Austro-Prussian War

3314:

from making common cause with Prussia. ... If he could ensure, through Austrian aid, the neutrality of the South German States in a war against Prussia, he considered himself sure of defeating the Prussian army, and thus would remain arbiter of the European situation. But when the war suddenly broke out, before anything was concluded, the first unexpected French defeats overthrew all previsions, and raised difficulties for Austria and Italy which prevented them from making common cause with France. Wörth and Sedan followed each other too closely. The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet—that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the Pontiff. ... For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations ... Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured.

2068:, which had been in production since 1859. However, due to tactical reluctance on the part of Prussian high command to utilise relatively unfamiliar technology, and doctrinal stagnation in the Artillery Corps, the modern Krupp guns were either sent to reserve units or used in tandem and to the same effect as their smooth bore counterparts, something that massively throttled their effectiveness in the war, and many of the guns that saw combat were the old smooth bore muzzle loaders. The Austrians too, while having standardised the Lenk system of rifling in their cannon, did not use their artillery to full effect. They specifically targeted the Prussian artillery with their own batteries, limiting their impact on the battlefield in regards to Prussian infantry. One notable exception is the use of Austrian artillery to good effect against infantry at 1769:

remarks that the confessional rivalry was so strong that "a Hamburg Lutheran had more in common with a Swedish Lutheran than with an Austrian Catholic". The minor nations of Germany valued their independence and believed that their ability to remain sovereign depended on Austro-Prussian dualism, with neither side allowed to become too powerful. Confessional division also played an important role in German dualism, and there was a strong pressure in Catholic states to support Austria. In the absence of nationalist sentiment, a united German state could only be created through external force. Bismarck recognised this, remarking in 1862 that a united German state could not be forged through "speeches and majority decisions" but only through "blood and iron".

2629: 54: 2530: 5218: 1220: 910: 503: 2019: 2561: 2341: 2331: 293: 283: 2659: 1969: 2571: 545: 2276: 636: 624: 612: 600: 238: 2482: 764: 576: 957: 791: 1145: 854: 452: 2649: 924: 2541: 2351: 2321: 1170: 868: 515: 303: 261: 2506: 410: 313: 2639: 2381: 2452: 672: 660: 648: 398: 2581: 2551: 1195: 896: 555: 525: 478: 997: 805: 1539: 2421: 363: 535: 333: 1986:(military districts, lit.: circles), each containing a Korps headquarters and its component units. Most reservists lived close to their regimental depots and could be swiftly mobilized. Austrian policy was to ensure that units were stationed far from home to prevent them from taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units during mobilization faced a journey that might take weeks before they could report to their units, making the Austrian mobilization much slower than that of the Prussian Army. 2470: 752: 740: 2431: 2310: 373: 272: 2288: 727: 714: 702: 690: 2591: 565: 1907: 2266: 1113: 1044: 840: 826: 439: 426: 2494: 2401: 353: 1752: 2619: 2690: 1081: 882: 465: 2371: 2361: 323: 2845: 1728: 3232:: Became an independent state and declared permanent neutrality, while maintaining close political ties with Austria. Accused by Bismarck of having manipulated the Confederation Diet vote, the Principality had sent 80 men out on the Imperial side against the Italian volunteers but did not engage in any fighting. There has been a longstanding yet unverified claim that Liechtenstein's auxiliary force returned home with an extra man, stated either as an "Italian friend" or a 1995:

concentrate more rapidly than the Austrians. Moltke, reviewing his plans to Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days. ... Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men." Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now the war that we must have."

2608: 2010:) might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", by being able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier, but the quicker Prussian concentration nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against one Prussian army without having the other two instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication. 3046: 1736: 1956:

parades and routine duties. Austrian conscripts had to be trained almost from scratch when they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Prussian army was thus better trained and disciplined than the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. While Austrian cavalry and artillery were as well trained as their Prussian counterparts, with Austria possessing two elite divisions of heavy cavalry, weapons and tactics had advanced since the

2411: 249: 2089: 3054: 3305:, thereby denying Italy the possession of its capital (Rome had been declared capital of Italy in March 1861, when the first Italian Parliament had met in Turin). Napoleon III was not strictly opposed to this (in response to a French minister of State's declaration that Italy would never lay its hands on Rome, the Emperor had commented "You know, in politics, one should never say 'never'.") and had made various proposals for resolving the 2441: 383: 2715: 1675:, operated in a largely independent fashion. When an existing Emperor died, seven secular and ecclesiastical princes, each of whom ruled at least one of the states, would elect a new Emperor. Over time the Empire became smaller and by 1789 came to consist of primarily German peoples (aside from Bohemia, Moravia, the southern Netherlands and Slovenia). Aside from five years (1740–1745), the Habsburg family, whose personal territory was 2518: 491: 5108: 2680: 2391: 343: 2927: 1796:. He explained to him that Prussian public opinion had become extremely sensitive about the Duchies issue and that he had no doubt that "this artificial exaggeration of the danger by public opinion formed an essential part of the calculations and actions of Count Bismarck the annexation of the Duchies ... a matter of life and death for his political existence to make it appear such for Prussia too." 2138: 1883:, or to expect an immediate declaration of war. Naturally I was not doubtful of the answer for a second. I answered him: "Good, then it's war!" He travelled to Paris with this answer. A few days after one in Paris thought differently, and I was given to understand that this instruction had been torn from Emperor Napoleon during an illness. The further attempts in relation to Luxemburg are known. 3214: 2768: 3102:, the civil commissioner who oversaw the integration of Hanover into Prussia, to remark that "As a whole the Hanoverians are a tougher, less accommodating tribe than the Saxons. Their particularism rests not solely on Prussophobia .. . but above all on a deep-rooted conviction that life is nowhere better than in Hanover. Theirs is a solid ... national feeling". The protests of 1781:'s behaviour before the Austrian-Prussian war, which concentrate mainly on the fact that he had a master plan that resulted in this war, the North German Confederation and the unification of Germany. Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the Franco-Prussian War and the eventual unification of Germany. 1760:

local affairs or their respective state governments, and the individual German states cultivated loyalty towards themselves. While rivalry with France was an important element of German nationalist myth-making, many Germans cooperated with France during the Napoleonic Era, and those who resisted France did not do so out of nationalist sentiment. According to

1703:'s abolition of the office of Holy Roman Emperor in 1806 also deprived him of his imperial authority over most of German-speaking Europe, though little true authority remained by that time; he did, however, retain firm control of an extensive multi-ethnic empire (most of it outside the previous boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire). After 1815, the 1931:.) Taylor suggested that Bismarck was hoping to force Austrian leaders into concessions in Germany, rather than provoke war. The truth may be more complicated than simply that Bismarck, who famously said that "politics is the art of the possible", initially sought war with Austria or was initially against the idea of going to war with Austria. 2837:. Superior Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July. A preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at 3065:

of Prussia to make peace with the Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of further gains. William had "planned to install both the crown prince of Hanover and the nephew of the elector of Hesse as titular grand dukes in small territorial residuals of their dynastic inheritance" due

2075:

The Generals of the Prussian army realized that, in order to stay ahead of their Austrian enemies, they needed to explore new military tactics. They sent officers to travel across the Atlantic Ocean to go and observe the American Civil War. These officers met with high ranking commanders and recorded

2044:

of 1859, French troops took advantage of poorly trained enemies who did not readjust their gunsights as they got closer – thus firing too high at close range. By rapidly closing the range, French troops came to close quarters with an advantage over the Austrian infantry. After the war,

1768:

in 1849. One of the strongest social forces in Germany at the time was religion, which provided Germans with common confessional values and identities that transcended national boundaries. This led to a strong confessional rivalry between the southern Catholic and northern Protestant states. Breuilly

1632:

made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months, which was an obvious incentive for Bismarck to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded with

1644:

of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse

3094:

irredentism than by Prussia. The war left Prussia dominant in German politics (since Austria was now excluded from Germany and no longer the top German power). The northern states protested against their annexation to Prussia, and both the dethroned rulers and the local population lamented the loss

2128:

wrote that there is little to suggest that Prussia had an overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria and wrote that a larger portion of the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population and that Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated

1994:

The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than hitherto and allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly territory. The more efficient Prussian rail network allowed the Prussian army to

1939:

In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms that ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date, the size of the army had been fixed by earlier laws that had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequitable and unpopular for this

1855:

met in Biarritz and allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a potential Austro-Prussian war. The details of the discussion are unknown but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in the event of a war. Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority but

1803:

against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic "masterstroke". Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap" and that the goal was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as his main reason for establishing the alliance.

3118:

strongly condemned "the usurpation of the Electorate of Hesse by the crown of Prussia". Anti-annexationist petitions were organised and reached a significant number of signatures, with a separatist petition in Hanover reaching half a million signatures. In Nassau, Prussian soldiers were reportedly

1922:

Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by the advantages of the Prussian army against the Austrian Empire. Taylor wrote that Bismarck was reluctant to pursue war as it "deprived him of control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". (The two most important

1624:

in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February,

3313:

The alliance, proposed two years before 1870, between France, Italy, and Austria, was never concluded because Napoleon III ... would never consent to the occupation of Rome by Italy. ... He wished Austria to avenge Sadowa, either by taking part in a military action, or by preventing South Germany

1951:

Introducing universal conscription for three years increased the size of the active duty army and provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke deployed against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene against the Prussians, they could have faced him

1820:

The timing of the Prusso-Italian alliance of 8 April 1866 was perfect, because all other European powers were either bound by alliances that forbade them from entering the conflict, or had domestic problems that had priority. The reason why none of the great powers of Europe intervened is listed

1759:

At the time of the war, there was no strong national consciousness in Germany. Michael Hughes notes that in regards to Germany, "nationalism was a minority movement, deeply divided and with only a marginal impact on German political life". German newspapers were almost exclusively concerned with

1955:

Prussian conscript service was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining only a cadre of long-term soldiers for formal

3127:

with "recurrent acts of sabotage on telegraph lines, latent French sympathies, and a widespread disinterest in the establishment of armed home guards". Nevertheless, the formed North German Confederation would go on to win the war and annex Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg in 1871. According to

1764:, any sense of a common German identity "was weakly developed and confined to particular groups" and "there was very little demand, certainly at popular level, for unification". The liberal-nationalist concept of a united Germany had also become unpopular following the fall of the 2076:

both Union and Confederate tactics. They wrote about troop movements, artillery positioning, and new methods of attack that worked well for the Americans. These officers then travelled back to Prussia and briefed their generals about these observations. Some officers, such as

1633:

a mobilization of its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilization on 26 April and Austria ordered its own general mobilization the next day. Prussia's general mobilization orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May.

2173:

during the spring of 1866 was contacted by Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph about establishing a coalition against the Prussians, but his success took some time. The Hanoverian monarch concluded that his kingdom would fall if it were to fight against the Prussian armies.

1940:

reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about one man in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) was assigned minimal service in the

3160:

claimed 99.99% wished to join Italy, as agreed in a secret treaty with Prussia. Austria then lost all official influence over member states of the former German Confederation. Austria's defeat was a telling blow to Habsburg rule; the Empire was transformed via the

3119:

attacked by locals "with stones and axes"; according to Jasper Heinzen, "brawls between occupation troops and local veterans soon became so prevalent that one historian has called these incidents the most distinctive inaugural feature of the Prussian era".

3309:, but Pius IX rejected them all. Despite his support for Italian unification, Napoleon could not press the issue for fear of angering Catholics in France. Raffaele de Cesare, an Italian journalist, political scientist, and author, noted that: 2129:

weapons in the war (rifled artillery). The Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions, which reduced the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military culture.

3122:

Anti-Prussian and separatist sentiment in newly annexed kingdoms continued into 1871, as local Prussian authorities complained about "a not insignificant number" of deserters from Hanover and Schleswig, and the population reacted to the

1625:

asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia. Prussia responded with a partial mobilization of five divisions on 28 March.

3132:, the political and military power accumulated by Prussia allowed it to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then "force the Catholic states very much against their will into a federal union" in 1871. The resulting 1540: 1808:

of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The alliance can be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck was simply a Prussian

3186:

Hesse-Darmstadt: Surrendered to Prussia the small territory it had acquired earlier in 1866 on the extinction of the ruling house of Hesse-Homburg. The northern half of the remaining land joined the

2060:

The Austrians were equipped with breech-loading rifled cannon, which was superior to the Prussian muzzle loading smooth bore cannon. The Austrian Artillery used a unique rifling system invented by

1879:

It is known that even on 6 August 1866, I was in the position to observe the French ambassador make his appearance to see me in order, to put it succinctly, to present an ultimatum: to relinquish

2798:, which could be rapidly loaded while the soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could be loaded only slowly, and generally from a standing position. 1711:, under Austrian leadership. Prussia had been contesting Austria's supremacy in Germany since at least 1850, when a war between the two powers had nearly erupted over Prussia's leadership of the 2809:

had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of

1679:, controlled the Emperorship from 1440 to 1806, although it became increasingly ceremonial only as Austria found itself at war at certain times with other states within the Empire, such as 1793: 3090:. Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in the future, since Austria felt threatened more by Italian and 3301:

and the Italian government wanted to join this potential alliance, but Italian public opinion was bitterly opposed so long as Napoleon III kept a French garrison in Rome protecting

2859:

on 27 June 1866, but, within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the

3251:. Luxembourg was guaranteed independence and neutrality from its three surrounding neighbours (Belgium, France, and Prussia), but it rejoined the German customs union, the 1465: 2161:

were to ally with Prussia. The proposition grievously offended Frederick William's "legitimist sensibilities" and the monarch joined the Austrians, despite the Hessian

5478: 1272: 3225:

The war meant the end of the German Confederation. Those states who remained neutral or passive during the conflict took different actions after the Prague treaty:

2149:

Before the war started, both the Austrian and Prussian governments sought to rally allies in Germany. On 15 June Bismarck offered territorial compensation in the

3692: 1381: 3082:, Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left Prussia free to form the 2064:

called the Lenk system. The Prussians, however, by this point had replaced up to 60% of their smooth bore artillery with the technologically superior

4604: 3061:

In order to prevent "unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge" and forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King

1973: 2855:

Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the

1265: 2829:

on the center, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore depended on the timely arrival of the

5764: 5269: 4894: 3871:

Schmitt, Hans A. (1975). "Prussia's Last Fling: The Annexation of Hanover, Hesse, Frankfurt, and Nassau, June 15 – October 8, 1866".

1833:: Russia was unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, due to ill will over Austrian support of the anti-Russian alliance during the 1637: 3115: 3106:

and the local population proved to be an effective obstacle to Hanover's assimilation into Prussia, and led to the founding of the

1258: 2201:

also joined with Austria. Many of the German princes allied with the Habsburgs principally out of a desire to keep their thrones.

5687: 5356: 5217: 2910:. The Prussian peace with Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on 12 August. According to the 3193:

Nassau, Hesse-Kassel, Frankfurt: Annexed by Prussia. Combined with the territory surrendered by Hesse-Darmstadt to form the new

2243:, who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of the war to strengthen his negotiating position for territory along the 5789: 5779: 5143: 4203: 3033: 5829: 2177:

Most of the southern German states sided with Austria against Prussia. Those that sided with Austria included the Kingdoms of

1856:

still "he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation".

5814: 1827:: Britain had no stake economically or politically in the war between Prussia and Austria, thus, was not going to intervene. 1455: 2232:. In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia. 5804: 5774: 5351: 4597: 2732: 5692: 5651: 5172: 4788: 3284: 3274: 3162: 2632: 2354: 2324: 2213: 2209: 2158: 306: 264: 155: 5839: 5834: 5666: 5656: 5331: 4664: 4416: 4384: 4365: 4187: 4159: 4122: 4085: 4001: 3728: 3621: 3565: 3335: 3294: 3099: 2779: 2117: 2041: 1704: 706: 417: 3297:

proposed a plan which required the French army to fight alone for six weeks in order to allow Austrian mobilisation).

5661: 5366: 5336: 5291: 4558: 4535: 4461: 4346: 3675: 2879: 2830: 2754: 1562: 1438: 140: 4230: 2265: 5164: 4924: 2826: 2584: 558: 5824: 5799: 5226: 5187: 5087: 4929: 4590: 2225: 1605: 1576:

The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian

1460: 17: 2778:

The first war between two major continental powers in seven years, it used many of the same technologies as the

5819: 5625: 5534: 5433: 5381: 4914: 4809: 3593: 3540: 3512: 3481: 3173: 2736: 2622: 1700: 1401: 756: 1898:. This meant that Austria would be fighting both Italy and Prussia, without any non-German allies of its own. 5809: 5794: 5279: 4939: 4697: 3067: 1805: 3807:"Through Artillery from Thrust to Fire: How Prussian Military Thinking Anticipated Emergent Warfare in 1870" 5759: 5549: 5244: 4140:

Making Prussians, Raising Germans: A Cultural History of Prussian State-Building after Civil War, 1866–1935

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Making Prussians, Raising Germans: A Cultural History of Prussian State-Building after Civil War, 1866–1935

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Making Prussians, Raising Germans: A Cultural History of Prussian State-Building after Civil War, 1866–1935

3157: 3111: 3029: 2968: 2856: 2834: 2806: 2142: 2113: 2051:("shock tactics"). Although they had some warnings of the Prussian weapon, they ignored these and retained 2018: 1928: 1640:

on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the

1411: 1367: 1323: 628: 3947:"Prussia's Last Fling: The Annexation of Hanover, Hesse, Frankfurt, and Nassau, June 15 – October 8, 1866" 5728: 5306: 5182: 4934: 4878: 3298: 2574: 1450: 1333: 652: 548: 45: 4899: 1968: 1338: 5784: 5635: 5386: 5341: 5207: 5136: 4969: 4707: 4680: 4550: 4527: 3244: 3218: 3201: 3187: 3114:. Hostility to annexation was also felt in smaller annexed kingdoms such as Hesse, where the dethroned 3083: 2791: 2662: 2061: 1684: 1589: 664: 144: 5620: 5346: 5004: 4919: 4829: 3278: 3062: 2982: 2818: 2814: 2384: 2069: 1872: 1348: 694: 604: 336: 4659: 3322:

against Prussia did not materialize is seen in the fact that, in 1870, the Hungarian Prime Minister

2510: 2505: 2182: 1731:

Map depicting deployment and advance of Austrian (red) and Prussian (green) troops and their allies.

1303: 1200: 901: 483: 5769: 5254: 5082: 4959: 4453: 3036:(Württemberg, Baden, Hesse and Nassau) is defeated by Prussia and northern Württemberg is occupied. 2947: 2939: 2883: 2364: 2205: 1859:

When the Prussian victory became clear, France attempted to extract territorial concessions in the

1533: 1445: 316: 4304: 1804:

It was in the Prussian interest to gain an alliance with Austria to defeat Denmark and settle the

1620:, which the two of them had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the 1616:

The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of

5599: 5589: 5321: 5025: 4904: 4838: 4780: 3240: 3107: 2911: 2725: 2564: 2344: 1654: 1570: 538: 296: 5326: 4818: 4409:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015

1716: 53: 5630: 5197: 4974: 4949: 4860: 4613: 3293:

demands which he had until then rejected", but Austrian plans fell short of French hopes (e.g.

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was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day.

2849: 2642: 2594: 1842: 1799:

Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the

1585: 1470: 768: 731: 568: 195: 131: 41: 3718: 2424: 366: 5671: 5443: 5274: 5129: 4954: 3248: 3221:(red), the South German states (golden) and the exposed Alsace-Lorraine (paler) after the war 3200:

Saxony, Saxe-Meiningen, Reuss-Greiz, Schaumburg-Lippe: Spared from annexation but joined the

3070:, to the annexation of several German states. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's 2404: 2334: 2105: 356: 286: 3460:

Liberalism, nationalism and anti-semitism in the 'Berlin anti-semitism dispute' of 1879/1880

1545:; "German war of brothers") and by a variety of other names, was fought in 1866 between the 1431: 5423: 5152: 5077: 4999: 4979: 4964: 4847: 4800: 4685: 4574: 3079: 2993: 2860: 2544: 2534: 2529: 2236: 2194: 2186: 2150: 1860: 1800: 1765: 1708: 1621: 1581: 1554: 1421: 1396: 1374: 1225: 1175: 915: 873: 744: 518: 508: 414: 203: 135: 88: 5056: 4335: 8: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5504: 5311: 5264: 5249: 5234: 5020: 4944: 4869: 4298: 3180: 3124: 3103: 3015: 2989: 2961: 2891: 2522: 2229: 2190: 2170: 2154: 1813:, rather than a German nationalist, who sought the unification of Germany. It was at the 1566: 1426: 1391: 1318: 495: 187: 2954: 1313: 5569: 5559: 5488: 5453: 5296: 5045: 4732: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4446: 4046: 4038: 3974: 3966: 3888: 3011: 3007: 2975: 2899: 2895: 2693: 2498: 2493: 2474: 2469: 2314: 2309: 2275: 2217: 2178: 1999: 1814: 1672: 1641: 1617: 1550: 1475: 1406: 1386: 1355: 1343: 1118: 1086: 962: 887: 845: 796: 751: 739: 718: 676: 635: 623: 611: 599: 470: 444: 276: 271: 242: 237: 199: 183: 175: 120: 100: 5514: 5121: 2833:

on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant work of its Chief of Staff,

5733: 5723: 5544: 5524: 5376: 4989: 4909: 4752: 4654: 4554: 4531: 4457: 4412: 4380: 4361: 4342: 4183: 4155: 4118: 4081: 4050: 3997: 3978: 3892: 3846: 3828: 3724: 3671: 3617: 3589: 3561: 3536: 3508: 3477: 2683: 2486: 2481: 2125: 2030: 2023: 1924: 1778: 1668: 1629: 1416: 1328: 1150: 859: 763: 640: 616: 457: 179: 3323: 1785: 5554: 5468: 5463: 5448: 5428: 5402: 5316: 5301: 4770: 4761: 4147: 4110: 4073: 4030: 3958: 3880: 3818: 3149: 3022: 2822: 2772: 2456: 2451: 2221: 2077: 1838: 1695:

became increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the

1601: 1558: 1002: 810: 671: 659: 647: 402: 397: 124: 4019:"From Sovereign States to Prussian Provinces: Hanover and Hesse-Nassau, 1866–1871" 2104:, which gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia could equip its armies with 1906: 5594: 5564: 5483: 5371: 5072: 5051: 5038: 4632: 4627: 4501: 4489: 3665: 3166: 2554: 2394: 2374: 2287: 2198: 2065: 1957: 1851:: France was also unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, because Bismarck and 1744: 1595: 1546: 1480: 1308: 1049: 831: 726: 713: 701: 689: 528: 431: 346: 326: 191: 159: 149: 62: 4475:. Translated by von Wright, Colonel; Hozier, Henry M. London: Clowes & Sons. 3289:

with Hungary was "rapidly concluded". Beust "persuaded Francis Joseph to accept

1751: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5529: 5519: 5361: 5202: 5176: 5112: 5067: 5031: 4175: 3306: 3129: 2971:: Hanover's army defeats Prussia's. However, Hanover surrenders two days later. 2783: 2434: 2414: 2248: 2007: 1915: 1664: 1660: 376: 252: 104: 3962: 3884: 3823: 3806: 3144:

In addition to war reparations, the following territorial changes took place:

5753: 5473: 5458: 5438: 5407: 5259: 5063: 4712: 3832: 3667:

Bismarck and the Development of Germany: The Period of Unification, 1815–1871

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In 1866, the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the

1918:) commemorates some of the heaviest fighting during the Battle of Königgrätz. 1864: 1761: 929: 580: 575: 2844: 5615: 5509: 5286: 5192: 4984: 4702: 3302: 3194: 3169:

in the following year. Additionally Austria was also excluded from Germany.

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Road to Koniggratz: Helmuth von Moltke and the Austro-Prussian War 1866

4042: 4018: 3970: 3946: 3290: 3253: 3045: 2795: 2787: 2739: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2612: 2607: 2099: 1868: 1735: 4742: 2088: 1250: 5239: 5093: 4524:

The Austro-Prussian War: Austria's War with Prussia and Italy in 1866

3911: 3899: 3391: 3389: 3233: 3053: 2868: 2864: 2109: 4204:"Sonderausstellung: '1866: Liechtenstein im Krieg – Vor 150 Jahren'" 2714: 4547:

The Franco–Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871

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Seven Months in the Rebel States During the North American War 1863

4180:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871

4034: 3425: 2903: 1943: 1891: 1577: 3413: 3401: 3386: 3139: 2964:(Trutnov): Austrians check Prussian advance but with heavy losses. 2838: 2810: 2802: 2444: 2204:

Most of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular

2164: 2080:, published their adventures in America for the public to enjoy. 2003: 1890:: Italy had already allied itself with Prussia because it wanted 1740: 1692: 1688: 1680: 1676: 386: 96: 92: 3614:

Blood and Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German Empire 1871–1918

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the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the

3066:

to opposition in the government cabinet, including Crown Prince

1817:

that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war.

3558:

The Kingdom of Württemberg and the Making of Germany, 1815–1871

2926: 2915: 2907: 2790:

to enhance long-distance communication. The Prussian Army used

2112:

but the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the

1895: 1789: 1636:

When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the

213: 209: 2137: 2045:

the Austrians adopted the same methods, which they termed the

1691:

was traditionally considered the leader of the German states,

1592:

that excluded Austria and the other southern German states, a

3003:(Vis): the Austrian fleet decisively defeats the Italian one. 2931: 2517: 2244: 1923:

personalities within the Prussian army were the War Minister

1880: 1747:

troop movements and maneuvers during the Battle of Königgrätz

1573:, and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. 490: 4303:. Archibald Constable & Co. In Benja we trust. pp. 3793:

Blood, Iron and Gold: How the Railways Transformed the World

3374: 3208: 1707:

were once again reorganized into a loose confederation: the

4143: 4106: 4069: 3364: 3362: 3049:

Reception of Prussian troops in Berlin on 21 September 1866

3025:(Lamač): Austrians defend Bratislava against Prussian army. 2767: 2235:

Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war.

2224:

participated in the war with Prussia, because Austria held

2033:, a bolt-action rifle which could be fired faster than the 4437:

The Seven Weeks' War: the Austro-Prussian Conflict of 1866

3213: 3136:

would become one of the most influential European powers.

2985:(Sadová): overwhelming Prussian victory against Austrians. 1553:, with each also being aided by various allies within the 3586:

The Formation of the First German Nation-State, 1800–1871

3533:

The Formation of the First German Nation-State, 1800–1871

3505:

The Formation of the First German Nation-State, 1800–1871

4231:"In 1866, 80 men went to war — this is why 81 came home" 3761: 3359: 3347: 2992:: Prussians defeat the Bavarians (7th Army Corps of the 5151: 1845:

of February 1863 with Russia, whereas Austria had not.

1663:

was split into a few large- or medium-sized states and

4470: 4411:(4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. 4311: 3917: 3905: 3805:

Loch, Thorsten; Kesselring, Agilolf (31 August 2023).

3737: 3431: 3419: 3407: 3395: 3257:, and remained a member until its dissolution in 1919. 1792:, sent a dispatch to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1645:

on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

4394:

Bond, Brian (1966). "The Austro-Prussian War, 1866".

4278: 3994:

A Study in Particularist Opposition to National Unity

3773: 3749: 3110:, which received 46.6% of the Hanoverian vote in the 3078:

on 23 August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the

3923: 4146:, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 54. 4109:, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 45. 4072:, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 44. 3630: 3277:was "impatient to take his revenge on Bismarck for 4445: 4334: 4259:. Vol. I. Oxford University Press. p. 4. 3437: 1980:The Prussian army was locally based, organized in 1755:Movements of the Prussian Army near the Main river 3495: 3493: 5751: 3243:declared both of these states to be part of the 1960:and cavalry charges had been rendered obsolete. 1687:to seize the province of Silesia in 1742. While 1586:unification of all of the northern German states 1569:. The Austro-Prussian War was part of the wider 3555: 3318:Another reason that Beust's supposedly desired 3140:For the defeated parties and Schleswig-Holstein 2813:. There, the Prussian armies, led nominally by 2124:, and the state was heavily in debt. Historian 4374: 4174: 4137: 4100: 4063: 3996:. New York: Springer Dordrecht. pp. 2–3. 3851:Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 3804: 3521: 3490: 3471: 3268: 2918:to France, which, in turn, ceded it to Italy. 2786:to concentrate troops during mobilization and 5137: 4598: 4029:(1). The University of Chicago Press: 24–56. 3616:. Cheltenham: The History Press. p. 47. 3580: 3527: 3499: 3040: 2251:still bore a grudge against Austria from the 1266: 3716: 3710: 3282: 3172:Schleswig and Holstein: Became the Prussian 2825:advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the 2162: 2097: 2052: 2046: 1981: 1941: 1683:, which in fact defeated Austria during the 1593: 1521: 1513: 4377:Armies of Bismarck's Wars: Prussian 1860–67 4182:. Cambridge University Press. p. 302. 3940: 3938: 3657: 3608: 3574: 2259:Alliances of the Austro-Prussian War, 1866 1837:and Prussia had stood by Russia during the 5144: 5130: 4612: 4605: 4591: 4406: 4131: 4094: 4057: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3860: 3549: 3474:Nationalism and society, Germany 1800–1945 3465: 3380: 3368: 3353: 3098:Local resistance and regional loyalty led 2817:, converged, and the two sides met at the 2228:wanted by Italy to further the process of 1952:with equal or superior numbers of troops. 1667:, which while ostensibly being within the 1273: 1259: 5270:Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states 4512: 4479: 4317: 4296: 4274:. Cassell & Company Ltds. p. 58. 4254: 4168: 3822: 3462:. PhD thesis, Middlesex University. p. 47 3209:For the neutral parties and Liechtenstein 2821:(Hradec Králové) on 3 July. The Prussian 2801:The main campaign of the war occurred in 2755:Learn how and when to remove this message 2029:Prussian infantry were equipped with the 1989: 1934: 4425: 4196: 4010: 3935: 3743: 3602: 3454: 3452: 3264:: Joined the North German Confederation. 3212: 3179:Hanover: Annexed by Prussia, became the 3116:Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel 3052: 3044: 2934:under Colonel Rodakowski attack Italian 2925: 2902:on 21 July, conquered the lower part of 2882:, defeating the Italians on land at the 2843: 2766: 2136: 2108:and later with new Krupp breech-loading 2087: 2017: 2013: 1967: 1963: 1905: 1750: 1734: 1726: 152:of Austria from German national politics 5688:Anniversary of the Unification of Italy 5357:Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861 4443: 4332: 4284: 4269: 4228: 4016: 3991: 3944: 3870: 3857: 3779: 3767: 3755: 3693:"A History of Modern Germany 1800–2000" 3684: 3663: 3247:. Limburg became the Dutch province of 1280: 14: 5752: 4500: 4488: 4434: 3929: 3648: 3636: 3476:. London: Hodder Arnold. p. 106. 2914:, signed on 12 October, Austria ceded 2878:The Austrians were more successful in 2226:Venetia and other, smaller territories 1580:. It resulted in the abolition of the 5125: 4586: 4544: 4521: 4430:, Great Lives Observed, Prentice-Hall 4355: 3845: 3449: 3443: 3260:Reuss-Schleiz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 3148:Austria: Surrendered the province of 2950:: Austrian army defeats Italian army. 1532: 1496:, also by many variant names such as 1254: 5652:Museum of the Risorgimento (Bologna) 5352:Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy 4393: 3535:. Red Globe Press. pp. 10, 24. 2978:(Jičín): Prussians defeat Austrians. 2737:adding citations to reliable sources 2708: 2704: 1604:annexation of the Austrian realm of 5693:National Unity and Armed Forces Day 3690: 3507:. Red Globe Press. pp. 24–25. 3275:Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 3163:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 2633:Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 2395:Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont 2355:Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 2325:Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 2145:. Oil painting by Georg von Boddien 2083: 1901: 1584:and its partial replacement by the 1571:rivalry between Austria and Prussia 1557:. Prussia had also allied with the 24: 5667:Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin) 5657:Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan) 5332:Second Italian War of Independence 4665:States of the German Confederation 4326: 4229:Corbeil, Shannon (29 April 2020). 3653:. Macmillan Press. pp. 39–40. 3336:Wars and battles involving Prussia 3295:Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen 2805:. Prussian Chief of General Staff 2780:Second Italian War of Independence 2118:Second Italian War of Independence 1777:There are many interpretations of 1715:, though at that time Prussia had 1611: 25: 5851: 5662:Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome) 5367:Third Italian War of Independence 5337:United Provinces of Central Italy 5292:First Italian War of Independence 4575:Further information about the war 4568: 2120:. Austria had only one bank, the 1794:Count Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly 5765:1866 in the German Confederation 5216: 5106: 4448:The Art of War: Waterloo to Mons 2921: 2713: 2688: 2678: 2657: 2647: 2637: 2627: 2617: 2606: 2589: 2585:Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe 2579: 2569: 2559: 2549: 2539: 2528: 2516: 2504: 2492: 2480: 2468: 2450: 2439: 2429: 2419: 2409: 2399: 2389: 2379: 2369: 2359: 2349: 2339: 2329: 2319: 2308: 2286: 2274: 2264: 2257: 2185:. Smaller middle states such as 1628:The Prussian Minister President 1218: 1193: 1168: 1143: 1111: 1079: 1042: 995: 955: 922: 908: 894: 880: 866: 852: 838: 824: 803: 789: 762: 750: 738: 725: 712: 700: 688: 670: 658: 646: 634: 622: 610: 598: 574: 563: 553: 543: 533: 523: 513: 501: 489: 476: 463: 450: 437: 424: 408: 396: 381: 371: 361: 351: 341: 331: 321: 311: 301: 291: 281: 270: 259: 247: 236: 52: 4506:Bismarck: the Man and Statesman 4494:The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918 4473:The Campaign of 1866 in Germany 4471:Prussian General Staff (1872). 4290: 4263: 4248: 4222: 3985: 3839: 3798: 3785: 3642: 3588:. Red Globe Press. p. 72. 3560:. Bloomsbury 3PL. p. 183. 3095:of their nation's sovereignty. 3021:22 July (last day of the war), 2724:needs additional citations for 1927:and Chief of the General Staff 1600:. The war also resulted in the 1561:, linking this conflict to the 5626:Francis II of the Two Sicilies 5434:Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour 5382:Italian entry into World War I 4515:The Wars of German Unification 4375:Bassett-Powell, Bruce (2013). 4272:The Fall of the Third Napoleon 4257:The Origins of the War of 1914 3670:. Princeton University Press. 3281:". As a preliminary step, the 3174:Province of Schleswig-Holstein 2898:defeated the Austrians at the 2848:Austrian victory at the naval 1875:on 2 May 1871, Bismarck said: 1722: 79:(1 month and 8 days) 13: 1: 5790:History of Schleswig-Holstein 5479:Annibale Santore di Santarosa 4940:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 4513:Showalter, Dennis E. (2004). 4023:The Journal of Modern History 3720:Bismarck: A Political History 3112:March 1871 Reichstag election 2957:: Prussians defeat Austrians. 2890:(20 July). However, Italy's " 2886:(24 June), and on sea at the 2648: 2040:of the Austrian army. In the 1534:[ˌdɔʏtʃɐˈbʁuːdɐkʁiːk] 1234: 1131: 1122: 1099: 1090: 1070: 1061: 1020: 1011: 983: 977: 971: 5815:Wars involving Liechtenstein 5550:Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi 5245:Revolutions during the 1820s 4297:de Cesare, Raffaele (1909). 3992:Stehlin, Stewart A. (2011). 3717:Feuchtwanger, Edgar (2014). 3341: 3239:Limburg and Luxembourg: The 3156:handed it to Italy, after a 3068:Frederick William of Prussia 3030:Battle of Tauberbischofsheim 2857:Second Battle of Langensalza 2835:Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal 2169:voting for neutrality. King 2132: 2114:Hungarian Revolution of 1848 1976:is cheered on by his troops. 91:(South and Central Germany, 7: 5805:Wars involving Hesse-Kassel 5775:1866 in the Austrian Empire 5729:Revisionism of Risorgimento 5307:Sicilian revolution of 1848 5188:Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia 5183:Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 5088:Schleswig–Holstein question 4935:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 4300:The Last Days of Papal Rome 3918:Prussian General Staff 1872 3906:Prussian General Staff 1872 3853:. Harvard University Press. 3432:Prussian General Staff 1872 3420:Prussian General Staff 1872 3408:Prussian General Staff 1872 3396:Prussian General Staff 1872 3329: 3269:Austrian desire for revenge 2871:. The Bavarian fortress of 2575:Principality of Reuss-Greiz 1772: 231:Prussian-led German states 10: 5856: 5830:Wars involving Württemberg 5636:Joseph Radetzky von Radetz 5342:Expedition of the Thousand 5208:Duchy of Modena and Reggio 4970:Karl August von Hardenberg 4708:North German Confederation 4681:Confederation of the Rhine 4551:Cambridge University Press 4528:Cambridge University Press 4480:Scheibert, Justus (1863). 3723:. Routledge. p. 125. 3326:was "vigorously opposed". 3245:Kingdom of the Netherlands 3219:North German Confederation 3202:North German Confederation 3188:North German Confederation 3165:into the dual monarchy of 3084:North German Confederation 3041:Aftermath and consequences 3018:" defeat an Austrian army. 2663:Principality of Reuss-Gera 2141:Prussian artillery at the 2062:Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg 1685:War of Austrian Succession 1652: 1590:North German Confederation 1439:Italy and the Adriatic Sea 1105:16,263 captured or missing 198:and fringe possessions of 145:North German Confederation 5840:Franz Joseph I of Austria 5835:William I, German Emperor 5780:Austria–Prussia relations 5701: 5680: 5644: 5621:Franz Joseph I of Austria 5608: 5498:Literature and philosophy 5497: 5416: 5395: 5347:Dictatorship of Garibaldi 5225: 5214: 5163: 5103: 5013: 4887: 4721: 4698:German Empire (1848–1849) 4673: 4620: 4444:McElwee, William (1974). 4255:Albertini, Luigi (1952). 3963:10.1017/s0008938900018008 3885:10.1017/S0008938900018008 3824:10.1177/09683445231193878 3791:Wolmar, Christian (2010) 3651:Nineteenth Century Europe 3458:Stoetzler, Marcel (2003) 2463: 2385:Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 2303: 2263: 2159:Elector Frederick William 1788:, Austrian ambassador in 1665:hundreds of tiny entities 1648: 1294: 1137:1,397 captured or missing 938: 777: 588: 224: 208:Italy completely annexes 69: 51: 39: 34: 5083:Greater Austria proposal 4454:Indiana University Press 4337:The Kaiser and his Times 4210:(in German). 11 May 2016 3951:Central European History 3873:Central European History 3649:Brooks, Stephen (1992). 3556:Bodie A. Ashton (2017). 3273:The Austrian Chancellor 3195:Province of Hesse-Nassau 2365:Grand Duchy of Oldenburg 2092:The Battle of Königgrätz 1998:The Austrian army under 5600:Francesco Saverio Salfi 5590:Gian Domenico Romagnosi 5026:Austro-Prussian rivalry 4839:"Blood and Iron" speech 4810:Greater Poland uprising 4781:Frankfurter Wachensturm 4407:Clodfelter, M. (2017). 4356:Barry, Quintin (2010). 4138:Jasper Heinzen (2017). 4101:Jasper Heinzen (2017). 4064:Jasper Heinzen (2017). 4017:Schmitt, H. A. (1985). 3945:Schmitt, H. A. (1975). 3472:Michael Hughes (1988). 3241:Treaty of London (1867) 3108:German-Hanoverian Party 2565:Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen 2345:Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg 1929:Helmuth Graf von Moltke 1871:. In his speech to the 1841:in Poland, signing the 1659:For several centuries, 1655:Austria-Prussia rivalry 1212:198 captured or missing 1187:546 captured or missing 1162:580 captured or missing 287:Saxe-Coburg & Gotha 123:-led German states and 46:Austria–Prussia rivalry 5825:Wars involving Waldeck 5800:Wars involving Bavaria 5631:Klemens von Metternich 5198:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 5153:Unification of Italy ( 5039:Das Lied der Deutschen 4975:Klemens von Metternich 4950:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 4660:Kingdom of Württemberg 4614:Unification of Germany 4435:Hozier, H. M. (2012). 4426:Hollyday, FBM (1970), 4270:Aronson, Theo (1970). 3664:Pflanze, Otto (1963). 3316: 3283: 3262:Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 3222: 3204:in the following year. 3058: 3050: 2942: 2852: 2775: 2643:Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 2595:Free City of Frankfurt 2511:Kingdom of Württemberg 2163: 2146: 2098: 2093: 2053: 2047: 2026: 1990:Speed of concentration 1982: 1977: 1942: 1935:Rival military systems 1925:Albrecht Graf von Roon 1919: 1885: 1843:Alvensleben Convention 1756: 1748: 1732: 1594: 1563:Third Independence War 1522: 1514: 1512:, known in Germany as 1240:57 captured or missing 732:Wilhelm von Tegetthoff 589:Commanders and leaders 77:14 June – 22 July 1866 5820:Wars involving Saxony 5672:Tricolour Flag Museum 5444:Federico Confalonieri 5275:Republic of San Marco 4955:Johann Gustav Droysen 4925:Frederick William III 4152:10.1017/9781108182737 4115:10.1017/9781108182737 4078:10.1017/9781108182737 3311: 3216: 3057:Map of Europe in 1867 3056: 3048: 2969:Battle of Langensalza 2929: 2847: 2771:Cavalry clash at the 2770: 2405:Principality of Lippe 2335:Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 2143:Battle of Langensalza 2140: 2106:breech-loading rifles 2091: 2021: 2014:Armaments and tactics 1974:Prince Friedrich Karl 1971: 1964:Speed of mobilization 1909: 1877: 1784:On 22 February 1866, 1754: 1738: 1730: 1524:Deutscher Bruderkrieg 1058:19,134 disease deaths 939:Casualties and losses 65:. Oil on canvas, 1869 5810:Wars involving Italy 5795:Wars involving Baden 5327:Plombières Agreement 5078:German reunification 5000:Wilhelm von Humboldt 4965:John, King of Saxony 4930:Frederick William IV 4879:Treaty of Versailles 4848:Second Schleswig War 4819:Punctation of Olmütz 4801:Frankfurt Parliament 4686:German Confederation 4341:. Houghton Mifflin. 4333:Balfour, M. (1964). 3152:to France, but then 3080:German Confederation 2994:German Confederation 2983:Battle of Königgrätz 2906:, and moved towards 2880:their war with Italy 2819:Battle of Königgrätz 2733:improve this article 2545:Grand Duchy of Hesse 2535:Grand Duchy of Baden 2214:Mecklenburg-Strelitz 2210:Mecklenburg-Schwerin 2151:Grand Duchy of Hesse 2070:Battle of Königgrätz 1910:The memorial to the 1801:Second Schleswig War 1766:Frankfurt Parliament 1709:German Confederation 1622:Second Schleswig War 1596:Kleindeutsches Reich 1582:German Confederation 1555:German Confederation 1055:24,431 battle deaths 974:7,000 disease deaths 968:11,765 battle deaths 707:Albrecht von Teschen 415:German Confederation 307:Mecklenburg-Strelitz 265:Mecklenburg-Schwerin 136:German Confederation 89:German Confederation 59:Battle of Königgrätz 40:Part of the wars of 5760:Austro-Prussian War 5719:Italian nationalism 5714:Italian irredentism 5709:Altare della Patria 5505:Giovanni Arrivabene 5312:Ten Days of Brescia 5265:Revolutions of 1848 5250:Revolutions of 1830 5235:Rimini Proclamation 5173:Kingdom of Sardinia 4945:Heinrich von Gagern 4870:Franco-Prussian War 4857:Austro-Prussian War 3383:, pp. 183–184. 3181:Province of Hanover 3125:Franco-Prussian War 3104:George V of Hanover 3100:Hans von Hardenberg 3016:Hunters of the Alps 2990:Battle of Kissingen 2962:Battle of Trautenau 2892:Hunters of the Alps 2523:Electorate of Hesse 2425:Free City of Lübeck 2260: 2230:Italian unification 2193:(or Hesse-Cassel), 2171:George V of Hanover 2155:Electorate of Hesse 2042:Franco-Austrian War 1912:Battery of the dead 1567:Italian unification 1494:Austro-Prussian War 1285:Austro-Prussian War 1156:1,341 battle deaths 1128:5,500 battle deaths 1096:3,456 battle deaths 1008:2,314 battle deaths 769:Crown Prince Albert 757:Prince Karl Theodor 35:Austro-Prussian War 5570:Alessandro Manzoni 5560:Francesco Lomonaco 5489:Victor Emmanuel II 5454:Giuseppe Garibaldi 5297:Five Days of Milan 5165:Pre-unitary states 5113:Germany portal 5046:Die Wacht am Rhein 4830:Dresden Conference 4733:Congress of Vienna 4650:Kingdom of Prussia 4645:Kingdom of Hanover 4640:Kingdom of Bavaria 4545:Wawro, G. (2003). 4522:Wawro, G. (1997). 3847:Clark, Christopher 3299:Victor Emmanuel II 3223: 3059: 3051: 3012:Giuseppe Garibaldi 3008:Battle of Bezzecca 2976:Battle of Gitschin 2943: 2900:Battle of Bezzecca 2853: 2807:Helmuth von Moltke 2794:'s breech-loading 2776: 2694:Duchy of Schleswig 2673:Disputed Territory 2499:Kingdom of Hanover 2475:Kingdom of Bavaria 2315:Duchy of Brunswick 2281:Kingdom of Prussia 2258: 2147: 2094: 2027: 2000:Ludwig von Benedek 1978: 1948:, the home guard. 1920: 1815:Gastein Convention 1757: 1749: 1733: 1673:Holy Roman Emperor 1642:Gastein Convention 1618:Schleswig-Holstein 1551:Kingdom of Prussia 1412:Tauberbischofsheim 719:Ludwig von Benedek 677:Giuseppe Garibaldi 665:Alfonso La Marmora 653:Victor Emmanuel II 629:Helmuth von Moltke 101:Kingdom of Hungary 42:German unification 27:1866 war in Europe 5785:Conflicts in 1866 5747: 5746: 5734:Southern question 5545:Vincenzo Gioberti 5525:Felice Cavallotti 5424:Massimo d'Azeglio 5377:Law of Guarantees 5119: 5118: 5057:Lützow Free Corps 4990:Otto von Bismarck 4910:Eduard von Simson 4753:Wartburg Festival 4655:Kingdom of Saxony 4235:We Are The Mighty 3770:, pp. 63–64. 3691:Kitchen, Martin. 3034:Federal 8th Corps 2948:Battle of Custoza 2940:Battle of Custoza 2884:Battle of Custoza 2765: 2764: 2757: 2705:Course of the war 2702: 2701: 2684:Duchy of Holstein 2487:Kingdom of Saxony 2126:Christopher Clark 2031:Dreyse needle gun 2024:Dreyse needle gun 2006:(the present-day 1914:in Chlum (modern 1779:Otto von Bismarck 1669:Holy Roman Empire 1630:Otto von Bismarck 1489: 1488: 1249: 1248: 1231:112 battle deaths 1206:452 battle deaths 1181:767 battle deaths 641:Albrecht von Roon 617:Otto von Bismarck 220: 219: 16:(Redirected from 5847: 5555:Giacomo Leopardi 5535:Giuseppe Ferrari 5469:Bettino Ricasoli 5464:Giuseppe Mazzini 5449:Francesco Crispi 5429:Agostino Bertani 5403:Cockade of Italy 5387:Impresa di Fiume 5317:Belfiore martyrs 5302:Sortie on Mestre 5220: 5146: 5139: 5132: 5123: 5122: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5060: 4876: 4867: 4854: 4845: 4836: 4827: 4816: 4807: 4798: 4791: 4777: 4771:Hambach Festival 4768: 4762:Carlsbad Decrees 4759: 4750: 4739: 4730: 4636: 4607: 4600: 4593: 4584: 4583: 4579: 4564: 4541: 4518: 4509: 4502:Taylor, A. J. P. 4497: 4490:Taylor, A. J. P. 4485: 4476: 4467: 4451: 4440: 4431: 4422: 4403: 4390: 4371: 4352: 4340: 4321: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4294: 4288: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4061: 4055: 4054: 4014: 4008: 4007: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3942: 3933: 3927: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3868: 3855: 3854: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3826: 3802: 3796: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3753: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3697: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3553: 3547: 3546: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3497: 3488: 3487: 3469: 3463: 3456: 3447: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3366: 3357: 3351: 3288: 3023:Battle of Lamacs 2955:Battle of Náchod 2912:Treaty of Vienna 2823:Army of the Elbe 2773:Battle of Nachod 2760: 2753: 2749: 2746: 2740: 2717: 2709: 2692: 2691: 2682: 2681: 2661: 2660: 2651: 2650: 2641: 2640: 2631: 2630: 2623:Duchy of Limburg 2621: 2620: 2611: 2610: 2593: 2592: 2583: 2582: 2573: 2572: 2563: 2562: 2553: 2552: 2543: 2542: 2533: 2532: 2521: 2520: 2509: 2508: 2497: 2496: 2485: 2484: 2473: 2472: 2457:Kingdom of Italy 2455: 2454: 2443: 2442: 2433: 2432: 2423: 2422: 2413: 2412: 2403: 2402: 2393: 2392: 2383: 2382: 2373: 2372: 2363: 2362: 2353: 2352: 2343: 2342: 2333: 2332: 2323: 2322: 2313: 2312: 2291: 2290: 2279: 2278: 2268: 2261: 2222:Kingdom of Italy 2168: 2103: 2084:Economic factors 2078:Justus Scheibert 2056: 2050: 1985: 1947: 1902:Military factors 1839:January Uprising 1599: 1559:Kingdom of Italy 1544: 1543: 1542: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1520:("German War"), 1519: 1502:German Civil War 1498:Seven Weeks' War 1362:Northern Germany 1289: 1288: 1286: 1275: 1268: 1261: 1252: 1251: 1236: 1224: 1222: 1221: 1199: 1197: 1196: 1174: 1172: 1171: 1149: 1147: 1146: 1133: 1124: 1117: 1115: 1114: 1101: 1092: 1085: 1083: 1082: 1072: 1063: 1048: 1046: 1045: 1022: 1013: 1001: 999: 998: 985: 979: 973: 961: 959: 958: 928: 926: 925: 914: 912: 911: 900: 898: 897: 886: 884: 883: 872: 870: 869: 858: 856: 855: 844: 842: 841: 830: 828: 827: 809: 807: 806: 795: 793: 792: 767: 766: 755: 754: 743: 742: 734: 730: 729: 717: 716: 705: 704: 693: 692: 675: 674: 663: 662: 651: 650: 639: 638: 627: 626: 615: 614: 603: 602: 579: 578: 567: 566: 559:Schaumburg-Lippe 557: 556: 547: 546: 537: 536: 527: 526: 517: 516: 507: 505: 504: 494: 493: 482: 480: 479: 469: 467: 466: 456: 454: 453: 443: 441: 440: 430: 428: 427: 412: 411: 401: 400: 385: 384: 375: 374: 365: 364: 355: 354: 345: 344: 335: 334: 325: 324: 315: 314: 305: 304: 295: 294: 285: 284: 275: 274: 263: 262: 251: 250: 241: 240: 174:Prussia annexes 71: 70: 56: 32: 31: 21: 5855: 5854: 5850: 5849: 5848: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5770:1866 in Prussia 5750: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5697: 5676: 5640: 5604: 5595:Antonio Rosmini 5565:Goffredo Mameli 5515:Giosuè Carducci 5493: 5484:Ruggero Settimo 5412: 5391: 5372:Capture of Rome 5221: 5212: 5159: 5150: 5120: 5115: 5107: 5105: 5099: 5073:German question 5054: 5052:Flag of Germany 5021:Alsace–Lorraine 5009: 4895:Baron von Stein 4883: 4874: 4865: 4861:Peace of Prague 4852: 4843: 4834: 4825: 4814: 4805: 4796: 4789: 4775: 4766: 4757: 4748: 4737: 4728: 4717: 4669: 4633:Austria-Hungary 4630: 4628:Austrian Empire 4616: 4611: 4577: 4571: 4561: 4538: 4496:(2nd ed.). 4464: 4452:. Bloomington: 4419: 4387: 4368: 4349: 4329: 4327:General sources 4324: 4316: 4312: 4295: 4291: 4283: 4279: 4268: 4264: 4253: 4249: 4239: 4237: 4227: 4223: 4213: 4211: 4202: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4062: 4058: 4015: 4011: 4004: 3990: 3986: 3943: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3916: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3869: 3858: 3844: 3840: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3786: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3715: 3711: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3689: 3685: 3678: 3662: 3658: 3647: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3498: 3491: 3484: 3470: 3466: 3457: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3430: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3387: 3381:Clodfelter 2017 3379: 3375: 3369:Clodfelter 2017 3367: 3360: 3354:Clodfelter 2017 3352: 3348: 3344: 3332: 3271: 3211: 3167:Austria-Hungary 3142: 3076:Peace of Prague 3043: 3001:Battle of Lissa 2924: 2888:Battle of Lissa 2850:Battle of Lissa 2761: 2750: 2744: 2741: 2730: 2718: 2707: 2698: 2689: 2679: 2667: 2658: 2638: 2628: 2618: 2605: 2599: 2590: 2580: 2570: 2560: 2555:Duchy of Nassau 2550: 2540: 2527: 2515: 2503: 2491: 2479: 2467: 2461: 2449: 2440: 2430: 2420: 2410: 2400: 2390: 2380: 2375:Duchy of Anhalt 2370: 2360: 2350: 2340: 2330: 2320: 2307: 2298:Neutral/passive 2293:Austrian Empire 2285: 2273: 2195:Hesse-Darmstadt 2135: 2086: 2066:C64 (field gun) 2016: 1992: 1966: 1958:Napoleonic Wars 1937: 1904: 1775: 1725: 1657: 1651: 1614: 1612:Outbreak of war 1547:Austrian Empire 1538: 1537: 1529: 1516:Deutscher Krieg 1490: 1485: 1290: 1284: 1282: 1281: 1279: 1245: 1219: 1217: 1194: 1192: 1169: 1167: 1144: 1142: 1112: 1110: 1080: 1078: 1073:40,000 captured 1043: 1041: 1036: 1035: 1028: 996: 994: 956: 954: 949: 948: 923: 921: 909: 907: 895: 893: 881: 879: 867: 865: 853: 851: 839: 837: 825: 823: 804: 802: 790: 788: 773: 761: 749: 737: 724: 723: 711: 699: 687: 681: 669: 657: 645: 633: 621: 609: 597: 573: 564: 554: 544: 534: 524: 519:Hesse-Darmstadt 514: 502: 500: 488: 477: 475: 464: 462: 451: 449: 438: 436: 425: 423: 409: 395: 394: 392:Co-Belligerent: 382: 372: 362: 352: 342: 332: 322: 312: 302: 292: 282: 269: 260: 248: 235: 204:Hesse-Darmstadt 169: 160:Austria-Hungary 111: 78: 63:Georg Bleibtreu 57: 28: 23: 22: 18:Seven Weeks War 15: 12: 11: 5: 5853: 5843: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5745: 5744: 5742: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5705: 5703: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5695: 5690: 5684: 5682: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5648: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5585:Carlo Pisacane 5582: 5580:Silvio Pellico 5577: 5575:Ippolito Nievo 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5530:Vincenzo Cuoco 5527: 5522: 5520:Carlo Cattaneo 5517: 5512: 5507: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5420: 5418: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5397: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5362:Roman Question 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5283: 5282: 5280:Roman Republic 5277: 5272: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5231: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5205: 5203:Duchy of Parma 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5177:House of Savoy 5169: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5149: 5148: 5141: 5134: 5126: 5117: 5116: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5097: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5068:Lesser Germany 5061: 5049: 5042: 5035: 5032:Burschenschaft 5028: 5023: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4920:Franz Joseph I 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4891: 4889: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4881: 4872: 4863: 4850: 4841: 4832: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4812: 4803: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4773: 4764: 4755: 4735: 4725: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4716: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4688: 4683: 4677: 4675: 4671: 4670: 4668: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4617: 4610: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4570: 4569:External links 4567: 4566: 4565: 4559: 4542: 4536: 4519: 4510: 4498: 4486: 4477: 4468: 4462: 4441: 4432: 4423: 4418:978-0786474707 4417: 4404: 4391: 4386:978-1935149231 4385: 4372: 4367:978-1906033378 4366: 4353: 4347: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4318:Albertini 1952 4310: 4289: 4277: 4262: 4247: 4221: 4195: 4189:978-0521584364 4188: 4176:Geoffrey Wawro 4167: 4161:978-1107198791 4160: 4130: 4124:978-1107198791 4123: 4093: 4087:978-1107198791 4086: 4056: 4035:10.1086/242776 4009: 4003:978-9401024075 4002: 3984: 3957:(3): 316–347. 3934: 3922: 3920:, p. 378. 3910: 3908:, p. 362. 3898: 3879:(4): 316–347. 3856: 3838: 3817:(2): 128–147. 3811:War in History 3797: 3784: 3772: 3760: 3748: 3736: 3730:978-1317684329 3729: 3709: 3683: 3676: 3656: 3641: 3629: 3623:978-0750996228 3622: 3601: 3594: 3573: 3567:978-1350000070 3566: 3548: 3541: 3520: 3513: 3489: 3482: 3464: 3448: 3436: 3424: 3412: 3400: 3385: 3373: 3371:, p. 183. 3358: 3356:, p. 182. 3345: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3338: 3331: 3328: 3324:Gyula Andrássy 3307:Roman Question 3270: 3267: 3266: 3265: 3258: 3237: 3210: 3207: 3206: 3205: 3198: 3191: 3184: 3177: 3170: 3141: 3138: 3130:Geoffrey Wawro 3042: 3039: 3038: 3037: 3026: 3019: 3004: 2997: 2986: 2979: 2972: 2965: 2958: 2951: 2923: 2920: 2815:King William I 2763: 2762: 2721: 2719: 2712: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2699: 2697: 2696: 2686: 2675: 2669: 2668: 2666: 2665: 2655: 2645: 2635: 2625: 2615: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2597: 2587: 2577: 2567: 2557: 2547: 2537: 2525: 2513: 2501: 2489: 2477: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2459: 2447: 2437: 2427: 2417: 2415:Saxe-Lauenburg 2407: 2397: 2387: 2377: 2367: 2357: 2347: 2337: 2327: 2317: 2304: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2283: 2270: 2269: 2249:Russian Empire 2134: 2131: 2085: 2082: 2035:muzzle-loading 2015: 2012: 2008:Czech Republic 1991: 1988: 1965: 1962: 1936: 1933: 1916:Czech Republic 1903: 1900: 1774: 1771: 1724: 1721: 1661:Central Europe 1650: 1647: 1613: 1610: 1487: 1486: 1484: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1371: 1370: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1358: 1353: 1346: 1341: 1339:Schweinschädel 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1300: 1299: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1278: 1277: 1270: 1263: 1255: 1247: 1246: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1241: 1238: 1232: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1190: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1129: 1108: 1107: 1106: 1103: 1097: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1068: 1067:12,365 missing 1065: 1064:40,000 wounded 1059: 1056: 1039: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1029: 1027: 1026: 1025: 1024: 1023:5,000 captured 1018: 1015: 1009: 992: 991: 990: 987: 981: 980:25,000 wounded 975: 969: 952: 946: 945: 944: 941: 940: 936: 935: 934: 933: 919: 905: 891: 877: 863: 849: 835: 816: 815: 814: 800: 780: 779: 775: 774: 772: 771: 759: 747: 735: 721: 709: 697: 695:Franz Joseph I 684: 682: 680: 679: 667: 655: 643: 631: 619: 607: 594: 591: 590: 586: 585: 584: 583: 571: 561: 551: 541: 539:Saxe-Meiningen 531: 521: 511: 498: 486: 473: 460: 447: 434: 405: 390: 389: 379: 369: 359: 349: 339: 329: 319: 309: 299: 297:Saxe-Altenburg 289: 279: 267: 257: 256: 255: 253:Saxe-Lauenburg 227: 226: 222: 221: 218: 217: 216: 206: 171: 165: 164: 163: 162: 153: 147: 138: 117: 113: 112: 105:Northern Italy 87: 85: 81: 80: 75: 67: 66: 49: 48: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5852: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5757: 5755: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5685: 5683: 5681:National days 5679: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5502: 5500: 5496: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5474:Aurelio Saffi 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5459:Daniele Manin 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5439:Celso Ceretti 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5419: 5415: 5409: 5408:Flag of Italy 5406: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5260:Neo-Guelphism 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5219: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5178: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5156: 5147: 5142: 5140: 5135: 5133: 5128: 5127: 5124: 5114: 5102: 5096: 5095: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5065: 5064:Pan-Germanism 5062: 5058: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5047: 5043: 5041: 5040: 5036: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5012: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4960:Archduke John 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4886: 4880: 4873: 4871: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4851: 4849: 4842: 4840: 4833: 4831: 4824: 4820: 4813: 4811: 4804: 4802: 4795: 4794: 4793: 4787: 4783: 4782: 4774: 4772: 4765: 4763: 4756: 4754: 4747: 4746: 4745: 4744: 4736: 4734: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4720: 4714: 4713:German Empire 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4634: 4629: 4626: 4625: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4608: 4603: 4601: 4596: 4594: 4589: 4588: 4585: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4562: 4560:0-521-58436-1 4556: 4552: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4537:0-521-62951-9 4533: 4529: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4465: 4463:0-253-20214-0 4459: 4455: 4450: 4449: 4442: 4438: 4433: 4429: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4402:(8): 538–546. 4401: 4397: 4396:History Today 4392: 4388: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4350: 4348:0-39300-661-1 4344: 4339: 4338: 4331: 4330: 4319: 4314: 4306: 4302: 4301: 4293: 4287:, p. 56. 4286: 4281: 4273: 4266: 4258: 4251: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4209: 4205: 4199: 4191: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4163: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4134: 4126: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4097: 4089: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4013: 4005: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3939: 3932:, p. 48. 3931: 3926: 3919: 3914: 3907: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3794: 3788: 3782:, p. 52. 3781: 3776: 3769: 3764: 3758:, p. 60. 3757: 3752: 3746:, p. 36. 3745: 3744:Hollyday 1970 3740: 3732: 3726: 3722: 3721: 3713: 3694: 3687: 3679: 3677:0-691-00765-9 3673: 3669: 3668: 3660: 3652: 3645: 3638: 3633: 3625: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3597: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3582:John Breuilly 3577: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3529:John Breuilly 3524: 3516: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3501:John Breuilly 3496: 3494: 3485: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3455: 3453: 3446:, p. 16. 3445: 3440: 3434:, p. 12. 3433: 3428: 3421: 3416: 3409: 3404: 3397: 3392: 3390: 3382: 3377: 3370: 3365: 3363: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3337: 3334: 3333: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3310: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3286: 3280: 3276: 3263: 3259: 3256: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3235: 3231: 3230:Liechtenstein 3228: 3227: 3226: 3220: 3215: 3203: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3189: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3175: 3171: 3168: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3145: 3137: 3135: 3134:German Empire 3131: 3126: 3120: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3055: 3047: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3024: 3020: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3002: 2998: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2984: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2963: 2959: 2956: 2952: 2949: 2945: 2944: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2922:Major battles 2919: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2774: 2769: 2759: 2756: 2748: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2722:This section 2720: 2716: 2711: 2710: 2695: 2687: 2685: 2677: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2670: 2664: 2656: 2654: 2653:Liechtenstein 2646: 2644: 2636: 2634: 2626: 2624: 2616: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2603: 2601: 2596: 2588: 2586: 2578: 2576: 2568: 2566: 2558: 2556: 2548: 2546: 2538: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2524: 2519: 2514: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2446: 2438: 2436: 2428: 2426: 2418: 2416: 2408: 2406: 2398: 2396: 2388: 2386: 2378: 2376: 2368: 2366: 2358: 2356: 2348: 2346: 2338: 2336: 2328: 2326: 2318: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2302: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2172: 2167: 2166: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2144: 2139: 2130: 2127: 2123: 2122:Creditanstalt 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2101: 2090: 2081: 2079: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2039: 2038:Lorenz rifles 2036: 2032: 2025: 2022:The Prussian 2020: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1987: 1984: 1975: 1970: 1961: 1959: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1865:Rhenish Hesse 1862: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1786:Count Károlyi 1782: 1780: 1770: 1767: 1763: 1762:John Breuilly 1753: 1746: 1742: 1739:Depiction of 1737: 1729: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1705:German states 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1671:ruled by the 1670: 1666: 1662: 1656: 1646: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1631: 1626: 1623: 1619: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1597: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1541: 1535: 1526: 1525: 1518: 1517: 1511: 1510:Fraternal War 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1466:Vezza d'Oglio 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1402:Aschaffenburg 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1351: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1287: 1276: 1271: 1269: 1264: 1262: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1239: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1227: 1216: 1211: 1209:1,679 wounded 1208: 1205: 1204: 1202: 1191: 1186: 1184:2,321 wounded 1183: 1180: 1179: 1177: 1166: 1161: 1159:4,678 wounded 1158: 1155: 1154: 1152: 1141: 1136: 1134:1,200 wounded 1130: 1127: 1126: 1120: 1109: 1104: 1102:5,500 wounded 1098: 1095: 1094: 1088: 1077: 1069: 1066: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1051: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1030: 1019: 1016: 1014:4,500 wounded 1010: 1007: 1006: 1004: 993: 988: 986:1,100 missing 982: 976: 970: 967: 966: 964: 953: 951: 950: 943: 942: 937: 931: 930:Liechtenstein 920: 917: 906: 903: 892: 889: 878: 875: 864: 861: 850: 847: 836: 833: 822: 821: 820: 817: 812: 801: 798: 787: 786: 785: 782: 781: 776: 770: 765: 760: 758: 753: 748: 746: 741: 736: 733: 728: 722: 720: 715: 710: 708: 703: 698: 696: 691: 686: 685: 683: 678: 673: 668: 666: 661: 656: 654: 649: 644: 642: 637: 632: 630: 625: 620: 618: 613: 608: 606: 601: 596: 595: 593: 592: 587: 582: 581:Liechtenstein 577: 572: 570: 562: 560: 552: 550: 542: 540: 532: 530: 522: 520: 512: 510: 499: 497: 492: 487: 485: 474: 472: 461: 459: 448: 446: 435: 433: 422: 421: 420: 419: 416: 413:Austrian-led 406: 404: 399: 393: 388: 380: 378: 370: 368: 360: 358: 350: 348: 340: 338: 330: 328: 320: 318: 310: 308: 300: 298: 290: 288: 280: 278: 273: 268: 266: 258: 254: 246: 245: 244: 239: 234: 233: 232: 229: 228: 223: 215: 211: 207: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 172: 167: 166: 161: 157: 154: 151: 148: 146: 142: 139: 137: 133: 130: 129: 128: 126: 122: 118: 115: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 83: 82: 76: 73: 72: 68: 64: 60: 55: 50: 47: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 5616:Pope Pius IX 5510:Cesare Balbo 5417:Main leaders 5287:Quadrilatero 5193:Papal States 5155:Risorgimento 5154: 5092: 5044: 5037: 5030: 4985:Napoleon III 4905:Christian IX 4859: / 4856: 4779: 4741: 4703:Erfurt Union 4690: 4546: 4523: 4514: 4505: 4493: 4481: 4472: 4447: 4436: 4427: 4408: 4399: 4395: 4379:. Casemate. 4376: 4357: 4336: 4320:, p. 6. 4313: 4299: 4292: 4285:Aronson 1970 4280: 4271: 4265: 4256: 4250: 4238:. Retrieved 4234: 4224: 4212:. Retrieved 4207: 4198: 4179: 4170: 4139: 4133: 4102: 4096: 4065: 4059: 4026: 4022: 4012: 3993: 3987: 3954: 3950: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3876: 3872: 3850: 3841: 3814: 3810: 3800: 3792: 3787: 3780:McElwee 1974 3775: 3768:McElwee 1974 3763: 3756:McElwee 1974 3751: 3739: 3719: 3712: 3700:. Retrieved 3686: 3666: 3659: 3650: 3644: 3639:, p. 3. 3632: 3613: 3604: 3585: 3576: 3557: 3551: 3532: 3523: 3504: 3473: 3467: 3459: 3439: 3427: 3422:, p. 7. 3415: 3410:, p. 5. 3403: 3398:, p. 4. 3376: 3349: 3319: 3317: 3312: 3303:Pope Pius IX 3272: 3252: 3224: 3154:Napoleon III 3143: 3121: 3097: 3072:Napoleon III 3060: 2877: 2854: 2800: 2782:, including 2777: 2751: 2742: 2731:Please help 2726:verification 2723: 2672: 2297: 2292: 2280: 2247:, while the 2241:Napoleon III 2234: 2203: 2191:Hesse-Kassel 2176: 2148: 2095: 2074: 2059: 2028: 1997: 1993: 1979: 1954: 1950: 1938: 1921: 1911: 1887: 1886: 1878: 1858: 1853:Napoleon III 1848: 1847: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1823: 1819: 1811:expansionist 1798: 1783: 1776: 1758: 1713:Erfurt Union 1697:great powers 1658: 1635: 1627: 1615: 1575: 1523: 1515: 1509: 1506:Brothers War 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1491: 1349: 1334:Münchengrätz 1304:Hühnerwasser 1283: 989:910 captured 818: 783: 496:Hesse-Kassel 407: 391: 230: 225:Belligerents 212:and part of 188:Hesse-Kassel 119: 109:Adriatic Sea 58: 29: 5540:Ugo Foscolo 5322:Crimean War 5255:Young Italy 4995:Robert Blum 4792:Revolutions 4578:(in German) 4240:21 November 3930:Taylor 1955 3698:. Blackwell 3637:Taylor 1955 3610:Katja Hoyer 2938:during the 2936:Bersaglieri 2863:, reaching 2831:Second Army 2745:August 2020 2253:Crimean War 2183:Württemberg 1835:Crimean War 1723:Nationalism 1717:backed down 1699:of Europe. 1638:German Diet 1368:Langensalza 1324:Burkersdorf 1237:300 wounded 1201:Württemberg 1017:553 missing 902:Württemberg 549:Reuss-Greiz 484:Württemberg 337:Schwarzburg 168:Territorial 132:Dissolution 5754:Categories 5739:Third Rome 4692:Zollverein 4360:. Helion. 4214:8 December 3795:p. 96 3595:0333527186 3542:0333527186 3514:0333527186 3483:0713165227 3444:Wawro 2003 3254:Zollverein 3158:plebiscite 3092:Pan-Slavic 3088:Main River 2861:river Main 2839:Nikolsburg 2827:First Army 2796:needle gun 2792:von Dreyse 2788:telegraphy 2613:Luxembourg 2100:Zollverein 2054:Stoßtaktik 2048:Stoßtaktik 1869:Luxembourg 1861:Palatinate 1701:Francis II 1653:See also: 1530:pronounced 1461:Valtellina 1456:Lake Garda 1422:Gerchsheim 1397:Frohnhofen 1375:Main River 1350:Königgrätz 1052:: 106,796 5724:Redshirts 5609:Opponents 5240:Carbonari 5094:Sonderweg 5005:Wilhelm I 4980:Ludwig II 4900:Charles I 4866:1870–1871 4826:1850-1851 4797:1848–1849 4738:1815–1848 4729:1814–1815 4051:144459369 3979:145525529 3893:145525529 3833:0968-3445 3342:Citations 3285:Ausgleich 3063:William I 3028:24 July, 3006:21 July, 2999:20 July, 2988:10 July, 2974:29 June, 2967:27 June, 2960:27 June, 2953:27 June, 2946:24 June, 2930:Austrian 2896:Garibaldi 2894:" led by 2869:Frankfurt 2865:Nuremberg 2218:Brunswick 2206:Oldenburg 2133:Alliances 2110:artillery 1972:Prussian 1873:Reichstag 1427:Helmstadt 1392:Kissingen 1319:Trautenau 1005:: 11,197 965:: 40,000 745:Ludwig II 605:Wilhelm I 569:Frankfurt 317:Oldenburg 277:Brunswick 196:Frankfurt 184:Schleswig 156:Formation 150:Exclusion 141:Formation 5227:Timeline 4504:(1955). 4492:(1948). 4428:Bismarck 4208:Lie:zeit 4178:(2015). 3849:(2008). 3702:24 April 3612:(2021). 3584:(1996). 3531:(1996). 3503:(1996). 3330:See also 3320:revanche 3234:defector 2981:3 July, 2904:Trentino 2873:Würzburg 2784:railways 2239:Emperor 2116:and the 1944:Landwehr 1892:Lombardy 1773:Bismarck 1745:Austrian 1741:Prussian 1578:hegemony 1549:and the 1476:Bezzecca 1451:Trentino 1432:Roßbrunn 1407:Hundheim 1387:Dermbach 1356:Blumenau 1344:Gitschin 1203:: 2,300 1178:: 3,500 1153:: 7,000 819:522,203 784:637,262 778:Strength 180:Holstein 127:victory 121:Prussian 84:Location 44:and the 5645:Museums 5396:Symbols 5014:Related 4915:Franz I 4743:Vormärz 4631:(later 4043:1898934 3971:4545753 3249:Limburg 3150:Venetia 2811:Silesia 2803:Bohemia 2445:Hamburg 2179:Bavaria 2165:Landtag 2153:to the 2004:Bohemia 1896:Venetia 1825:Britain 1821:below: 1693:Prussia 1689:Austria 1681:Prussia 1677:Austria 1606:Venetia 1602:Italian 1588:in the 1446:Custoza 1417:Werbach 1382:Hünfeld 1329:Skalitz 1298:Bohemia 1125:20,000 1119:Bavaria 1093:25,000 1087:Hanover 1050:Austria 963:Prussia 888:Hanover 846:Bavaria 834:407,223 832:Austria 813:200,000 799:437,262 797:Prussia 471:Hanover 445:Bavaria 432:Austria 387:Hamburg 347:Waldeck 243:Prussia 210:Venetia 200:Bavaria 176:Hanover 170:changes 143:of the 134:of the 125:Italian 97:Moravia 93:Bohemia 4888:People 4877: 4868: 4855: 4846: 4837: 4828: 4817: 4808: 4799: 4778: 4769: 4760: 4751: 4740: 4731: 4722:Events 4674:Unions 4621:States 4557: 4534: 4460: 4415: 4383: 4364: 4345: 4186: 4158: 4121: 4084: 4049: 4041: 4000: 3977: 3969: 3891: 3831: 3727: 3674: 3620: 3592: 3564: 3539: 3511: 3480: 3291:Magyar 3279:Sadowa 3074:. The 3032:, the 2932:uhlans 2916:Veneto 2908:Trento 2435:Bremen 2237:French 2220:. The 2216:, and 2199:Nassau 2197:, and 1983:Kreise 1849:France 1831:Russia 1790:Berlin 1649:Causes 1314:Náchod 1228:: 500 1223: 1198: 1173: 1151:Saxony 1148: 1116: 1084: 1047: 1000: 960: 927: 913: 899: 890:18,400 885: 876:20,000 871: 862:26,500 860:Saxony 857: 848:38,000 843: 829: 808: 794: 529:Nassau 506: 481: 468: 458:Saxony 455: 442: 429: 418:states 377:Bremen 367:Lübeck 327:Anhalt 214:Friuli 192:Nassau 116:Result 5702:Other 4307:–443. 4047:S2CID 4039:JSTOR 3975:S2CID 3967:JSTOR 3889:S2CID 3696:(PDF) 2245:Rhine 2187:Baden 2157:, if 1888:Italy 1881:Mainz 1806:issue 1481:Versa 1471:Lissa 1309:Podol 1226:Baden 1176:Hesse 1003:Italy 918:5,000 916:Baden 904:7,000 874:Hesse 811:Italy 509:Baden 403:Italy 357:Lippe 61:, by 4875:1871 4853:1866 4844:1864 4835:1862 4815:1850 4806:1848 4790:1848 4776:1833 4767:1832 4758:1819 4749:1817 4555:ISBN 4532:ISBN 4458:ISBN 4413:ISBN 4381:ISBN 4362:ISBN 4343:ISBN 4242:2023 4216:2020 4184:ISBN 4156:ISBN 4144:York 4119:ISBN 4107:York 4082:ISBN 4070:York 3998:ISBN 3829:ISSN 3725:ISBN 3704:2019 3672:ISBN 3618:ISBN 3590:ISBN 3562:ISBN 3537:ISBN 3509:ISBN 3478:ISBN 3217:The 3014:'s " 2867:and 2181:and 1867:and 1743:and 1492:The 1034:List 947:List 202:and 95:and 74:Date 4305:439 4148:doi 4111:doi 4074:doi 4031:doi 3959:doi 3881:doi 3819:doi 2735:by 2002:in 1565:of 1508:or 158:of 99:), 5756:: 5066:/ 4553:. 4549:. 4530:. 4526:. 4456:. 4400:16 4398:. 4233:. 4206:. 4154:. 4142:. 4117:. 4105:. 4080:. 4068:. 4045:. 4037:. 4027:57 4025:. 4021:. 3973:. 3965:. 3953:. 3949:. 3937:^ 3887:. 3875:. 3859:^ 3827:. 3815:31 3813:. 3809:. 3492:^ 3451:^ 3388:^ 3361:^ 3010:: 2996:). 2841:. 2255:. 2212:, 2208:, 2189:, 2072:. 2057:. 1863:, 1719:. 1608:. 1504:, 1500:, 1235:c. 1132:c. 1123:c. 1121:: 1100:c. 1091:c. 1089:: 1071:c. 1062:c. 1021:c. 1012:c. 984:c. 978:c. 972:c. 932:80 194:, 190:, 186:, 182:, 178:, 107:, 103:, 5179:) 5175:( 5157:) 5145:e 5138:t 5131:v 5059:) 5055:( 4635:) 4606:e 4599:t 4592:v 4563:. 4540:. 4517:. 4508:. 4484:. 4466:. 4439:. 4421:. 4389:. 4370:. 4351:. 4244:. 4218:. 4192:. 4164:. 4150:: 4127:. 4113:: 4090:. 4076:: 4053:. 4033:: 4006:. 3981:. 3961:: 3955:8 3895:. 3883:: 3877:8 3835:. 3821:: 3733:. 3706:. 3680:. 3626:. 3598:. 3570:. 3545:. 3517:. 3486:. 3236:. 3197:. 3190:. 3183:. 3176:. 2758:) 2752:( 2747:) 2743:( 2729:. 1894:- 1528:( 1274:e 1267:t 1260:v 20:)

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