Capo Press. 7545:Storia delle forze armate in Italia 4293:in May 1881. Italy had coveted the 3617:Developments of the 1870s and 1880s 3364:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 2316:class, and two more vessels of the 2281:was prepared by Inspector Engineer 2015: 1510:which followed the outbreak of the 887:The Imperial Austrian Navy responds 316:and Venice. Austrian field marshal 26:The Battle of Lissa on 20 July 1866 13: 8011:. New York, NY: Hippocrene Books. 7956:Schmidt-Brentano, Antonio (1975). 7813:10.1111/j.1559-3584.1961.tb02434.x 4377:List of ironclad warships of Italy 3805:Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck 3621: 2873:. The latter scored three hits on 2832:responded by firing her guns into 2693:struck the Italian ship directly. 2355:of 1864. Minghetti was ousted and 760:(Captain) Wilhelm von Tegetthoff. 739:Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria 643:(Rear Admiral) and to the post of 579:, Cavour placed an order with the 304:Second Italian War of Independence 14: 9334: 8190:Garibaldi and the Making of Italy 8165:Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento 8028:Modern Italy: A Political History 7913:(2nd ed.). London: Pimlico. 7871:A history of the Confederate Navy 7720:. London: Salamander Books, Ltd. 7659:. London: Conway Maritime Press. 7486:(in German). Graz: H. Weishaupt. 4402:Argentine–Chilean naval arms race 4268:The Triple Alliance in 1913. The 3949:class consisted of the ironclads 3403:, while a separate parliament at 2968:Post-war effects on the arms race 2642:engaged the coastal defense ship 2638:Meanwhile, the Austrian ironclad 2378:Third Italian War of Independence 2121:Austrian Naval Budgets: 1861–1865 1908:, lead ship of her namesake class 1771: 918:a Trieste-based shipbuilding firm 746:United Provinces of Central Italy 545:Establishment of the Regia Marina 338:First Italian War of Independence 300:First Italian War of Independence 8275:Wilson, Herbert Wrigley (1896). 8144:The International History Review 7949:Storia militare del Risorgimento 7841:La compagna navale di Lissa 1866 7631:(1st ed.). Oxford: Osprey. 6898:Handel-Mazzetti & Sokol 1952 6838:Handel-Mazzetti & Sokol 1952 6669:Dickson, O'Hara & Worth 2013 5892:Handel-Mazzetti & Sokol 1952 5299:Handel-Mazzetti & Sokol 1952 4957:Handel-Mazzetti & Sokol 1952 4356: 4279:Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle 3919:Italian Naval Budgets: 1874–1880 3442:Austro-Hungarian Minister of War 3291: 3282: 3261: 3238: 3213: 3184: 3159: 3136: 3117: 3100: 3075: 3052: 3033: 3014: 2908:and from 15 broadsides fired by 2865:to come to her aid. Thereafter, 2778:and unsuccessfully tried to ram 2423:to use against Denmark, and the 2238:Italian Naval Budgets: 1861–1865 2062:would serve as the lead ship of 2002:Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando 1330: 1321: 1317:Kingdom of Sardinia (1860–1861) 1311: 1284: 1241: 1216: 1187: 1150: 1131: 1094: 1069: 9268:1882 disestablishments in Italy 7678:. Edison, NJ: Chartwell Books. 5132: 4397:South American dreadnought race 4028:class, as well as the ironclad 3913:17.7 in (450 mm) guns 3794:was laid down in January 1884. 3314:Military Order of Maria Theresa 2261:. The first ship of the class, 2230:was chosen to replace Persano. 1789:in Naples. The construction of 766:Bernhard von Wüllerstorf-Urbair 637:Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria 141:was decisively defeated at the 7951:(in Italian). Torino: Einaudi. 7894:. New York, NY: Random House. 7739:(in Italian). Milan: Vallardi. 7655:Gardiner, Robert, ed. (1979). 5140:"Napoleon's act of abdication" 4309: 4147:triple-expansion steam engines 3782:to replace the aging ironclad 2942:Senate of the Kingdom of Italy 2912:, and was soon destroyed by a 2885:collided with her sister ship 2152:The Austrian ship-of-the-line 504:Francis II of the Two Sicilies 471:, on the westernmost point of 368:Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour 232:in February 1848 toppled King 36:A naval arms race between the 1: 9258:1860s establishments in Italy 8695:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 8649:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 8639:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 8156:10.1080/07075332.1988.9640470 7422: 3662:was his old political rival, 3490:The Tegetthoff Era: 1868–1871 2533:at the center. The ironclads 2437:Minister President of Prussia 2390: 1327:Kingdom of Italy (1861–1866) 698:iron-plated floating battery 124:war broke out between the two 8555:Second Industrial Revolution 8429:League of the Three Emperors 8247:Wallisch, Freidrich (1966). 7890:MacMillan, Margaret (2014). 6725:Greene & Massignani 1998 6606:, pp. 269–271, 340–342. 6394:Greene & Massignani 1998 6341:Greene & Massignani 1998 5981:, pp. 165–166, 193–236. 5344:, pp. 211–212, 219–220. 4884:, pp. 117–118, 123–124. 4677:, pp. 127–130, 336–337. 4641:, pp. 227–229, 233–234. 4455: 4412: 4392:Anglo-German naval arms race 4009:in November that same year. 3836:-class coastal defense ships 3689:"rebuild" the three elderly 2974:Italian and Austro-Hungarian 2920: 2700:s ram tore a gaping hole in 1526:The Austrian ironclad debate 61:unification of much of Italy 16:19th Century naval arms race 7: 9283:History of the Adriatic Sea 8585:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 8123:Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). 8104:Sondhaus, Lawrence (1994). 8085:Sondhaus, Lawrence (1989). 7826:. New York, NY: MacMillan. 7241:Gardiner & Lambert 2001 7217:Gardiner & Lambert 2001 7205:Gardiner & Lambert 2001 7193:Gardiner & Lambert 2001 4387:World War I naval arms race 4349: 4254:The Triple Alliance of 1882 4104:Emergence of the battleship 3559:. Unlike the wooden-hulled 3341:Decline of the Regia Marina 2397:Schleswig-Holstein Question 1881:in Genoa. These two ships, 1877:ironclads were placed with 1649:The Battle of Hampton Roads 1587:The Italian ironclad debate 1023:Escalation of the arms race 668:. By 1855, a screw-powered 349:Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 184:pre-dreadnought battleships 131:Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia 10: 9339: 9100:Ironclad warships of Italy 9036:Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 8634:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 8187:Trevelyan, George (1911). 8179:Garibaldi and the Thousand 8176:Trevelyan, George (1909). 8007:Silverstone, Paul (1984). 7988:Sheehan, James J. (1989). 7867:Luraghi, Raimondo (1996). 7429:Baratelli, Franco (1983). 6737:Gerrits & Wolfram 2005 4959:, pp. 14–15, 217–219. 4257: 4110:Pre-dreadnought battleship 4107: 3841: 3792:Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 3779:Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 3765:Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 3361: 3223:Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 2924: 2513: 2371: 2357:Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora 2080: 1777:Italian ironclad expansion 1720:engaged the Union armored 1702:sank the sailing frigates 1652: 693:War of Austrian Succession 620: 417: 361:Charles Albert of Sardinia 297: 201: 9318:Franz Joseph I of Austria 9226: 9174: 9156:Central battery ironclads 9154: 9106: 9052: 9025: 8972:Central battery ironclads 8970: 8936: 8793: 8657: 8570: 8455:European balance of power 8447: 8382: 8331: 7990:German History: 1770–1866 7735:Giglio, Vittorio (1948). 7608:; Worth, Richard (2013). 7482:Bilzer, Franz F. (1990). 7159:, pp. 51, 66–69, 95. 6062:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 6038:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5996:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5979:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5794:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5666:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5576:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5564:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5552:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5405:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 5165:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 4882:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 4834:Gabriele & Fritz 1982 4665:, pp. 257, 264, 326. 3002: 2995: 2988: 2981: 2506:Italian fleet to battle. 2185:Oberkommandant der Marine 2171:Oberkommandant der Marine 1848:, London, for an armored 1757:Oberkommandant der Marine 1755:budget, but directed the 1698:. In the ensuing battle, 1557:Oberkommandant der Marine 1552:Oberkommandant der Marine 1057: 1050: 1043: 1036: 712:Oberkommandant der Marine 645:Oberkommandant der Marine 320:was unable to defeat the 157:in 1867 after losing the 8746:Venezuela Naval Blockade 8417:Anglo-Russian Convention 8256:Wawro, Geoffrey (1996). 8198:Tucker, Spencer (2006). 7848:Lambert, Andrew (1984). 7839:Iachino, Angelo (1966). 7820:Holt, Alexander (1917). 7627:Forczyk, Robert (2009). 7564:The Italian Risorgimento 7207:, pp. 117–125, 163. 7171:, pp. 107–108, 111. 6543:, pp. 238–241, 250. 5942:, pp. 49–51, 54–55. 5356:, pp. 268, 337–340. 4617:, pp. 199, 218–219. 4407: 3563:, however, the hulls of 3469:RML 7-inch (178 mm) 3424:kaiserlich und königlich 2190: 1860:, the Italians intended 1854:Simone Antonio Saint-Bon 1496:Henckel von Donnersmarck 966:shortly before the war. 599:Carlo Pellion di Persano 8961:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 8751:Alaska boundary dispute 8424:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 8407:Franco-Russian Alliance 8236:Wagner, Walter (1961). 8217:Vego, Milan N. (1996). 8125:Naval Warfare 1815-1914 8068:Sokol, Anthony (1968). 7909:Massie, Robert (2004). 7524:Bridge, F. R. (2002) . 7416:, pp. 68, 156–157. 4069:. However, by the time 3923:(in millions of Florin) 3813:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 3721:. He ordered the first 3701:(in millions of Florin) 3579:followed in June 1870. 2927:Treaty of Vienna (1866) 2727:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 2695:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 2691:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 2531:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 2405:Christian IX of Denmark 2267:, was laid down at the 2242:(in millions of Florin) 2125:(in millions of Florin) 2088:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 2059:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 2026:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 1996:. She was laid down in 1962:Castellammare di Stabia 1685:Battle of Hampton Roads 1655:Battle of Hampton Roads 1226:Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 1001:diplomatic backchannels 527:Battle of the Volturnus 523:Battle of Castelfidardo 155:Austro-Hungarian Empire 133:under the terms of the 73:component included two 9278:Naval history of Italy 8670:Unification of Germany 8617:Taft–Katsura agreement 7716:Gibbons, Tony (1983). 7562:Clark, Martin (2013). 7446:Baxter, James (1933). 4319: 4300:French colonial empire 4273: 4260:Triple Alliance (1882) 4218:Imperial Japanese Navy 4185: 4141:of very heavy guns in 4128: 4048: 3997:class as prototypical 3981: 3969:to protect the ships. 3855: 3772: 3634: 3535: 3517:ironclad casemate ship 3503: 3423: 3416: 3411:would be established. 3380: 2936: 2751: 2678:Moll Heinrich von Moll 2635: 2633:Carl Frederik Sørensen 2525: 2516:Battle of Lissa (1866) 2468:as Prime Minister and 2387: 2305: 2157: 2109:, the designer of USS 2029: 2024:The Austrian ironclad 1909: 1794: 1676: 1622:House of Bourbon-Anjou 1596: 1547: 1445: 1433:followed in December. 997:Grossfürstin Katharina 986:. After being sent to 904: 895:The Austrian ironclad 828: 740: 632: 623:Maximilian I of Mexico 554: 439:In 1860, uprisings in 436: 429:The Handshake of Teano 272:revolutions in Austria 253:Klemens von Metternich 238:Second French Republic 213: 167:Wilhelm von Tegetthoff 33: 9273:Austro-Hungarian Navy 9124:Principe di Carignano 8756:First Moroccan Crisis 8470:Spread of nationalism 8434:Eight-Nation Alliance 8221:. London: Routledge. 8026:Smith, Denis (1997). 7947:Pieri, Piero (1962). 7939:Warship International 7763:Greger, René (1976). 7501:Bridge, F.R. (1990). 7463:Beeler, John (2003). 5865:Schmidt-Brentano 1977 5444:Schmidt-Brentano 1975 4836:, pp. 12–15, 89. 4325:Western Mediterranean 4317: 4267: 4214:Imperial Russian Navy 4178: 4121: 4043: 4026:Principe di Carignano 3976:The Italian ironclad 3975: 3850:The Italian ironclad 3849: 3762: 3629: 3530: 3497: 3409:Holy Crown of Hungary 3371: 2934: 2768:Principe di Carignano 2743: 2627: 2599:Principe di Carignano 2574:Principe di Carignano 2523: 2385: 2330:Principe di Carignano 2291: 2269:Arsenale di La Spezia 2167:Second Mexican Empire 2151: 2143:Intracoastal Waterway 2023: 2006:Principe di Carignano 1984:Principe di Carignano 1966:French ironclad 1956:was laid down by the 1950:Principe di Carignano 1926:Principe di Carignano 1919:Principe di Carignano 1906:Principe di Carignano 1904:The Italian ironclad 1903: 1785:The Italian ironclad 1784: 1662: 1594: 1533: 1439: 1142:Principe di Carignano 894: 818: 756:under the command of 738: 630: 552: 455:– in two ships named 427: 284:revolution in Hungary 228:. After a successful 211: 171:Austro-Hungarian Navy 24: 9308:Geopolitical rivalry 9233:Single ship of class 9059:Single ship of class 8761:Algeciras Conference 8741:Annexation of Hawaii 8680:Great Eastern Crisis 8675:Unification of Italy 8665:Formation of Romania 8482:French–German enmity 8045:Smith, Mack (1971). 7543:Ceva, Lucio (1999). 6659:, pp. 258, 264. 6519:, pp. 236, 240. 6432:, pp. 243, 245. 6211:, pp. 266, 268. 6076:, pp. 228, 237. 5709:, pp. 335, 339. 5626:, pp. 218, 220. 5179:, pp. 201, 209. 5066:, pp. 200, 206. 4896:, pp. 206, 219. 4036:End of the arms race 3967:internal subdivision 3819:, though the actual 2954:Armistice of Cormons 2949:Battle of Königgrätz 2786:rammed the ironclad 2425:Second Schleswig War 2401:German Confederation 2353:September Convention 2300:nor her sister ship 1029:Italian and Austrian 653:Friedrich of Austria 577:Royal Sardinian Navy 387:Plombières Agreement 310:revolution in Vienna 236:and established the 230:revolution in France 9108:Broadside ironclads 8938:Broadside ironclads 8826:Philippine–American 8811:First Sino-Japanese 8644:Racconigi agreement 8590:Treaty of Frankfurt 8550:Great Rapprochement 8504:Scramble for Africa 7604:Dickson, W. David; 7404:, pp. 156–157. 7327:, pp. 387–388. 7315:, pp. 131–132. 7267:, pp. 474–475. 7231:, pp. 167–168. 7135:, pp. 179–180. 7084:, pp. 176–177. 7043:, pp. 237–238. 6900:, pp. 349–354. 6840:, pp. 317–318. 6594:, pp. 257–258. 6570:, pp. 129–131. 6531:, pp. 242–243. 6456:, pp. 238–240. 6444:, pp. 236–238. 6355:, pp. 232–235. 6319:, pp. 230–231. 6307:, pp. 223–225. 6295:, pp. 229–230. 6283:, pp. 221–224. 6247:, pp. 216–218. 6223:, pp. 226–227. 6184:, pp. 201–208. 6172:, pp. 250–251. 6064:, pp. 241–258. 6052:, pp. 221–222. 6040:, pp. 165–166. 6028:, pp. 337–340. 5998:, pp. 268–269. 5954:, pp. 245–246. 5930:, pp. 226–227. 5918:, pp. 224–225. 5894:, pp. 153–162. 5811:, pp. 222–223. 5772:, pp. 335–338. 5760:, pp. 209–210. 5668:, pp. 154–163. 5653:, pp. 218–219. 5590:, pp. 291–310. 5578:, pp. 139–140. 5566:, pp. 134–139. 5554:, pp. 127–130. 5542:, pp. 216–217. 5506:, pp. 214–215. 5470:, pp. 213–214. 5458:, pp. 267–268. 5446:, pp. 135–136. 5419:, pp. 212–213. 5368:, pp. 211–212. 5313:, pp. 210–211. 5301:, pp. 116–117. 5129:, pp. 204–205. 5102:, pp. 813–814. 5090:, pp. 202–203. 5022:, pp. 185–186. 4908:, pp. 180–181. 4869:, pp. 205–206. 4773:, pp. 258–261. 4761:, pp. 219–224. 4725:, pp. 276–277. 4713:, pp. 94, 176. 4605:, pp. 153–154. 4566:, pp. 108–110. 4518:, pp. 246–247. 4344:Rudolf Montecuccoli 3717:and self-propelled 3639:Franco-Prussian War 3331:Battle of Trafalgar 2978: 2793:Erzherzog Friedrich 2629:Sea Battle at Lissa 2510:The Battle of Lissa 2368:The Seven Weeks War 2050:breech-loading guns 1879:Cantiere della Foce 1634:Chamber of Deputies 1033: 790:Empire altogether. 482:After victories at 399:Battle of Solferino 250:Austrian Chancellor 226:Revolutions of 1848 204:Italian unification 149:Meanwhile, Austria 82:broadside ironclads 9323:Victor Emmanuel II 9210:Ruggiero di Lauria 9180:Barbette ironclads 9027:Barbette ironclads 8995:Erzherzog Albrecht 8685:Congress of Berlin 8602:Reinsurance Treaty 8580:Congress of Vienna 8560:Industrial warfare 8526:Scramble for China 7467:. London: Caxton. 7111:, pp. 06–107. 6912:, pp. 27, 35. 5494:, pp. 29, 32. 5223:, pp. 26, 31. 4320: 4274: 4272:is shaded in grey. 4222:Battle of Tsushima 4186: 4129: 4125:Emanuele Filiberto 4090:-class battleships 4072:Ruggiero di Lauria 4058:Ruggiero di Lauria 4049: 3982: 3856: 3776:authorization for 3773: 3664:Friedrich von Pöck 3648:Erzherzog Albrecht 3635: 3603:Erzherzog Albrecht 3592:Alfred von Tirpitz 3577:Erzherzog Albrecht 3569:Erzherzog Albrecht 3552:Erzherzog Albrecht 3536: 3504: 3430:Imperial and Royal 3393:Kingdom of Hungary 3381: 3335:Battle of Tsushima 3200:Don Juan d'Austria 3110:Erzherzog Albrecht 3091:Francesco Morosini 3085:Ruggiero di Lauria 2972: 2937: 2875:Don Juan d'Austria 2859:Don Juan d'Austria 2798:Kaiserin Elizabeth 2752: 2735:Kaiserin Elizabeth 2722:Kaiserin Elizabeth 2664:turned to fire at 2636: 2535:Don Juan d'Austria 2526: 2409:Duchy of Schleswig 2388: 2306: 2220:Luigi Carlo Farini 2158: 2064:her namesake class 2030: 1910: 1795: 1677: 1597: 1548: 1540:Don Juan d'Austria 1512:American Civil War 1478:Don Juan d'Austria 1450:Austrian Reichsrat 1446: 1276:Don Juan d'Austria 1027: 960:naval architecture 905: 849:floating batteries 829: 741: 633: 555: 539:after a long siege 477:dictator of Sicily 437: 420:Giuseppe Garibaldi 407:Giuseppe Garibaldi 214: 99:claims by Italian 69:(Royal Navy). The 34: 9293:Ironclad warships 9240: 9239: 9066: 9065: 8896: 8895: 8865:Albanian Revolts 8722:German Naval Laws 8706:Naval arms races 8690:Berlin Conference 8622:Hague Conventions 8115:978-1-55753-034-9 8060:978-0-19-212550-7 7999:978-0-19-820432-9 7920:978-1-84413-528-8 7638:978-1-84603-330-8 7183:, pp. 93–95. 7147:, pp. 50–51. 7072:, pp. 49–50. 6989:, pp. 51–53. 6965:, pp. 45–46. 6924:, pp. 36–38. 6775:, pp. 59–60. 6763:, pp. 16–17. 6671:, pp. 12–13. 6148:, pp. 32–42. 6112:, pp. 82–84. 5167:, pp. 12–15. 4983:, pp. 44–45. 4593:, pp. 15–16. 4542:, pp. 76–77. 4482:, pp. 18–19. 4340:Hermann von Spaun 4242:. Her innovative 3924: 3702: 3584:German Naval Laws 3385:Holy Roman Empire 3309: 3308: 3288:Kingdom of Italy 2712:Italian ironclad 2503:Archduke Albrecht 2499:Battle of Custoza 2470:Agostino Depretis 2440:Otto von Bismarck 2243: 2126: 2000:in March 1863 by 1546:-class ironclads. 1348: 1347: 1010:-class ironclad, 947:Austrian Littoral 860:Battle of Kinburn 835:-class ironclads 783:Venetian Republic 564:Modena and Reggio 353:Battle of Custoza 334:Habsburg monarchy 222:Italian Peninsula 50:ships of the line 46:ironclad warships 30:Alexander Kircher 9330: 9138:Regina Maria Pia 9093: 9086: 9079: 9070: 9069: 8923: 8916: 8909: 8900: 8899: 8816:Spanish–American 8736:Fashoda Incident 8612:Treaty of Björkö 8597:Treaty of Berlin 8531:Open Door Policy 8465:Eastern question 8412:Entente Cordiale 8318: 8311: 8304: 8295: 8294: 8290: 8271: 8252: 8243: 8232: 8213: 8194: 8183: 8172: 8159: 8138: 8119: 8100: 8081: 8064: 8052: 8041: 8022: 8003: 7984: 7971: 7952: 7943: 7924: 7905: 7886: 7874: 7863: 7844: 7835: 7816: 7795: 7778: 7759: 7740: 7731: 7712: 7700: 7689: 7670: 7651: 7642: 7623: 7600: 7577: 7558: 7539: 7520: 7508: 7497: 7478: 7459: 7442: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7399: 7393: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7340: 7334: 7328: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7286: 7280: 7274: 7268: 7262: 7256: 7250: 7244: 7238: 7232: 7226: 7220: 7214: 7208: 7202: 7196: 7190: 7184: 7178: 7172: 7166: 7160: 7154: 7148: 7142: 7136: 7130: 7124: 7118: 7112: 7106: 7100: 7094: 7085: 7079: 7073: 7067: 7061: 7055: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7017: 7011: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6937: 6931: 6925: 6919: 6913: 6907: 6901: 6895: 6889: 6883: 6877: 6871: 6865: 6859: 6853: 6847: 6841: 6835: 6829: 6823: 6812: 6806: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6770: 6764: 6758: 6752: 6746: 6740: 6734: 6728: 6722: 6711: 6705: 6696: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6619: 6613: 6607: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6583: 6577: 6571: 6565: 6556: 6550: 6544: 6538: 6532: 6526: 6520: 6514: 6508: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6481: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6445: 6439: 6433: 6427: 6421: 6415: 6409: 6403: 6397: 6391: 6385: 6379: 6373: 6367: 6356: 6350: 6344: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6290: 6284: 6278: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6254: 6248: 6242: 6236: 6230: 6224: 6218: 6212: 6206: 6200: 6194: 6185: 6179: 6173: 6167: 6161: 6155: 6149: 6143: 6137: 6131: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6101: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6077: 6071: 6065: 6059: 6053: 6047: 6041: 6035: 6029: 6023: 6014: 6008: 5999: 5993: 5982: 5976: 5967: 5961: 5955: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5868: 5862: 5856: 5850: 5841: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5812: 5806: 5797: 5791: 5785: 5779: 5773: 5767: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5722: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5698: 5692: 5681: 5675: 5669: 5663: 5654: 5648: 5639: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5561: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5537: 5531: 5525: 5519: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5402: 5396: 5390: 5384: 5378: 5369: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5333: 5327: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5263: 5257: 5251: 5245: 5236: 5230: 5224: 5221:Silverstone 1984 5218: 5207: 5201: 5192: 5186: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5103: 5097: 5091: 5085: 5079: 5073: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5049: 5038: 5032: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4921: 4915: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4885: 4879: 4870: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4837: 4831: 4825: 4819: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4720: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4696: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4642: 4636: 4630: 4624: 4618: 4612: 4606: 4600: 4594: 4588: 4582: 4576: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4543: 4537: 4531: 4525: 4519: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4449: 4446: 4437: 4433: 4427: 4423: 4366: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4342:and later under 4337:Marinekommandant 4030:Re di Portogallo 3943:-class ironclads 3922: 3731:torpedo cruisers 3700: 3660:Marinekommandant 3600: 3596:Marinekommandant 3540:Marinekommandant 3521:Marinekommandant 3508:Marinekommandant 3500:Marinekommandant 3426: 3419: 3296: 3295: 3287: 3286: 3266: 3265: 3243: 3242: 3218: 3217: 3189: 3188: 3164: 3163: 3141: 3140: 3122: 3121: 3105: 3104: 3080: 3079: 3057: 3056: 3038: 3037: 3019: 3018: 2979: 2958:Treaty of Vienna 2883:Regina Maria Pia 2879: 2867:Re di Portogallo 2853: 2838: 2806:Re di Portogallo 2788:Re di Portogallo 2706: 2699: 2688: 2466:Bettino Ricasoli 2361:Diego Angioletti 2326:Regina Maria Pia 2283:Giuseppe De Luca 2241: 2124: 2052:manufactured by 2016:Austria counters 1988:Principe Umberto 1971:and the British 1960:in September in 1947: 1938:Principe Umberto 1841:, respectively. 1808:Regina Maria Pia 1801:Regina Maria Pia 1716:. The next day, 1665:chromolithograph 1638:Bettino Ricasoli 1614:Kingdom of Spain 1538:-class ironclad 1508:arms trafficking 1431:Re di Portogallo 1410:Re di Portogallo 1335: 1334: 1326: 1325: 1316: 1315: 1289: 1288: 1246: 1245: 1221: 1220: 1209:Re di Portogallo 1192: 1191: 1155: 1154: 1136: 1135: 1104:Regina Maria Pia 1099: 1098: 1074: 1073: 1034: 956:Josef von Romako 930:Ludwig von Fautz 823:-class ironclad 779:Italia irredenta 758:Fregattenkapitän 670:ship-of-the-line 500:Soveria Mannelli 463:, and left from 403:Treaty of Zürich 357:Battle of Novara 288:Italian-speaking 261:Austrian Emperor 234:Louis Philippe I 135:Treaty of Vienna 9338: 9337: 9333: 9332: 9331: 9329: 9328: 9327: 9243: 9242: 9241: 9236: 9222: 9170: 9165:Principe Amedeo 9150: 9102: 9097: 9067: 9062: 9048: 9021: 8966: 8932: 8927: 8897: 8892: 8831:Boxer Rebellion 8789: 8653: 8607:Treaty of Paris 8572: 8566: 8499:New Imperialism 8460:Ottoman decline 8443: 8390:Triple Alliance 8378: 8339:Austria-Hungary 8327: 8322: 8268: 8229: 8210: 8135: 8116: 8097: 8061: 8038: 8019: 8000: 7968: 7934:Principe Amedeo 7921: 7902: 7883: 7860: 7775: 7756: 7728: 7709: 7686: 7667: 7639: 7620: 7606:O'Hara, Vincent 7574: 7555: 7536: 7517: 7494: 7475: 7425: 7420: 7412: 7408: 7400: 7396: 7392:, pp. 2–3. 7388: 7384: 7376: 7372: 7364: 7360: 7352: 7343: 7335: 7331: 7323: 7319: 7311: 7307: 7299: 7295: 7287: 7283: 7275: 7271: 7263: 7259: 7251: 7247: 7239: 7235: 7227: 7223: 7215: 7211: 7203: 7199: 7191: 7187: 7179: 7175: 7167: 7163: 7155: 7151: 7143: 7139: 7131: 7127: 7119: 7115: 7107: 7103: 7095: 7088: 7080: 7076: 7068: 7064: 7056: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7020: 7012: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6949: 6940: 6932: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6908: 6904: 6896: 6892: 6884: 6880: 6872: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6848: 6844: 6836: 6832: 6824: 6815: 6807: 6803: 6795: 6791: 6787:, pp. 8–9. 6783: 6779: 6771: 6767: 6759: 6755: 6747: 6743: 6735: 6731: 6723: 6714: 6706: 6699: 6691: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6667: 6663: 6655: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6631: 6622: 6614: 6610: 6602: 6598: 6590: 6586: 6578: 6574: 6566: 6559: 6555:, pp. 2–3. 6551: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6527: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6503: 6499: 6491: 6484: 6476: 6472: 6464: 6460: 6452: 6448: 6440: 6436: 6428: 6424: 6416: 6412: 6404: 6400: 6392: 6388: 6380: 6376: 6368: 6359: 6351: 6347: 6339: 6335: 6327: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6303: 6299: 6291: 6287: 6279: 6275: 6267: 6263: 6255: 6251: 6243: 6239: 6231: 6227: 6219: 6215: 6207: 6203: 6195: 6188: 6180: 6176: 6168: 6164: 6156: 6152: 6144: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6120: 6116: 6108: 6104: 6096: 6092: 6084: 6080: 6072: 6068: 6060: 6056: 6048: 6044: 6036: 6032: 6024: 6017: 6009: 6002: 5994: 5985: 5977: 5970: 5962: 5958: 5950: 5946: 5938: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5902: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5878: 5871: 5867:, pp. 143. 5863: 5859: 5851: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5824: 5815: 5807: 5800: 5792: 5788: 5780: 5776: 5768: 5764: 5756: 5752: 5744: 5740: 5732: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5693: 5684: 5676: 5672: 5664: 5657: 5649: 5642: 5634: 5630: 5622: 5618: 5610: 5606: 5598: 5594: 5586: 5582: 5574: 5570: 5562: 5558: 5550: 5546: 5538: 5534: 5526: 5522: 5514: 5510: 5502: 5498: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5454: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5430: 5423: 5415: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5391: 5387: 5379: 5372: 5364: 5360: 5352: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5328: 5317: 5309: 5305: 5297: 5293: 5285: 5281: 5273: 5266: 5258: 5254: 5246: 5239: 5231: 5227: 5219: 5210: 5202: 5195: 5187: 5183: 5175: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5149: 5147: 5138: 5137: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5113: 5106: 5098: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5074: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5050: 5041: 5033: 5026: 5018: 5014: 5006: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4931: 4924: 4916: 4912: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4880: 4873: 4865: 4861: 4853: 4840: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4813: 4805: 4801: 4793: 4789: 4781: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4757: 4753: 4745: 4741: 4733: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4697: 4693: 4685: 4681: 4673: 4669: 4661: 4657: 4649: 4645: 4637: 4633: 4625: 4621: 4613: 4609: 4601: 4597: 4589: 4585: 4577: 4570: 4562: 4558: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4510: 4502: 4498: 4490: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4440: 4434: 4430: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4362: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4312: 4295:Beylik of Tunis 4262: 4256: 4116: 4106: 4088:Royal Sovereign 4038: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3844: 3838:begun in 1893. 3771:in Kiel in 1890 3710: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3624: 3622:Austria-Hungary 3619: 3598: 3492: 3445:Carl von Franck 3401:King of Hungary 3366: 3360: 3352:Principe Amedeo 3343: 3305: 3298: 3297:Austria-Hungary 3290: 3281: 3260: 3251: 3237: 3226: 3212: 3203: 3197: 3183: 3172: 3158: 3149: 3135: 3116: 3099: 3088: 3074: 3065: 3051: 3032: 3013: 3007: 3000: 2993: 2986: 2977: 2975: 2970: 2929: 2923: 2877: 2851: 2836: 2770:circled around 2704: 2697: 2686: 2518: 2512: 2453: 2444:German Question 2430:Peace of Vienna 2413:London Protocol 2393: 2380: 2374:Seven Weeks War 2372:Main articles: 2370: 2345:Principe Amedeo 2338:Principe Amedeo 2310:Principe Amedeo 2298:Principe Amedeo 2294:Principe Amedeo 2279:Principe Amedeo 2264:Principe Amedeo 2257:Principe Amedeo 2251: 2250: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2224:Marco Minghetti 2208:Enrico Cialdini 2193: 2134: 2133: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2083: 2078: 2018: 1941: 1779: 1774: 1657: 1651: 1642:Urbano Rattazzi 1618:Austrian Empire 1589: 1528: 1388:William H. Webb 1353: 1344: 1337: 1336:Austrian Empire 1329: 1320: 1310: 1297: 1294:Principe Amedeo 1283: 1273: 1267: 1261: 1255: 1240: 1229: 1215: 1206: 1200: 1186: 1175: 1169: 1163: 1149: 1130: 1119: 1113: 1107: 1093: 1083: 1068: 1062: 1055: 1048: 1041: 1032: 1030: 1025: 1006:When the first 928:(Rear Admiral) 889: 813: 764:(Rear Admiral) 733: 728: 720:Dalmatian Coast 689:paddle steamers 666:Napoleonic Wars 625: 619: 547: 486:, Palermo, and 422: 416: 318:Joseph Radetzky 306: 298:Main articles: 296: 206: 200: 176:Triple Alliance 159:Seven Weeks War 151:reformed itself 143:Battle of Lissa 38:Austrian Empire 17: 12: 11: 5: 9336: 9326: 9325: 9320: 9315: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9270: 9265: 9260: 9255: 9238: 9237: 9235: 9234: 9231: 9227: 9224: 9223: 9221: 9220: 9213: 9206: 9199: 9192: 9184: 9182: 9172: 9171: 9169: 9168: 9160: 9158: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9148: 9141: 9134: 9127: 9120: 9112: 9110: 9104: 9103: 9096: 9095: 9088: 9081: 9073: 9064: 9063: 9061: 9060: 9057: 9053: 9050: 9049: 9047: 9046: 9039: 9031: 9029: 9023: 9022: 9020: 9019: 9012: 9005: 8998: 8991: 8984: 8976: 8974: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8964: 8957: 8950: 8942: 8940: 8934: 8933: 8926: 8925: 8918: 8911: 8903: 8894: 8893: 8891: 8890: 8885: 8884: 8883: 8882: 8881: 8876: 8871: 8863: 8858: 8848: 8843: 8841:Russo-Japanese 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8806:Anglo-Egyptian 8803: 8797: 8795: 8791: 8790: 8788: 8787: 8782: 8780:Bosnian Crisis 8777: 8776: 8775: 8765: 8764: 8763: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8732: 8731: 8729:Austro-Italian 8726: 8725: 8724: 8719: 8704: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8661: 8659: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8630: 8629: 8627:Martens Clause 8619: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8582: 8576: 8574: 8568: 8567: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8562: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8541: 8540: 8539: 8538: 8533: 8528: 8523: 8513: 8512: 8511: 8509:Egyptian Lever 8496: 8494:Pax Britannica 8491: 8490: 8489: 8479: 8478: 8477: 8475:Sovereign debt 8472: 8467: 8457: 8451: 8449: 8445: 8444: 8442: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8420: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8402:Triple Entente 8399: 8398: 8397: 8386: 8384: 8380: 8379: 8377: 8376: 8371: 8369:United Kingdom 8366: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8335: 8333: 8329: 8328: 8321: 8320: 8313: 8306: 8298: 8292: 8291: 8272: 8266: 8253: 8244: 8233: 8228:978-0714642093 8227: 8214: 8208: 8195: 8184: 8173: 8167:(in Italian). 8160: 8150:(1): 106–124. 8139: 8133: 8120: 8114: 8101: 8096:978-0911198973 8095: 8082: 8065: 8059: 8042: 8037:978-0472108954 8036: 8023: 8017: 8004: 7998: 7985: 7972: 7966: 7953: 7944: 7925: 7919: 7906: 7901:978-0812980660 7900: 7887: 7881: 7864: 7859:978-0870210907 7858: 7845: 7836: 7817: 7807:(1): 177–190. 7796: 7779: 7773: 7760: 7754: 7741: 7732: 7726: 7713: 7707: 7690: 7684: 7671: 7665: 7652: 7643: 7637: 7624: 7619:978-1612510828 7618: 7601: 7578: 7572: 7559: 7554:978-8877505224 7553: 7540: 7534: 7521: 7516:978-0854963072 7515: 7498: 7492: 7479: 7473: 7460: 7443: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7380:, p. 355. 7378:MacMillan 2014 7370: 7368:, p. 132. 7358: 7341: 7339:, p. 235. 7337:Baratelli 1983 7329: 7317: 7305: 7303:, p. 131. 7293: 7291:, p. 110. 7281: 7269: 7257: 7245: 7243:, p. 112. 7233: 7221: 7219:, p. 114. 7209: 7197: 7195:, p. 117. 7185: 7173: 7161: 7149: 7137: 7133:Baratelli 1983 7125: 7123:, p. 106. 7113: 7101: 7099:, p. 341. 7086: 7082:Baratelli 1983 7074: 7062: 7045: 7041:Baratelli 1983 7033: 7031:, p. 103. 7018: 7016:, p. 272. 7003: 6991: 6979: 6967: 6955: 6953:, p. 271. 6938: 6926: 6914: 6902: 6890: 6878: 6866: 6854: 6842: 6830: 6828:, p. 269. 6813: 6801: 6789: 6777: 6765: 6753: 6741: 6729: 6727:, p. 394. 6712: 6697: 6695:, p. 267. 6685: 6683:, p. 264. 6673: 6661: 6649: 6637: 6635:, p. 258. 6620: 6618:, p. 137. 6608: 6596: 6584: 6582:, p. 253. 6572: 6568:Baratelli 1983 6557: 6545: 6533: 6521: 6509: 6507:, p. 245. 6497: 6495:, p. 256. 6482: 6470: 6468:, p. 244. 6458: 6446: 6434: 6422: 6420:, p. 235. 6410: 6408:, p. 360. 6398: 6396:, p. 253. 6386: 6384:, p. 242. 6374: 6372:, p. 243. 6357: 6345: 6343:, p. 230. 6333: 6331:, p. 233. 6321: 6309: 6297: 6285: 6273: 6261: 6259:, p. 229. 6249: 6237: 6235:, p. 228. 6225: 6213: 6201: 6199:, p. 252. 6186: 6174: 6162: 6160:, p. 305. 6150: 6138: 6136:, p. 250. 6126: 6124:, p. 249. 6114: 6102: 6100:, p. 906. 6090: 6078: 6066: 6054: 6042: 6030: 6015: 6013:, p. 340. 6000: 5983: 5968: 5966:, p. 222. 5956: 5944: 5932: 5920: 5908: 5906:, p. 234. 5896: 5884: 5882:, p. 223. 5869: 5857: 5855:, p. 225. 5842: 5840:, p. 226. 5830: 5828:, p. 268. 5813: 5798: 5796:, p. 161. 5786: 5784:, p. 334. 5774: 5762: 5750: 5738: 5736:, p. 221. 5723: 5721:, p. 354. 5711: 5699: 5697:, p. 339. 5682: 5680:, p. 199. 5670: 5655: 5640: 5638:, p. 218. 5628: 5616: 5614:, p. 148. 5604: 5602:, p. 175. 5592: 5580: 5568: 5556: 5544: 5532: 5530:, p. 216. 5520: 5518:, p. 215. 5508: 5496: 5484: 5482:, p. 214. 5472: 5460: 5448: 5436: 5434:, p. 338. 5421: 5409: 5407:, p. 129. 5397: 5395:, p. 181. 5385: 5383:, p. 212. 5370: 5358: 5346: 5334: 5332:, p. 211. 5315: 5303: 5291: 5289:, p. 164. 5279: 5277:, p. 210. 5264: 5262:, p. 267. 5252: 5250:, p. 209. 5237: 5235:, p. 206. 5225: 5208: 5206:, p. 337. 5193: 5191:, p. 334. 5181: 5169: 5157: 5131: 5119: 5117:, p. 203. 5104: 5092: 5080: 5068: 5056: 5054:, p. 335. 5039: 5037:, p. 328. 5024: 5012: 5010:, p. 200. 4997: 4993:Baratelli 1983 4985: 4973: 4971:, p. 184. 4961: 4949: 4947:, p. 114. 4937: 4935:, p. 182. 4922: 4920:, p. 181. 4910: 4898: 4886: 4871: 4859: 4857:, p. 202. 4838: 4826: 4824:, p. 205. 4811: 4809:, p. 276. 4807:Trevelyan 1911 4799: 4797:, p. 271. 4795:Trevelyan 1911 4787: 4785:, p. 266. 4783:Trevelyan 1911 4775: 4771:Trevelyan 1911 4763: 4759:Trevelyan 1911 4751: 4749:, p. 312. 4747:Trevelyan 1909 4739: 4737:, p. 197. 4735:Trevelyan 1911 4727: 4723:Trevelyan 1911 4715: 4711:Trevelyan 1911 4703: 4701:, p. 170. 4699:Trevelyan 1911 4691: 4689:, p. 141. 4687:Trevelyan 1909 4679: 4675:Trevelyan 1911 4667: 4663:Trevelyan 1909 4655: 4653:, p. 249. 4651:Trevelyan 1909 4643: 4639:Trevelyan 1909 4631: 4629:, p. 189. 4627:Trevelyan 1909 4619: 4615:Trevelyan 1909 4607: 4603:Trevelyan 1909 4595: 4583: 4581:, p. 201. 4568: 4564:Trevelyan 1909 4556: 4554:, p. 169. 4552:Trevelyan 1909 4544: 4540:Trevelyan 1909 4532: 4520: 4508: 4506:, p. 451. 4496: 4494:, p. 179. 4484: 4472: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4451: 4450: 4438: 4428: 4417: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4405: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4368: 4367: 4351: 4348: 4329:Tyrrhenian Sea 4311: 4308: 4304:King Umberto I 4270:Triple Entente 4258:Main article: 4255: 4252: 4166:breech-loading 4158:compound armor 4105: 4102: 4037: 4034: 3999:battlecruisers 3927: 3926: 3917: 3909:Enrico Dandolo 3900:Enrico Dandolo 3866:Benedetto Brin 3843: 3840: 3788:Josef Kuchinka 3705: 3704: 3695: 3682:Erzherzog Karl 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3491: 3488: 3484:Roman Question 3359: 3356: 3342: 3339: 3323:Imperial Order 3321:, the highest 3307: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3278: 3275: 3274: 3267: 3257: 3244: 3233: 3232: 3219: 3209: 3190: 3179: 3178: 3165: 3155: 3152:Enrico Dandolo 3142: 3131: 3130: 3123: 3113: 3106: 3095: 3094: 3081: 3071: 3058: 3047: 3046: 3039: 3029: 3020: 3009: 3008: 3003: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2982: 2973: 2969: 2966: 2922: 2919: 2900:By this time, 2847:struck one of 2707:s hull on the 2514:Main article: 2511: 2508: 2452: 2449: 2392: 2389: 2369: 2366: 2246: 2245: 2236: 2214:in the rugged 2212:two forces met 2192: 2189: 2129: 2128: 2119: 2082: 2079: 2077: 2074: 2046:muzzle-loading 2017: 2014: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1772:Prelude to war 1770: 1681:Atlantic Ocean 1653:Main article: 1650: 1647: 1588: 1585: 1527: 1524: 1419:Luigi Menabrea 1352: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1307: 1304: 1303: 1290: 1280: 1247: 1236: 1235: 1222: 1212: 1193: 1182: 1181: 1156: 1146: 1137: 1126: 1125: 1100: 1090: 1075: 1064: 1063: 1058: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1037: 1028: 1024: 1021: 995:merchant ship 888: 885: 812: 809: 796:United Kingdom 732: 729: 727: 724: 674:screw-frigates 649:Oberkommandant 618: 615: 546: 543: 433:Carlo Ademollo 418:Main article: 415: 412: 372:French Emperor 295: 292: 268:Franz Joseph I 218:House of Savoy 202:Main article: 199: 196: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9335: 9324: 9321: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9250: 9248: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9225: 9219: 9218: 9214: 9212: 9211: 9207: 9205: 9204: 9200: 9198: 9197: 9193: 9191: 9190: 9186: 9185: 9183: 9181: 9177: 9173: 9167: 9166: 9162: 9161: 9159: 9157: 9153: 9147: 9146: 9142: 9140: 9139: 9135: 9133: 9132: 9128: 9126: 9125: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9114: 9113: 9111: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9094: 9089: 9087: 9082: 9080: 9075: 9074: 9071: 9058: 9055: 9054: 9051: 9045: 9044: 9040: 9038: 9037: 9033: 9032: 9030: 9028: 9024: 9018: 9017: 9013: 9011: 9010: 9006: 9004: 9003: 8999: 8997: 8996: 8992: 8990: 8989: 8985: 8983: 8982: 8978: 8977: 8975: 8973: 8969: 8963: 8962: 8958: 8956: 8955: 8951: 8949: 8948: 8944: 8943: 8941: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8924: 8919: 8917: 8912: 8910: 8905: 8904: 8901: 8889: 8886: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8846:Italo-Turkish 8844: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8801:Russo-Turkish 8799: 8798: 8796: 8792: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8774: 8773:Treaty of Fes 8771: 8770: 8769: 8768:Agadir Crisis 8766: 8762: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8730: 8727: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8717: 8713: 8712: 8711: 8708: 8707: 8705: 8703: 8702: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8628: 8625: 8624: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8591: 8588: 8587: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8577: 8575: 8569: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8518: 8517: 8514: 8510: 8507: 8506: 8505: 8502: 8501: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8488: 8485: 8484: 8483: 8480: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8446: 8440: 8439:Balkan League 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8403: 8400: 8396: 8395:Dual Alliance 8393: 8392: 8391: 8388: 8387: 8385: 8381: 8375: 8374:United States 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8336: 8334: 8330: 8326: 8319: 8314: 8312: 8307: 8305: 8300: 8299: 8296: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8279: 8273: 8269: 8267:0-521-62951-9 8263: 8259: 8254: 8250: 8245: 8241: 8240: 8234: 8230: 8224: 8220: 8215: 8211: 8209:1-59114-882-0 8205: 8201: 8196: 8192: 8191: 8185: 8181: 8180: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8140: 8136: 8134:0-415-21478-5 8130: 8126: 8121: 8117: 8111: 8107: 8102: 8098: 8092: 8088: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8066: 8062: 8056: 8051: 8050: 8043: 8039: 8033: 8029: 8024: 8020: 8018:0-88254-979-0 8014: 8010: 8005: 8001: 7995: 7991: 7986: 7982: 7979:(in German). 7978: 7973: 7969: 7963: 7959: 7954: 7950: 7945: 7941: 7940: 7935: 7931: 7926: 7922: 7916: 7912: 7907: 7903: 7897: 7893: 7888: 7884: 7882:1-55750-527-6 7878: 7873: 7872: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7851: 7846: 7842: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7824: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7780: 7776: 7774:0-7110-0623-7 7770: 7766: 7761: 7757: 7755:0-938289-58-6 7751: 7747: 7742: 7738: 7733: 7729: 7727:0-86101-142-2 7723: 7719: 7714: 7710: 7708:9780804749763 7704: 7699: 7698: 7691: 7687: 7685:0-7858-1413-2 7681: 7677: 7672: 7668: 7666:0-85177-133-5 7662: 7658: 7653: 7649: 7644: 7640: 7634: 7630: 7625: 7621: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7585: 7579: 7575: 7573:9781317862642 7569: 7565: 7560: 7556: 7550: 7546: 7541: 7537: 7535:0-415-27370-6 7531: 7527: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7507: 7506: 7499: 7495: 7489: 7485: 7480: 7476: 7474:1-84067-534-9 7470: 7466: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7427: 7426: 7415: 7414:Sondhaus 1994 7410: 7403: 7402:Sondhaus 1994 7398: 7391: 7386: 7379: 7374: 7367: 7362: 7356:, p. 67. 7355: 7354:Sondhaus 1994 7350: 7348: 7346: 7338: 7333: 7326: 7321: 7314: 7309: 7302: 7297: 7290: 7289:Sullivan 1988 7285: 7279:, p. 66. 7278: 7277:Sondhaus 1994 7273: 7266: 7261: 7254: 7249: 7242: 7237: 7230: 7225: 7218: 7213: 7206: 7201: 7194: 7189: 7182: 7177: 7170: 7169:Sondhaus 2001 7165: 7158: 7157:Sondhaus 1994 7153: 7146: 7145:Sondhaus 1994 7141: 7134: 7129: 7122: 7117: 7110: 7105: 7098: 7097:Gardiner 1979 7093: 7091: 7083: 7078: 7071: 7070:Sondhaus 1994 7066: 7060:, p. 49. 7059: 7058:Sondhaus 1994 7054: 7052: 7050: 7042: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7023: 7015: 7014:Gardiner 1979 7010: 7008: 7001:, p. 86. 7000: 6999:Sondhaus 1994 6995: 6988: 6987:Sondhaus 1994 6983: 6976: 6975:Sondhaus 1989 6971: 6964: 6963:Sondhaus 1994 6959: 6952: 6951:Gardiner 1979 6947: 6945: 6943: 6936:, p. 39. 6935: 6934:Sondhaus 1994 6930: 6923: 6922:Sondhaus 1994 6918: 6911: 6910:Sondhaus 1994 6906: 6899: 6894: 6888:, p. 23. 6887: 6886:Sondhaus 1994 6882: 6876:, p. 22. 6875: 6874:Sondhaus 1994 6870: 6864:, p. 20. 6863: 6862:Sondhaus 1994 6858: 6852:, p. 21. 6851: 6850:Sondhaus 1994 6846: 6839: 6834: 6827: 6826:Gardiner 1979 6822: 6820: 6818: 6811:, p. 10. 6810: 6809:Sondhaus 1994 6805: 6798: 6797:Sondhaus 1994 6793: 6786: 6785:Sondhaus 1994 6781: 6774: 6769: 6762: 6761:Sondhaus 1994 6757: 6751:, p. 58. 6750: 6745: 6739:, p. 42. 6738: 6733: 6726: 6721: 6719: 6717: 6710:, p. 12. 6709: 6708:Sondhaus 1994 6704: 6702: 6694: 6693:Sondhaus 1989 6689: 6682: 6681:Sondhaus 1989 6677: 6670: 6665: 6658: 6657:Sondhaus 1989 6653: 6646: 6645:Sondhaus 1994 6641: 6634: 6633:Sondhaus 1989 6629: 6627: 6625: 6617: 6612: 6605: 6604:Gardiner 1979 6600: 6593: 6592:Sondhaus 1989 6588: 6581: 6580:Sondhaus 1989 6576: 6569: 6564: 6562: 6554: 6553:Sondhaus 1994 6549: 6542: 6537: 6530: 6525: 6518: 6513: 6506: 6501: 6494: 6493:Sondhaus 1989 6489: 6487: 6480:, p. 43. 6479: 6478:Sondhaus 1994 6474: 6467: 6462: 6455: 6450: 6443: 6438: 6431: 6426: 6419: 6414: 6407: 6402: 6395: 6390: 6383: 6378: 6371: 6366: 6364: 6362: 6354: 6349: 6342: 6337: 6330: 6325: 6318: 6313: 6306: 6301: 6294: 6289: 6282: 6277: 6270: 6269:Sondhaus 1994 6265: 6258: 6253: 6246: 6241: 6234: 6229: 6222: 6217: 6210: 6209:Gardiner 1979 6205: 6198: 6197:Sondhaus 1989 6193: 6191: 6183: 6178: 6171: 6170:Sondhaus 1989 6166: 6159: 6154: 6147: 6142: 6135: 6134:Sondhaus 1989 6130: 6123: 6122:Sondhaus 1989 6118: 6111: 6106: 6099: 6094: 6088:, p. 75. 6087: 6082: 6075: 6074:Sondhaus 1989 6070: 6063: 6058: 6051: 6050:Sondhaus 1989 6046: 6039: 6034: 6027: 6026:Gardiner 1979 6022: 6020: 6012: 6011:Gardiner 1979 6007: 6005: 5997: 5992: 5990: 5988: 5980: 5975: 5973: 5965: 5964:Sondhaus 1989 5960: 5953: 5952:Sondhaus 1989 5948: 5941: 5936: 5929: 5928:Sondhaus 1989 5924: 5917: 5916:Sondhaus 1989 5912: 5905: 5904:Sondhaus 1989 5900: 5893: 5888: 5881: 5880:Sondhaus 1989 5876: 5874: 5866: 5861: 5854: 5853:Sondhaus 1989 5849: 5847: 5839: 5834: 5827: 5826:Gardiner 1979 5822: 5820: 5818: 5810: 5809:Sondhaus 1989 5805: 5803: 5795: 5790: 5783: 5778: 5771: 5770:Gardiner 1979 5766: 5759: 5758:Sondhaus 1989 5754: 5748:, p. 44. 5747: 5746:Sondhaus 1994 5742: 5735: 5734:Sondhaus 1989 5730: 5728: 5720: 5715: 5708: 5707:Gardiner 1979 5703: 5696: 5695:Gardiner 1979 5691: 5689: 5687: 5679: 5674: 5667: 5662: 5660: 5652: 5651:Sondhaus 1989 5647: 5645: 5637: 5636:Sondhaus 1989 5632: 5625: 5624:Sondhaus 1989 5620: 5613: 5608: 5601: 5596: 5589: 5584: 5577: 5572: 5565: 5560: 5553: 5548: 5541: 5540:Sondhaus 1989 5536: 5529: 5528:Sondhaus 1989 5524: 5517: 5516:Sondhaus 1989 5512: 5505: 5504:Sondhaus 1989 5500: 5493: 5488: 5481: 5480:Sondhaus 1989 5476: 5469: 5468:Sondhaus 1989 5464: 5457: 5456:Gardiner 1979 5452: 5445: 5440: 5433: 5432:Gardiner 1979 5428: 5426: 5418: 5417:Sondhaus 1989 5413: 5406: 5401: 5394: 5389: 5382: 5381:Sondhaus 1989 5377: 5375: 5367: 5366:Sondhaus 1989 5362: 5355: 5354:Gardiner 1979 5350: 5343: 5342:Sondhaus 1989 5338: 5331: 5330:Sondhaus 1989 5326: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5312: 5311:Sondhaus 1989 5307: 5300: 5295: 5288: 5283: 5276: 5275:Sondhaus 1989 5271: 5269: 5261: 5260:Gardiner 1979 5256: 5249: 5248:Sondhaus 1989 5244: 5242: 5234: 5233:Sondhaus 1989 5229: 5222: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5205: 5204:Gardiner 1979 5200: 5198: 5190: 5189:Gardiner 1979 5185: 5178: 5177:Sondhaus 1989 5173: 5166: 5161: 5145: 5141: 5135: 5128: 5127:Sondhaus 1989 5123: 5116: 5115:Sondhaus 1989 5111: 5109: 5101: 5100:Tamborra 1957 5096: 5089: 5088:Sondhaus 1989 5084: 5078:, p. 68. 5077: 5076:Wallisch 1966 5072: 5065: 5064:Sondhaus 1989 5060: 5053: 5052:Gardiner 1979 5048: 5046: 5044: 5036: 5031: 5029: 5021: 5020:Sondhaus 1989 5016: 5009: 5008:Sondhaus 1989 5004: 5002: 4995:, p. 41. 4994: 4989: 4982: 4977: 4970: 4969:Sondhaus 1989 4965: 4958: 4953: 4946: 4941: 4934: 4933:Sondhaus 1989 4929: 4927: 4919: 4918:Sondhaus 1989 4914: 4907: 4906:Sondhaus 1989 4902: 4895: 4894:Sondhaus 1989 4890: 4883: 4878: 4876: 4868: 4867:Sondhaus 1989 4863: 4856: 4855:Sondhaus 1989 4851: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4835: 4830: 4823: 4822:Sondhaus 1989 4818: 4816: 4808: 4803: 4796: 4791: 4784: 4779: 4772: 4767: 4760: 4755: 4748: 4743: 4736: 4731: 4724: 4719: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4695: 4688: 4683: 4676: 4671: 4664: 4659: 4652: 4647: 4640: 4635: 4628: 4623: 4616: 4611: 4604: 4599: 4592: 4587: 4580: 4579:Sondhaus 1989 4575: 4573: 4565: 4560: 4553: 4548: 4541: 4536: 4530:, p. 55. 4529: 4524: 4517: 4512: 4505: 4500: 4493: 4488: 4481: 4476: 4470:, p. 17. 4469: 4464: 4460: 4445: 4443: 4432: 4422: 4418: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4369: 4365: 4354: 4347: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4332: 4330: 4326: 4316: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4285: 4280: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4251: 4249: 4245: 4244:steam turbine 4241: 4237: 4233: 4232: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4202:United States 4199: 4195: 4193: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4154:Admiral class 4150: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4127: 4126: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4101: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4074: 4073: 4068: 4066: 4061: 4059: 4053: 4046: 4042: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3979: 3974: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3959: 3954: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3942: 3937: 3920: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3879: 3875: 3869: 3867: 3862: 3861:coastal forts 3853: 3848: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3825:fait accompli 3822: 3821:Ferdinand Max 3818: 3817:Ferdinand Max 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3780: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3755: 3754: 3749: 3748: 3743: 3742: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3727:Torpedoboot I 3724: 3720: 3716: 3698: 3694: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3678: 3672: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3553: 3548: 3547: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3501: 3496: 3487: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3453: 3451: 3446: 3443: 3437: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3425: 3418: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3347: 3338: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3301: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3276: 3273: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3258: 3256: 3255: 3250: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3231: 3230: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3210: 3208: 3207: 3202: 3201: 3196: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3154: 3153: 3148: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3112: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3093: 3092: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3072: 3070: 3069: 3064: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3045: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3030: 3028: 3027: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2943: 2933: 2928: 2918: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2898: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2841:fighting tops 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2794: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2760:Castelfidardo 2757: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2703: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2603:Castelfidardo 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2522: 2517: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2487:Ferdinand Max 2484: 2480: 2479:Ferdinand Max 2474: 2471: 2467: 2461: 2457: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2384: 2379: 2375: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2346: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2188: 2186: 2180: 2178: 2177: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2155: 2150: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2122: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2107:John Ericsson 2104: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2089: 2073: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2060: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2022: 2013: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1940: 1939: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1915: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1891: 1886: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1874: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1831: 1826: 1825: 1824:Castelfidardo 1820: 1816: 1815: 1810: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1792: 1791:Castelfidardo 1788: 1787:Castelfidardo 1783: 1769: 1766: 1761: 1758: 1752: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1701: 1697: 1696:Hampton Roads 1693: 1692: 1686: 1682: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1646: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1593: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1564: 1560: 1558: 1553: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1473: 1468: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1427:New York City 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1411: 1406: 1405: 1400: 1398: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1372: 1370: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1340: 1333: 1328: 1324: 1318: 1314: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1277: 1272: 1271: 1266: 1265: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1228: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1213: 1211: 1210: 1205: 1204: 1199: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1147: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1138: 1134: 1128: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1117: 1116:Castelfidardo 1112: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1091: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1061: 1054: 1047: 1040: 1035: 1020: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1002: 998: 994: 989: 985: 981: 975: 973: 967: 965: 961: 957: 952: 951:Inner Austria 948: 943: 938: 933: 931: 927: 926:Kontreadmiral 923: 919: 915: 911: 902: 898: 893: 884: 882: 881: 876: 872: 868: 866: 861: 857: 855: 850: 846: 845: 840: 839: 834: 826: 822: 817: 808: 806: 802: 801:King of Italy 797: 791: 788: 784: 780: 776: 770: 767: 763: 762:Kontreadmiral 759: 755: 750: 747: 737: 723: 721: 717: 713: 708: 706: 702: 701: 694: 690: 686: 682: 677: 675: 671: 667: 663: 657: 654: 650: 646: 642: 641:Kontreadmiral 638: 629: 624: 614: 612: 608: 602: 600: 595: 589: 586: 582: 578: 573: 569: 565: 561: 551: 542: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 519:Central Italy 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 480: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 434: 430: 426: 421: 411: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 373: 369: 364: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 341: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 305: 301: 291: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 262: 258: 254: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 210: 205: 195: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 147: 144: 140: 136: 132: 127: 125: 121: 119: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 93: 91: 87: 83: 79: 77: 72: 68: 67: 62: 57: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 31: 27: 23: 19: 9216: 9209: 9202: 9195: 9188: 9164: 9144: 9137: 9130: 9123: 9116: 9042: 9035: 9015: 9008: 9001: 8994: 8987: 8980: 8960: 8953: 8946: 8728: 8714: 8710:Anglo-German 8699: 8571:Treaties and 8332:Great powers 8277: 8257: 8248: 8238: 8218: 8199: 8189: 8178: 8168: 8164: 8147: 8143: 8124: 8105: 8086: 8069: 8048: 8027: 8008: 7989: 7980: 7976: 7957: 7948: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7910: 7891: 7870: 7849: 7840: 7822: 7804: 7800: 7783: 7764: 7745: 7736: 7717: 7696: 7675: 7656: 7647: 7628: 7609: 7588: 7582: 7563: 7544: 7525: 7504: 7483: 7464: 7447: 7430: 7409: 7397: 7385: 7373: 7361: 7332: 7320: 7308: 7296: 7284: 7272: 7260: 7255:, p. 7. 7253:Forczyk 2009 7248: 7236: 7224: 7212: 7200: 7188: 7176: 7164: 7152: 7140: 7128: 7121:Gibbons 1983 7116: 7109:Gibbons 1983 7104: 7077: 7065: 7036: 6994: 6982: 6970: 6958: 6929: 6917: 6905: 6893: 6881: 6869: 6857: 6845: 6833: 6804: 6799:, p. 9. 6792: 6780: 6768: 6756: 6744: 6732: 6688: 6676: 6664: 6652: 6647:, p. 7. 6640: 6611: 6599: 6587: 6575: 6548: 6536: 6524: 6512: 6500: 6473: 6461: 6449: 6437: 6425: 6413: 6401: 6389: 6377: 6348: 6336: 6324: 6312: 6300: 6288: 6276: 6271:, p. 1. 6264: 6252: 6240: 6228: 6216: 6204: 6182:Iachino 1966 6177: 6165: 6153: 6146:Iachino 1966 6141: 6129: 6117: 6105: 6098:Sheehan 1989 6093: 6081: 6069: 6057: 6045: 6033: 5959: 5947: 5935: 5923: 5911: 5899: 5887: 5860: 5833: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5753: 5741: 5714: 5702: 5673: 5631: 5619: 5612:Luraghi 1996 5607: 5595: 5583: 5571: 5559: 5547: 5535: 5523: 5511: 5499: 5487: 5475: 5463: 5451: 5439: 5412: 5400: 5388: 5361: 5349: 5337: 5306: 5294: 5282: 5255: 5228: 5184: 5172: 5160: 5148:. Retrieved 5134: 5122: 5095: 5083: 5071: 5059: 5015: 4988: 4981:Lambert 1984 4976: 4964: 4952: 4945:Lambert 1984 4940: 4913: 4901: 4889: 4862: 4829: 4802: 4790: 4778: 4766: 4754: 4742: 4730: 4718: 4706: 4694: 4682: 4670: 4658: 4646: 4634: 4622: 4610: 4598: 4586: 4559: 4547: 4535: 4523: 4511: 4499: 4487: 4475: 4463: 4431: 4421: 4364:Italy portal 4336: 4333: 4321: 4288: 4284:North Africa 4275: 4248:dreadnoughts 4240:12-inch guns 4235: 4230: 4226: 4191: 4187: 4181: 4162:wrought iron 4160:rather than 4151: 4139:main battery 4130: 4124: 4094:Harvey armor 4087: 4082: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4057: 4054: 4050: 4044: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3983: 3980:at La Spezia 3977: 3957: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3935: 3933: 3918: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3893: 3883: 3873: 3870: 3857: 3851: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3799: 3796: 3791: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3768: 3764: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3726: 3723:torpedo boat 3711: 3696: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3673: 3667: 3659: 3657: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3595: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3537: 3531: 3520: 3512: 3507: 3505: 3499: 3478: 3473: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3454: 3438: 3433: 3421: 3413: 3396: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3372: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3327: 3318: 3310: 3280: 3270: 3253: 3247: 3228: 3222: 3205: 3199: 3193: 3174: 3168: 3151: 3145: 3127:Andrea Doria 3126: 3109: 3090: 3084: 3067: 3061: 3042: 3024: 3022: 3004: 2997: 2990: 2983: 2946: 2938: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2899: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2753: 2749:Anton Romako 2744: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2713: 2701: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2682: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2644: 2639: 2637: 2628: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2527: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2475: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2434: 2420: 2394: 2350: 2344: 2342: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2307: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2278: 2273: 2263: 2256: 2252: 2237: 2232: 2228:Efisio Cugia 2194: 2184: 2181: 2175: 2170: 2159: 2153: 2139:Louis Merton 2135: 2120: 2114: 2110: 2099: 2092: 2087: 2084: 2068: 2058: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2031: 2025: 2010: 2005: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1967: 1953: 1949: 1937: 1931: 1925: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1905: 1894: 1889: 1883: 1872: 1869: 1862: 1857: 1843: 1829: 1823: 1813: 1807: 1800: 1796: 1790: 1786: 1764: 1762: 1756: 1753: 1747: 1743: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1726: 1717: 1712: 1705: 1699: 1690: 1678: 1672: 1668: 1630:Risorgimento 1629: 1626: 1610: 1601: 1598: 1581: 1577: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1499: 1488:rolling mill 1482: 1477: 1471: 1465: 1458: 1455: 1447: 1441: 1430: 1422: 1415:state secret 1409: 1403: 1396: 1383: 1381: 1373: 1368: 1365: 1360: 1356: 1354: 1319: 1309: 1299: 1293: 1275: 1269: 1263: 1257: 1251: 1249: 1231: 1225: 1208: 1202: 1196: 1177: 1171: 1165: 1159: 1141: 1139: 1121: 1115: 1109: 1103: 1085: 1079: 1077: 1059: 1052: 1045: 1038: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1005: 996: 979: 976: 968: 936: 934: 925: 921: 913: 909: 906: 900: 896: 879: 874: 870: 869: 865:Risorgimento 864: 853: 843: 837: 832: 830: 824: 820: 792: 778: 771: 761: 757: 751: 742: 711: 709: 704: 699: 678: 658: 648: 644: 640: 634: 603: 590: 584: 556: 533:in northern 516: 481: 460: 456: 448: 438: 428: 385:. After the 375:Napoleon III 365: 345:Papal States 342: 330:Quadrilatero 307: 215: 148: 139:Regia Marina 138: 128: 117: 101:nationalists 94: 86:Regia Marina 85: 75: 66:Regia Marina 64: 58: 54:Adriatic Sea 35: 25: 18: 9189:Affondatore 9131:Re d'Italia 9117:Formidabile 8888:World War I 8851:Balkan Wars 8836:Second Boer 8821:Banana Wars 8785:July Crisis 8716:Dreadnought 8701:Weltpolitik 8545:Pan-Slavism 7366:Bridge 2002 7325:Bridge 1990 7313:Bridge 2002 7301:Bridge 2002 7265:Massie 2004 7229:Beeler 2003 7181:Beeler 2003 6616:Greger 1976 6541:Wilson 1896 6529:Wilson 1896 6517:Wilson 1896 6505:Wilson 1896 6466:Wilson 1896 6454:Wilson 1896 6442:Wilson 1896 6430:Wilson 1896 6418:Wilson 1896 6406:Clowes 1901 6382:Wilson 1896 6370:Wilson 1896 6353:Wilson 1896 6329:Wilson 1896 6317:Wilson 1896 6305:Wilson 1896 6293:Wilson 1896 6281:Wilson 1896 6257:Wilson 1896 6245:Wilson 1896 6233:Wilson 1896 6221:Wilson 1896 5940:Wagner 1961 5838:Wilson 1896 5678:Baxter 1933 5600:Tucker 2006 5588:Baxter 1933 5492:Wagner 1961 5393:Higham 1961 5287:Bilzer 1990 4492:Giglio 1948 4236:Dreadnought 4231:Dreadnought 4220:during the 4098:Krupp armor 3938:class. The 3874:Affondatore 3715:naval mines 3450:Middle East 3206:Prinz Eugen 2887:San Martino 2871:Affondatore 2849:Affondatore 2834:Affondatore 2822:Affondatore 2814:Affondatore 2776:Affondatore 2731:San Martino 2714:San Martino 2702:Re d'Italia 2684:Re d'Italia 2666:Re d'Italia 2583:Affondatore 2579:Prinz Eugen 2570:Re d'Italia 2566:Affondatore 2562:Re d'Italia 2543:Prinz Eugen 2421:casus belli 2322:Affondatore 2318:Re d'Italia 2314:Formidabile 1993:Conte Verde 1980:Formidabile 1942: [ 1914:Formidabile 1863:Affondatore 1835:St. Nazaire 1814:San Martino 1722:turret ship 1602:Re d'Italia 1573:Karl Möring 1569:Sudetenland 1544:Re d'Italia 1520:Confederate 1472:Prinz Eugen 1442:Re d'Italia 1423:Re d'Italia 1404:Re d'Italia 1397:Re d'Italia 1384:Formidabile 1377:French Navy 1270:Prinz Eugen 1203:Re d'Italia 1178:Affondatore 1160:Conte Verde 1110:San Martino 1080:Formidabile 993:Mecklenburg 958:, to study 910:Formidabile 875:Formidabile 854:Dévastation 838:Formidabile 833:Formidabile 821:Formidabile 705:Dévastation 700:Dévastation 585:Formidabile 461:Il Lombardo 457:Il Piemonte 379:Crimean War 264:Ferdinand I 192:World War I 188:battleships 97:irredentist 90:great power 76:Formidabile 9247:Categories 9217:Re Umberto 9016:Tegetthoff 9009:Kaiser Max 8954:Kaiser Max 8573:agreements 8521:Great Game 8487:Revanchism 8171:: 813–818. 7983:: 119–152. 7967:3764616180 7936:Classes". 7493:3900310661 7423:References 6773:Sokol 1968 6749:Sokol 1968 6158:Smith 1971 6110:Wawro 1996 4591:Smith 1997 4528:Clark 2013 4516:Pieri 1962 4504:Pieri 1962 4480:Sokol 1968 4468:Sokol 1968 4114:Battleship 4108:See also: 4083:Re Umberto 4065:Re Umberto 3963:belt armor 3878:Suez Canal 3784:Salamander 3691:Kaiser Max 3686:Tegetthoff 3677:Tegetthoff 3631:Tegetthoff 3465:Salamander 3362:See also: 3259:1885 3236:1876 3211:1884 3194:Kaiser Max 3182:1874 3169:Re Umberto 3157:1884 3134:1873 3115:1882 3098:1870 3073:1881 3050:1869 3043:Tegetthoff 3031:1876 3012:1867 2925:See also: 2910:Kaiser Max 2863:Kaiser Max 2619:Salamander 2615:Salamander 2611:Kaiser Max 2595:Salamander 2591:Salamander 2555:Kaiser Max 2551:Salamander 2391:Background 2216:Aspromonte 2163:the throne 2042:Kaiser Max 2034:Kaiser Max 1713:Cumberland 1606:Nino Bixio 1536:Kaiser Max 1466:Kaiser Max 1463:ironclads 1459:Kaiser Max 1401:ironclads 1282:1865 1264:Kaiser Max 1258:Salamander 1239:1861 1214:1863 1185:1861 1148:1863 1129:1861 1092:1862 1067:1860 1012:Salamander 988:Marseilles 972:privatized 964:Copenhagen 901:Salamander 880:Salamander 805:Napoleon I 718:, and the 687:, and two 621:See also: 521:after the 484:Calatafimi 280:Hungarians 8536:Meiji era 8383:Alliances 8078:462208412 7832:300969997 7439:799197000 7390:Vego 1996 7029:Ceva 1999 6086:Holt 1917 4456:Citations 4413:Footnotes 4310:Aftermath 4234:in 1906. 4229:HMS 4224:in 1905. 4170:barbettes 4143:barbettes 4096:and then 3889:ironclads 3719:torpedoes 3652:pneumonia 3479:Ausgleich 3457:Ausgleich 3420:(German: 3397:Ausgleich 3389:Ausgleich 3377:Ausgleich 2921:Aftermath 2709:port side 1973:HMS 1850:steam ram 1725:USS 1711:USS 1704:USS 1689:CSS 1086:Terribile 871:Terribile 844:Terribile 825:Terribile 787:Hungarian 685:corvettes 575:into the 453:Redshirts 153:into the 71:Sardinian 5144:Archived 4350:See also 4216:and the 4192:Majestic 4182:Habsburg 4134:hardened 4078:Sardegna 4062:and the 3747:Sebenico 3515:into an 3417:k. u. k. 3333:and the 3271:Sardegna 2914:magazine 2902:Palestro 2729:engaged 2654:Palestro 2650:hot shot 2645:Palestro 2607:Habsburg 2587:Habsburg 2547:Habsburg 2491:flagship 2483:Habsburg 2417:Holstein 2302:Palestro 2274:Palestro 2069:Habsburg 1846:Millwall 1839:Bordeaux 1821:, while 1819:La Seyne 1765:Virginia 1748:Virginia 1735:Virginia 1718:Virginia 1706:Congress 1700:Virginia 1691:Virginia 1671:and USS 1669:Virginia 1616:and the 1504:ram bows 1300:Palestro 1232:Habsburg 681:frigates 535:Campania 512:Volturno 492:Calabria 370:, found 347:and the 326:Milanese 322:Venetian 109:Trentino 8988:Custoza 8516:In Asia 8349:Germany 8287:1111061 7792:6688034 7597:2496995 7456:9610385 5150:14 July 4436:268–269 4045:Sicilia 4007:Lepanto 3978:Leponto 3958:Lepanto 3834:Monarch 3741:Spalato 3644:Custoza 3607:Custoza 3573:Custoza 3565:Custoza 3546:Custoza 3532:Custoza 3254:Lepanto 3175:Sicilia 3062:Custoza 3005:Ship(s) 2991:Ship(s) 2962:Venetia 2489:as the 2165:of the 2111:Monitor 2081:Austria 1998:Livorno 1975:Warrior 1954:Messina 1932:Messina 1890:Venezia 1858:Monitor 1744:Monitor 1739:Monitor 1727:Monitor 1683:of the 1673:Monitor 1197:Messina 1172:Venezia 1060:Ship(s) 1046:Ship(s) 683:, four 594:Messina 572:Romagna 560:Tuscany 488:Milazzo 469:Marsala 449:i Mille 445:Palermo 441:Messina 180:Germany 163:Prussia 113:Trieste 9203:Italia 9196:Duilio 9176:Turret 9002:Kaiser 8947:Drache 8874:Second 8861:Second 8658:Events 8448:Trends 8364:Russia 8344:France 8285: 8264: 8225: 8206: 8131: 8112: 8093: 8076: 8057: 8034: 8015: 7996: 7964: 7917: 7898: 7879: 7856: 7830: 7790: 7771: 7752: 7724: 7705: 7682: 7663: 7635: 7616: 7595: 7570: 7551: 7532: 7513: 7490: 7471: 7454: 7437: 4210:Russia 4208:, and 4206:France 4200:, the 4022:Italia 4018:Italia 4014:Duilio 4003:Italia 3995:Italia 3991:Italia 3986:Italia 3952:Italia 3947:Italia 3941:Italia 3936:Duilio 3905:Duilio 3894:Duilio 3886:-class 3884:Duilio 3852:Duilio 3753:Lussin 3750:, and 3668:Kaiser 3611:Kaiser 3549:, and 3513:Kaiser 3461:Drache 3248:Italia 3146:Duilio 3068:Kaiser 2906:Drache 2895:Varese 2891:Ancona 2845:Kaiser 2830:Kaiser 2826:Kaiser 2818:Kaiser 2810:Kaiser 2802:Kaiser 2784:Kaiser 2780:Kaiser 2772:Kaiser 2766:, and 2764:Varese 2756:Kaiser 2674:Drache 2670:rudder 2662:Drache 2658:Drache 2640:Drache 2613:, and 2553:, and 2541:, and 2539:Drache 2495:Fasana 2403:after 2203:Melito 2176:Novara 2154:Kaiser 2115:Ancona 2093:Kaiser 2038:Drache 1968:Gloire 1935:, and 1875:-class 1830:Ancona 1500:Drache 1483:Drache 1475:, and 1461:-class 1399:-class 1369:Drache 1361:Drache 1357:Drache 1252:Drache 1122:Ancona 1016:Drache 1008:Drache 984:Geneva 980:Drache 942:florin 937:Drache 922:Drache 914:Drache 897:Drache 856:-class 775:Istria 754:Levant 716:Istria 611:Ancona 570:, and 496:Naples 473:Sicily 383:Russia 278:. The 259:while 257:London 246:Vienna 137:, the 120:-class 118:Drache 111:, and 105:Venice 78:-class 8981:Lissa 8879:Third 8869:First 8856:First 8359:Japan 8354:Italy 4408:Notes 4198:Japan 4194:class 4067:class 4060:class 3842:Italy 3599:' 3586:that 3561:Lissa 3557:Lissa 3474:Lissa 3373:Lissa 3279:Key: 3025:Lissa 2878:' 2852:' 2837:' 2718:aviso 2705:' 2698:' 2687:' 2259:class 2191:Italy 2054:Krupp 1946:] 1921:class 1803:class 1516:Union 1492:Celje 1392:Turin 1308:Key: 568:Parma 531:Teano 508:Gaeta 465:Genoa 431:, by 395:Savoy 314:Milan 244:. In 42:Italy 9178:and 9145:Roma 8794:Wars 8283:OCLC 8262:ISBN 8223:ISBN 8204:ISBN 8129:ISBN 8110:ISBN 8091:ISBN 8074:OCLC 8055:ISBN 8032:ISBN 8013:ISBN 7994:ISBN 7962:ISBN 7932:and 7915:ISBN 7896:ISBN 7877:ISBN 7854:ISBN 7828:OCLC 7788:OCLC 7769:ISBN 7750:ISBN 7722:ISBN 7703:ISBN 7680:ISBN 7661:ISBN 7633:ISBN 7614:ISBN 7593:OCLC 7568:ISBN 7549:ISBN 7530:ISBN 7511:ISBN 7488:ISBN 7469:ISBN 7452:OCLC 7435:OCLC 5152:2018 4327:and 4112:and 4016:and 3955:and 3897:and 3767:and 3735:Zara 3646:and 3567:and 3463:and 3405:Pest 2998:Year 2984:Year 2796:and 2601:and 2589:and 2481:and 2376:and 2343:The 2334:Roma 2292:The 2198:Rome 2040:and 1895:Roma 1887:and 1884:Roma 1873:Roma 1827:and 1811:and 1709:and 1534:The 1407:and 1166:Roma 1053:Year 1039:Year 841:and 819:The 662:Pola 607:lire 459:and 443:and 393:and 391:Nice 324:and 302:and 59:The 40:and 8152:doi 7809:doi 4426:234 3428:or 2747:by 2631:by 1518:or 1490:in 1390:in 962:in 161:to 28:by 9249:: 8169:44 8148:10 8146:. 7981:44 7805:73 7803:. 7589:27 7587:. 7344:^ 7089:^ 7048:^ 7021:^ 7006:^ 6941:^ 6816:^ 6715:^ 6700:^ 6623:^ 6560:^ 6485:^ 6360:^ 6189:^ 6018:^ 6003:^ 5986:^ 5971:^ 5872:^ 5845:^ 5816:^ 5801:^ 5726:^ 5685:^ 5658:^ 5643:^ 5424:^ 5373:^ 5318:^ 5267:^ 5240:^ 5211:^ 5196:^ 5107:^ 5042:^ 5027:^ 5000:^ 4925:^ 4874:^ 4841:^ 4814:^ 4571:^ 4441:^ 4149:. 3891:: 3756:. 3744:, 3738:, 3725:, 3684:. 3590:, 3486:. 2800:. 2762:, 2609:, 2549:, 2537:, 2432:. 2187:. 2145:. 2117:. 1944:it 1929:, 1663:A 1469:, 1440:A 566:, 562:, 340:. 248:, 240:, 194:. 107:, 92:. 9230:S 9092:e 9085:t 9078:v 9056:S 8922:e 8915:t 8908:v 8317:e 8310:t 8303:v 8289:. 8270:. 8231:. 8212:. 8158:. 8154:: 8137:. 8118:. 8099:. 8080:. 8063:. 8040:. 8021:. 8002:. 7970:. 7923:. 7904:. 7885:. 7862:. 7834:. 7815:. 7811:: 7794:. 7777:. 7758:. 7730:. 7711:. 7688:. 7669:. 7641:. 7622:. 7599:. 7576:. 7557:. 7538:. 7519:. 7496:. 7477:. 7458:. 7441:. 5154:.

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Knowledge

Austro-Italian ironclad arms race

Index