Developmental bioelectricity

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epithelial cells are connected by tight junctions, forming the major electrical resistive barrier, and thus establishing an electrical gradient across the epithelium – the transepithelial potential (TEP). Breaking the epithelial barrier, as occurs in any wounds, creates a hole that breaches the high electrical resistance established by the tight junctions in the epithelial sheet, short-circuiting the epithelium locally. The TEP therefore drops to zero at the wound. However, normal ion transport continues in unwounded epithelial cells beyond the wound edge (typically <1 mm away), driving positive charge flow out of the wound and establishing a steady, laterally-oriented electric field (EF) with the cathode at the wound. Skin also generates a TEP, and when a skin wound is made, similar wound electric currents and fields arise, until the epithelial barrier function recovers to terminate the short-circuit at the wound. When wound electric fields are manipulated with pharmacological agents that either stimulate or inhibit transport of ions, the wound electric fields also increase or decrease, respectively. Wound healing can be speed up or slowed down accordingly in cornea wounds.

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been known that gap junctions have a key role in carcinogenesis and progression. Channels can behave as oncogenes and are thus suitable as novel drug targets. Recent work in amphibian models has shown that depolarization of resting potential can trigger metastatic behavior in normal cells, while hyperpolarization (induced by ion channel misexpression, drugs, or light) can suppress tumorigenesis induced by expression of human oncogenes. Depolarization of resting potential appears to be a bioelectric signature by which incipient tumor sites can be detected non-invasively. Refinement of the bioelectric signature of cancer in biomedical contexts, as a diagnostic modality, is one of the possible applications of this field. Excitingly, the ambivalence of polarity – depolarization as marker and hyperpolarization as treatment – make it conceptually possible to derive theragnostic (portmanteau of therapeutics with diagnostics) approaches, designed to simultaneously detect and treat early tumors, in this case based on the normalization of the membrane polarization.

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considerable distance. Such non-cell-autonomous events suggest distributed network models of bioelectric control; new computational and conceptual paradigms may need to be developed to understand spatial information processing in bioelectrically active tissues. It has been suggested that results from the fields of primitive cognition and unconventional computation are relevant to the program of cracking the bioelectric code. Finally, efforts in biomedicine and bioengineering are developing applications such as wearable bioreactors for delivering voltage-modifying reagents to wound sites, and ion channel-modifying drugs (a kind of electroceutical) for repair of birth defects and regenerative repair. Synthetic biologists are likewise starting to incorporate bioelectric circuits into hybrid constructs.

769:, work on bioelectric mechanism has revealed control of stem cell behavior, size control during remodeling, anterior-posterior polarity, and head shape. Gap junction-mediated alteration of physiological signaling produces two-headed worms in Dugesia japonica; remarkably, these animals continue to regenerate as two-headed in future rounds of regeneration months after the gap junction-blocking reagent has left the tissue. This stable, long-term alteration of the anatomical layout to which animals regenerate, without genomic editing, is an example of epigenetic inheritance of body pattern, and is also the only available "strain" of planarian species exhibiting an inherited anatomical change that is different from the wild-type. 678:

compared to nerve pulses and muscle contraction. The development of the vibrating and glass microelectrodes, demonstrated that wounds indeed produced and, importantly, sustained measurable electric currents and electric fields. These techniques allow further characterization of the wound electric fields/currents at cornea and skin wounds, which show active spatial and temporal features, suggesting active regulation of these electrical phenomena. For example, the wound electric currents are always the strongest at the wound edge, which gradually increased to reach a peak about 1 hour after injury. At wounds in

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overriding endogenous ones, Marsh and Beams astoundingly generated double-headed planarians and even reversed the primary body polarity entirely, with tails growing where a head previously existed. After these seed studies, variations of the idea that bioelectricity could sense injury and trigger or at least be a major player in regeneration have spurred over the decades until the present day. A potential explanation lies on resting potentials (primarily Vmem and TEP), which can be, at least in part, dormant sensors (alarms) ready to detect and effectors (triggers) ready to react to local damage.

231:, exchangers, and transporters. These energetically free (resistors or conductors, passive transport) or expensive (current sources, active transport) translocators set and fine tune voltage gradients – resting potentials – that are ubiquitous and essential to life's physiology, ranging from bioenergetics, motion, sensing, nutrient transport, toxins clearance, and signaling in homeostatic and disease/injury conditions. Upon stimuli or barrier breaking (short-circuit) of the membrane, ions powered by the voltage gradient (electromotive force) diffuse or leak, respectively, through the 207: 812:

mediated by spatial gradients of cell resting potentials, or Vmem, which can be transduced into second messenger cascades and transcriptional changes by a handful of known mechanisms. These potentials are set by the function of ion channels and pumps, and shaped by gap junctional connections which establish developmental compartments (isopotential cell fields). Because both gap junctions and ion channels are themselves voltage-sensitive, cell groups implement electric circuits with rich feedback capabilities. The outputs of developmental bioelectric dynamics

309:, definitively demonstrating "animal electricity". Unknowingly, Galvani with this and related experiments discovered the injury current (ion leakage driven by the intact membrane/epithelial potential) and injury potential (potential difference between injured and intact membrane/epithelium). The injury potential was, in fact, the electrical source behind the leg contraction, as realized in the next century. Subsequent work ultimately extended this field broadly beyond nerve and muscle to all cells, from bacteria to non-excitable mammalian cells. 492:. Prior work relied extensively on current applied directly by electrodes, reinvigorated by significant recent advances in materials science and extracellular current measurements, facilitated by sophisticated self-referencing electrode systems. While electrode applications for manipulating neuraly-controlled body processes have recently attracted much attention, there are other opportunities for controlling somatic processes, as most cell types are electrically active and respond to ionic signals from themselves and their neighbors. 790: 471: 782: 16012: 92: 773: 695:. The epithelial cells migrate directionally to the negative pole (cathode), which at a wound is the field polarity of the endogenous vectorial electric fields in the epithelium, pointing (positive to negative) to the wound center. Epithelial cells of the cornea, keratinocytes from the skin, and many other types of cells show directional migration at electric field strengths as low as a few mV mm. Large sheets of 199: 191: 835:

epigenetic downstream targets of bioelectric signals are. A few mechanisms that transduce bioelectric change into alterations of gene expression are already known, including the bioelectric control of movement of small second-messenger molecules through cells, including serotonin and butyrate, voltage sensitive phosphatases, among others. Also known are numerous gene targets of voltage signaling, such as

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factor that contributed to this field lagging behind molecular genetics and biochemistry is that bioelectricity is inherently a living phenomenon – it cannot be studied in fixed specimens. Working with bioelectricity is more complex than traditional approaches to developmental biology, both methodologically and conceptually, as it typically requires a highly interdisciplinary approach.

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measured at wounds. The whole gamut of cell types and their responses following injury are affected by physiological electric fields. Those include migration and division of epithelial cells, sprouting and extension of nerves, and migration of leukocytes and endothelial cells. The most well studied cellular behavior is directional migration of epithelial cells in electric fields –

170:. Developmental bioelectricity refers to the endogenous ion fluxes, transmembrane and transepithelial voltage gradients, and electric currents and fields produced and sustained in living cells and tissues. This electrical activity is often used during embryogenesis, regeneration, and cancer suppression—it is one layer of the complex field of signals that impinge upon all cells 463:), which can be integrated into a self-referencing system may become an alternative or additional technique in bioelectricity laboratories. The optrode does not require referencing and is insensitive to electromagnetism simplifying system setting up and making it a suitable option for recordings where electric stimulation is simultaneously applied. 6395:

Plaster, Nikki M; Tawil, Rabi; Tristani-Firouzi, Martin; Canún, Sonia; Bendahhou, Saı̈d; Tsunoda, Akiko; Donaldson, Matthew R; Iannaccone, Susan T; Brunt, Ewout; Barohn, Richard; Clark, John; Deymeer, Feza; George, Alfred L; Fish, Frank A; Hahn, Angelika; Nitu, Alexandru; Ozdemir, Coskun; Serdaroglu,

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Bioelectric modulation has shown control over complex morphogenesis and remodeling, not merely setting individual cell identity. Moreover, a number of the key results in this field have shown that bioelectric circuits are non-local – regions of the body make decisions based on bioelectric events at a

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How cells sense such minute extracellular electric fields remains largely elusive. Recent research has started to identify some genetic, signaling and structural elements underlying how cells sense and respond to small physiological electric fields. These include ion channels, intracellular signaling

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One of the best-understood roles for bioelectric gradients is at the tissue-level endogenous electric fields utilized during wound healing. It is challenging to study wound-associated electric fields, because these fields are weak, less fluctuating, and do not have immediate biological responses when

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The vibrating ion-selective microelectrode was first used in 1990 to measure calcium fluxes in various cells and tissues. The ion-selective microelectrode is an adaptation of the glass microelectrode, where an ion-specific liquid ion exchanger (ionophore) is tip-filled into a previously silanized (to

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The vibrating probe was introduced in biological studies in the 1970s. The voltage-sensitive probe is electroplated with platinum to form a capacitive black tip ball with large surface area. When vibrating in an artificial or natural DC voltage gradient, the capacitive ball oscillates in a sinusoidal

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Life is ultimately an electrochemical enterprise; research in this field is progressing along several frontiers. First is the reductive program of understanding how bioelectric signals are produced, how voltage changes in the cell membrane are able to regulate cell behavior, and what the genetic and

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Defection of cells from the normally tight coordination of activity towards an anatomical structure results in cancer; it is thus no surprise that bioelectricity – a key mechanism for coordinating cell growth and patterning – is a target often implicated in cancer and metastasis. Indeed, it has long

702:, and sheets of stratified multilayered epithelial cells also migrate directionally. Such collective movement closely resembles what happens during wound healing in vivo, where cell sheets move collectively into the wound bed to cover the wound and restore the barrier function of the skin or cornea. 668:

including cleft or high-arched palate, micrognathia, low set ears, syndactyly and brachydactyly. While these channelopathies are rare, they show that functional ion channels are important for development. Furthermore, in utero exposure to anti-epileptic medications that target some ion channels also

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represent large-scale patterning decisions such as the number of heads in planarian, the shape of the face in frog development, and the size of tails in zebrafish. Experimental modulation of endogenous bioelectric prepatterns have enabled converting body regions (such as the gut) to a complete eye,

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electric currents and fields, partial regeneration was achieved, which typically included tissue growth and increased neuronal tissue. Conversely, precluding or reverting endogenous electric current and fields impairs regeneration. These studies in amphibian limb regeneration and related studies in

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has revealed a role for bioelectric signaling in the development of heart, face, eye, brain, and other organs. Screens have identified roles for ion channels in size control of structures such as the zebrafish fin, while focused gain-of-function studies have shown for example that body parts can be

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head shapes and contents to patterns appropriate to other species of flatworms, despite a normal genome. Recent work has shown the use of physiological modeling environments for identifying predictive interventions to target bioelectric states for repair of embryonic brain defects under a range of

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invariably leads to a skin-driven outward current and a consequent lateral electric field setting the cathode at the wound site. Although initially pure ion leakage, an active component eventually takes place and blocking ion translocators typically impairs regeneration. Using biomimetic exogenous

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surfaces, and affected regeneration by imposing countercurrents. Amedeo Herlitzka, following on the wound electric currents footsteps of his mentor, du Bois-Raymond, theorized about electric currents playing an early role in regeneration, maybe initiating cell proliferation. Using electric fields

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How are the electric fields at a wound produced? Epithelia actively pump and differentially segregate ions. In the cornea epithelium, for example, Na and K are transported inwards from tear fluid to extracellular fluid, and Cl is transported out of the extracellular fluid into the tear fluid. The

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Much work to functionally study bioelectric signaling has made use of applied (exogenous) electric currents and fields via DC and AC voltage-delivering apparatus integrated with agarose salt bridges. These devices can generate countless combinations of voltage magnitude and direction, pulses, and

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Voltage changes can be transduced to downstream effector mechanisms via a variety of 2nd messenger processes, including Vmem-dependent movement of small signaling molecules like serotonin through transporters or gap junctions, voltage-sensitive phosphatases, voltage-gated calcium channels (which

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How do electric fields affect wound healing? To heal wounds, cells surrounding the wound must migrate and grow directionally into the wound to cover the defect and restore the barrier. Cells important to heal wounds respond remarkably well to applied electric fields of the same strength that are

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Although this body of work generated a significant amount of high-quality physiological data, this large-scale biophysics approach has historically come second to the study of biochemical gradients and genetic networks in biology education, funding, and overall popularity among biologists. A key

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Following up on the relative success of electric stimulation on non-permissive frog leg regeneration using an implanted bimetallic rod in the late 1960s, the bioelectric extracellular aspect of amphibian limb regeneration was extensively dissected in the next decades. Definitive descriptive and

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Compared with the electrode-based techniques, the molecular probes provide a wider spatial resolution and facilitated dynamic analysis over time. Although calibration or titration can be possible, molecular probes are typically semi-quantitative, whereas electrodes provide absolute bioelectric

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wrote multiple papers about the role of electricity in embryonic development. Lund measured currents in a large number of living model systems, correlating them to changes in patterning. In contrast, Burr used a voltmeter to measure voltage gradients, examining developing embryonic tissues and

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Casimiro, M. C; Knollmann, B. C; Yamoah, E. N; Nie, L; Vary Jr, J. C; Sirenko, S. G; Greene, A. E; Grinberg, A; Huang, S. P; Ebert, S. N; Pfeifer, K (2004). "Targeted point mutagenesis of mouse Kcnq1: Phenotypic analysis of mice with point mutations that cause Romano-Ward syndrome in humans".

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Recent experiments using ion channel opener/blocker drugs, as well as dominant ion channel misexpression, in a range of model species, has shown that bioelectricity, specifically, voltage gradients instruct not only stem cell behavior but also large-scale patterning. Patterning cues are often

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resorption in bone. Despite these efforts, the promise for a significant epimorphic regeneration in mammals remains a major frontier for future efforts, which includes the use of wearable bioreactors to provide an environment within which pro-regenerative bioelectric states can be driven and

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and morphogenesis in some instances. More than correlations, these bioelectrical distributions are dynamic, evolving with time and with the microenvironment and even long-distant conditions to serve as instructive influences over cell behavior and large-scale patterning during embryogenesis,

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continue to facilitate this research program. More challenging however is the integrative program of understanding how specific patterns of bioelectric dynamics help control the algorithms that accomplish large-scale pattern regulation (regeneration and development of complex anatomy). The

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Developmental bioelectricity work began in earnest at the beginning of the 20th century. Ida H. Hyde studied the role of electricity in the development of eggs. T. H. Morgan and others studied the electrophysiology of the earthworm. Oren E. Frazee studied the effects of electricity on limb

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membrane (capacitor) is at the core of bioelectricity. The plasma membrane was an indispensable structure for the origin and evolution of life itself. It provided compartmentalization permitting the setting of a differential voltage/potential gradient (battery or voltage source) across the

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Endogenous bioelectric signals are produced in cells by the cumulative action of ion channels, pumps, and transporters. In non-excitable cells, the resting potential across the plasma membrane (Vmem) of individual cells propagate across distances via electrical synapses known as

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Human disorders, as well as numerous mouse mutants show that bioelectric signaling is important for human development (Tables 1 and 2). Those effects are pervasively linked to channelopathies, which are human disorders that result from mutations that disrupt ion channels.

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Bramswig, Nuria C; Ockeloen, C. W; Czeschik, J. C; Van Essen, A. J; Pfundt, R; Smeitink, J; Poll-The, B. T; Engels, H; Strom, T. M; Wieczorek, D; Kleefstra, T; Lüdecke, H.-J (2015). "'Splitting versus lumping': Temple–Baraitser and Zimmermann–Laband Syndromes".

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animals, the wound electric fields are significantly compromised. Understanding the mechanisms of generation and regulation of the wound electric currents/fields is expected to reveal new approaches to manipulate the electrical aspect for better wound healing.

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reactions of the bare electrode. Owing to its low impedance, low junction potential and weak polarization, silver electrodes are standard transducers of the ionic into electric current that occurs through a reversible redox reaction at the electrode surface.

255:(conductors), which allow cells to share their resting potential with neighbors. Aligned and stacked cells (such as in epithelia) generate transepithelial potentials (such as batteries in series) and electric fields, which likewise propagate across tissues. 495:

In the early part of the 21st century, a number of new molecular techniques were developed that allowed bioelectric pathways to be investigated with a high degree of mechanistic resolution, and to be linked to canonical molecular cascades. These include:

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and regulate their interactions during pattern formation and maintenance. This is distinct from neural bioelectricity (classically termed electrophysiology), which refers to the rapid and transient spiking in well-recognized excitable cells like

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Mastrangelo, M.; Scheffer, I. E; Bramswig, N. C; Nair, L. D.; Myers, C. T; Dentici, M. L; Korenke, G. C; Schoch, K; Campeau, P. M.; White, S. M; Shashi, V; Kansagra, S; Van Essen, A. J; Leuzzi, V (2016). "Epilepsy in KCNH1-related syndromes".

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Ewart, J. L; Cohen, M. F; Meyer, R. A; Huang, G. Y; Wessels, A; Gourdie, R. G; Chin, A. J; Park, S. M; Lazatin, B. O; Villabon, S; Lo, C. W (1997). "Heart and neural tube defects in transgenic mice overexpressing the Cx43 gap junction gene".

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Rezania, S; Kammerer, S; Li, C; Steinecker-Frohnwieser, B; Gorischek, A; Devaney, T. T; Verheyen, S; Passegger, C. A; Tabrizi-Wizsy, N. G; Hackl, H; Platzer, D; Zarnani, A. H; Malle, E; Jahn, S. W; Bauernhofer, T; Schreibmayer, W (2016).

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Frede, Julia; Fraser, Scott P; Oskay-Özcelik, Gülten; Hong, Yeosun; Ioana Braicu, E; Sehouli, Jalid; Gabra, Hani; Djamgoz, Mustafa B.A (2013). "Ovarian cancer: Ion channel and aquaporin expression as novel targets of clinical potential".

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In the 1970s, Lionel Jaffe and Richard Nuccittelli's introduction and development of the vibrating probe, the first device for quantitative non-invasive characterization of the extracellular minute ion currents, revitalized the field.

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tadpoles, and shown that regeneration of the entire tail (with spinal cord, muscle, etc.) could be triggered in a range of normally non-regenerative conditions by either molecular-genetic, pharmacological, or optogenetic methods. In

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Smith, Peter J.S; Hammar, Katherine; Porterfield, D. Marshall; Sanger, Richard H; Trimarchi, James R (1999). "Self-referencing, non-invasive, ion selective electrode for single cell detection of trans-plasma membrane calcium flux".

259:(resistors) efficiently mitigate the paracellular ion diffusion and leakage, precluding the voltage short circuit. Together, these voltages and electric fields form rich and dynamic and patterns inside living bodies that demarcate 339:

Some sample cell types and their resting potentials, revealing that actively proliferating and plastic cells cluster in the depolarized end of the continuum, while terminally-differentiated mature cell types tend to be strongly

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critical region such that duplications that include this region lead to craniofacial and limb abnormalities and duplications that do not include this region do not lead to morphological symptoms of Down syndrome. Mutations in

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Masotti, Andrea; Uva, Paolo; Davis-Keppen, Laura; Basel-Vanagaite, Lina; Cohen, Lior; Pisaneschi, Elisa; Celluzzi, Antonella; Bencivenga, Paola; Fang, Mingyan; Tian, Mingyu; Xu, Xun; Cappa, Marco; Dallapiccola, Bruno (2015).

420:. The former is inherently invasive, and the two latter are non-invasive, but all are ultra-sensitive and fast-responsive sensors extensively used in a plethora of physiological conditions in widespread biological models. 550:. As in the brain, developmental bioelectrics can integrate information across significant distance in the embryo, for example such as the control of brain size by bioelectric states of ventral tissue. and the control of 223:, probably allowing early and rudimentary bioenergetics that fueled cell mechanisms. During evolution, the initially purely passive diffusion of ions (charge carriers), become gradually controlled by the acquisition of 4692:"Application of Low-Frequency Alternating Current Electric Fields Via Interdigitated Electrodes: Effects on Cellular Viability, Cytoplasmic Calcium, and Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells" 13044:

Culiat, C. T .; Stubbs, L. J.; Woychik, R. P; Russell, L. B.; Johnson, D. K.; Rinchik, E. M. (1995). "Deficiency of the beta 3 subunit of the type a gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor causes cleft palate in mice".

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Yoon, G; Oberoi, S; Tristani-Firouzi, M; Etheridge, S.P; Quitania, L; Kramer, J.H; Miller, B.L; Fu, Y.H; Ptáček, L.J (2006). "Andersen-Tawil syndrome: Prospective cohort analysis and expansion of the phenotype".

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Progress in molecular biology over the last six decades has produced powerful tools that facilitate the dissection of biochemical and genetic signals; yet, they tend to not be well-suited for bioelectric studies

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Researchers such as Joseph Vanable, Richard Borgens, Ken Robinson, and Colin McCaig explored the roles of endogenous bioelectric signaling in limb development and regeneration, embryogenesis, organ polarity, and

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Castori, Marco; Morlino, Silvia; Ritelli, Marco; et al. (2014). "Late diagnosis of lateral meningocele syndrome in a 55-year-old woman with symptoms of joint instability and chronic musculoskeletal pain".

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Chatni, Mohammad Rameez; Li, Gang; Porterfield, David Marshall (2009). "Frequency-domain fluorescence lifetime optrode system design and instrumentation without a concurrent reference light-emitting diode".

15397:"Induction of cell transformation by mutated 16K vacuolar H+-atpase (ductin) is accompanied by down-regulation of gap junctional intercellular communication and translocation of connexin 43 in NIH3T3 cells" 14414:

Becker, D. L; McGonnell, I; Makarenkova, H. P; Patel, K; Tickle, C; Lorimer, J; Green, C. R (1999). "Roles for alpha 1 connexin in morphogenesis of chick embryos revealed using a novel antisense approach".

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cause increased incidence of birth defects such as oral cleft. The effects of both genetic and exogenous disruption of ion channels lend insight into the importance of bioelectric signaling in development.

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frequencies. Currently, lab-on-a-chip mediated application of electric fields is gaining ground in the field with the possibility to allow high-throughput screening assays of the large combinatory outputs.

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and proliferation. Subsequent work has identified specific regions of the resting potential spectrum that correspond to distinct cell states such as quiescent, stem, cancer, and terminally differentiated.

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AC output. The amplitude of the wave is proportional to the measuring potential difference at the frequency of the vibration, efficiently filtered by a lock-in amplifier that boosts probe's sensitivity.

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Song, Bing; Gu, Yu; Pu, Jin; Reid, Brian; Zhao, Zhiqiang; Zhao, Min (2007). "Application of direct current electric fields to cells and tissues in vitro and modulation of wound electric field in vivo".

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Chang, Q; Tang, W; Kim, Y; Lin, X (2015). "Timed conditional null of connexin26 in mice reveals temporary requirements of connexin26 in key cochlear developmental events before the onset of hearing".

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Binggeli, Richard; Weinstein, Roy C. (1986). "Membrane potentials and sodium channels: Hypotheses for growth regulation and cancer formation based on changes in sodium channels and gap junctions".

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Emmons-Bell, Maya; Durant, Fallon; Hammelman, Jennifer; Bessonov, Nicholas; Volpert, Vitaly; Morokuma, Junji; Pinet, Kaylinnette; Adams, Dany; Pietak, Alexis; Lobo, Daniel; Levin, Michael (2015).

4643:"Skeletal myotube integration with planar microelectrode arrays in vitro for spatially selective recording and stimulation: A comparison of neuronal and myotube extracellular action potentials" 15671:

Zhang, J. T; Jiang, X. H; Xie, C; Cheng, H; Da Dong, J; Wang, Y; Fok, K. L; Zhang, X. H; Sun, T. T; Tsang, L. L; Chen, H; Sun, X. J; Chung, Y. W; Cai, Z. M; Jiang, W. G; Chan, H. C (2013).

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Zhao, Y; Inayat, S; Dikin, D A; Singer, J H; Ruoff, R S; Troy, J B (2009). "Patch clamp technique: Review of the current state of the art and potential contributions from nanoengineering".

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Oculodentodigital dysplasia (ODDD), heart defects (outflow tract and conotruncal), left-right asymmetry randomization, Osteoblast differentiation problems, craniofacial defects, myogenesis

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Reaume, A. G; De Sousa, P. A; Kulkarni, S; Langille, B. L; Zhu, D; Davies, T. C; Juneja, S. C; Kidder, G. M; Rossant, J (1995). "Cardiac malformation in neonatal mice lacking connexin43".

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Debeer, P; Van Esch, H; Huysmans, C; Pijkels, E; De Smet, L; Van De Ven, W; Devriendt, K; Fryns, J. P (2005). "Novel GJA1 mutations in patients with oculo-dento-digital dysplasia (ODDD)".

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Patil, N; Cox, D. R; Bhat, D; Faham, M; Myers, R. M; Peterson, A. S (1995). "A potassium channel mutation in weaver mice implicates membrane excitability in granule cell differentiation".

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in 1791 (De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari) and 1794. In these, Galvani thought to have uncovered intrinsic electric-producing ability in living tissues or "animal electricity".

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Kunkel, Joseph G; Cordeiro, Sofia; Xu, Yu (Jeff); Shipley, Alan M; Feijó, José A (2006). "Use of Non-Invasive Ion-Selective Microelectrode Techniques for the Study of Plant Development".

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Kojima, Junichiro; Shinohara, Hiroaki; Ikariyama, Yosihito; et al. (1991). "Electrically controlled proliferation of human carcinoma cells cultured on the surface of an electrode".

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result in morphological abnormalities or congenital birth defects in addition to symptoms that affect muscle and or neurons. For example, mutations that disrupt an inwardly rectifying

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Christensen, A. H; Chatelain, F. C.; Huttner, I. G.; et al. (2016). "The two-pore domain potassium channel, TWIK-1, has a role in the regulation of heart rate and atrial size".

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Lee, M. P; Hu, R. J; Johnson, L. A; et al. (1997). "Human KVLQT1 gene shows tissue-specific imprinting and encompasses Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome chromosomal rearrangements".

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Adams, Dany Spencer; Uzel, Sebastien G. M; Akagi, Jin; Wlodkowic, Donald; Andreeva, Viktoria; Yelick, Pamela Crotty; Devitt-Lee, Adrian; Pare, Jean-Francois; Levin, Michael (2016).

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studies, led to the general rule that migrating (such as keratinocytes, leucocytes and endothelial cells) and outgrowing (such as axons) cells contributing to regeneration undergo

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Onkal, R; Djamgoz, M. B (2009). "Molecular pharmacology of voltage-gated sodium channel expression in metastatic disease: Clinical potential of neonatal Nav1.5 in breast cancer".

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Gupta, N; Martin, P. M; Prasad, P. D; Ganapathy, V (2006). "SLC5A8 (SMCT1)-mediated transport of butyrate forms the basis for the tumor suppressive function of the transporter".

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Yildirim, Senay; Altun, Seyhan; Gumushan, Hatice; Patel, Anup; Djamgoz, Mustafa B.A (2012). "Voltage-gated sodium channel activity promotes prostate cancer metastasis in vivo".

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reported macroscopic level electrical activities in frog, fish and human bodies. He recorded minute electric currents in live tissues and organisms with a then state-of-the-art

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Cervera, Javier; Manzanares, Jose Antonio; Mafe, Salvador (2015). "Electrical Coupling in Ensembles of Nonexcitable Cells: Modeling the Spatial Map of Single Cell Potentials".

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Xie, C; Jiang, X. H; Zhang, J. T; et al. (2013). "CFTR suppresses tumor progression through miR-193b targeting urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) in prostate cancer".

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Building on earlier studies, further glimpses of developmental bioelectricity occurred with the discovery of wound-related electric currents and fields in the 1840s, when the

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incorporation of bioelectrics with chemical signaling in the emerging field of probing cell sensory perception and decision-making is an important frontier for future work.

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prevent leakage) microelectrode. Also, the microelectrode vibrates at low frequencies to operate in the accurate self-referencing mode. Only the specific ion permeates the

12750:"Tumor development in the Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome is associated with a variety of constitutional molecular 11p15 alterations including imprinting defects of KCNQ1OT1" 5920:"HCN4 ion channel function is required for early events that regulate anatomical left-right patterning in a nodal and lefty asymmetric gene expression-independent manner" 126:, and an electric current and field is generated whenever a net ion flux occurs. Cells and tissues of all types use flows of ions to communicate electrically. Endogenous 412:

The gold standard techniques to quantitatively extract electric dimensions from living specimens, ranging from cell to organism levels, are the glass microelectrode (or

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Aryasomayajula, Aditya; Derix, Jonathan; Perike, Srikant; Gerlach, Gerald; Funk, R.H (2010). "DC microelectrode array for investigating the intracellular ion changes".

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Levin, M; Mercola, M (1999). "Gap junction-mediated transfer of left-right patterning signals in the early chick blastoderm is upstream of Shh asymmetry in the node".

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Perathoner, Simon; Daane, Jacob M; Henrion, Ulrike; Seebohm, Guiscard; Higdon, Charles W; Johnson, Stephen L; Nüsslein-Volhard, Christiane; Harris, Matthew P (2014).

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Levin, Michael (2011). "The wisdom of the body: Future techniques and approaches to morphogenetic fields in regenerative medicine, developmental biology and cancer".

13429:"Homozygous missense N629D hERG (KCNH2) potassium channel mutation causes developmental defects in the right ventricle and its outflow tract and embryonic lethality" 12136:

Simons, C; Rash, L. D.; Crawford, J; et al. (2015). "Mutations in the voltage-gated potassium channel gene KCNH1 cause Temple-Baraitser syndrome and epilepsy".

8310:"Membrane lipids, EGF receptors, and intracellular signals colocalize and are polarized in epithelial cells moving directionally in a physiological electric field" 7399:

Chiang, Meicheng; Cragoe, Edward J; Vanable, Joseph W (1991). "Intrinsic electric fields promote epithelization of wounds in the newt, Notophthalmus viridescens".

4560:

Bornat, Yannick; Raoux, Matthieu; Boutaib, Youssef; et al. (2010). "Detection of Electrical Activity of Pancreatic Beta-cells Using Micro-electrode Arrays".

423:

The glass microelectrode was developed in the 1940s to study the action potential of excitable cells, deriving from the seminal work by Hodgkin and Huxley in the

4145:

Shipley, A. M; Feijó, J. A (1999). "The Use of the Vibrating Probe Technique to Study Steady Extracellular Currents During Pollen Germination and Tube Growth".

752:

towards the cathode (injury original site). Congruently, an anode is associated with tissue resorption or degeneration, as occurs in impaired regeneration and

6498:

Papoulidis, I.; Papageorgiou, E.; Siomou, E.; et al. (2014). "A patient with partial trisomy 21 and 7q deletion expresses mild Down syndrome phenotype".

5871:"Coordinating heart morphogenesis: A novel role for hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels during cardiogenesis in Xenopus laevis" 1148:

Hypertrophy of tongue, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, adrenals, genitalia – Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome; craniofacial and limb defects, early development

503:

Voltage-sensitive fluorescent reporter dyes and genetically encoded fluorescent voltage indicators for the characterization of the bioelectric state in vivo.

15189:

House, C. D; Vaske, C. J; Schwartz, A. M; Obias, V; Frank, B; Luu, T; Sarvazyan, N; Irby, R; Strausberg, R. L; Hales, T. G; Stuart, J. M; Lee, N. H (2010).

14554:"Connexin37 and Connexin43 deficiencies in mice disrupt lymphatic valve development and result in lymphatic disorders including lymphedema and chylothorax" 9482:

Oviedo, Néstor J; Morokuma, Junji; Walentek, Peter; Kema, Ido P; Gu, Man Bock; Ahn, Joo-Myung; Hwang, Jung Shan; Gojobori, Takashi; Levin, Michael (2010).

8431:

Marsh, Gordon; Beams, H. W (1952). "Electrical control of morphogenesis in regenerating dugesia tigrina. I. Relation of axial polarity to field strength".

518:

and other probes is their less-invasive nature and spatial multiplexing, enabling the simultaneous monitoring of large areas of embryonic or other tissues

13942:"Two classes of gap junction channels mediate soma-germline interactions essential for germline proliferation and gametogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans" 7364:

Chiang, Meicheng; Robinson, Kenneth R.; Vanable, Joseph W. (1992). "Electrical fields in the vicinity of epithelial wounds in the isolated bovine eye".

474:

Tools for manipulating non-neural bioelectricity include pharmacological and genetic reagents to alter cell connectivity (control gap junctions), cell V

183:(muscle cells); and from bioelectromagnetics, which refers to the effects of applied electromagnetic radiation, and endogenous electromagnetics such as 12559:

Veale, E. L; Hassan, M.; Walsh, Y.; et al. (2014). "Recovery of current through mutated TASK3 potassium channels underlying Birk Barel syndrome".

5869:

Pitcairn, Emily; Harris, Hannah; Epiney, Justine; Pai, Vaibhav P; Lemire, Joan M; Ye, Bin; Shi, Nian-Qing; Levin, Michael; McLaughlin, Kelly A (2017).

16016: 14685:

Nishii, K; Kumai, M; Shibata, Y (2001). "Regulation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transformation through gap junction channels in heart development".

13231:

Rakic, P; Sidman, R. L. (1973). "Sequence of developmental abnormalities leading to granule cell deficit in cerebellar cortex of weaver mutant mice".

5918:

Pai, Vaibhav P; Willocq, Valerie; Pitcairn, Emily J; Lemire, Joan M; Paré, Jean-François; Shi, Nian-Qing; McLaughlin, Kelly A; Levin, Michael (2017).

13883:"A KCNC3 mutation causes a neurodevelopmental, non-progressive SCA13 subtype associated with dominant negative effects and aberrant EGFR trafficking" 7063:

Margulis, Andrea V.; Mitchell, Allen A.; Gilboa, Suzanne M.; Werler, Martha M.; Mittleman, Murray A; Glynn, Robert J.; Hernandez-Diaz, Sonia (2012).

5730:"The interplay between genetic and bioelectrical signaling permits a spatial regionalisation of membrane potentials in model multicellular ensembles" 11721:"Cleft Palate, Moderate Lung Developmental Retardation and Early Postnatal Lethality in Mice Deficient in the Kir7.1 Inwardly Rectifying K+ Channel" 9392:"Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms" 7495:

Zhao, Min; Song, Bing; Pu, Jin; et al. (2006). "Electrical signals control wound healing through phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase-γ and PTEN".

6625:"Partial trisomy and tetrasomy of chromosome 21 without down syndrome phenotype and short overview of genotype-phenotype correlation. A case report" 506:

Panels of well-characterized dominant ion channels that can be misexpressed in cells of interest to alter the bioelectric state in desired ways; and

12604:"Maternally inherited Birk Barel mental retardation dysmorphism syndrome caused by a mutation in the genomically imprinted potassium channel KCNK9" 12324:"Mutation of KCNJ8 in a patient with Cantú syndrome with unique vascular abnormalities - support for the role of K(ATP) channels in this condition" 12181:"A microdeletion at Xq22.2 implicates a glycine receptor GLRA4 involved in intellectual disability, behavioral problems and craniofacial anomalies" 5166:"Endogenous voltage gradients as mediators of cell-cell communication: Strategies for investigating bioelectrical signals during pattern formation" 3018:

Morgan, T. H.; Dimon, Abigail C. (1904). "An examination of the problems of physiological "polarity" and of electrical polarity in the earthworm".

2682: 727:

functional physiological data was made possible owing to the development of the ultra-sensitive vibrating probe and improved application devices.

13777: 7602:

Maurice, D. M. The permeability to sodium ions of the living rabbit's cornea. J Physiol 112, 367-391. Pubmed Central reference number: PMC1393020

4099:

Borgens, R. B; Vanable, J. W; Jaffe, L. F (1977). "Bioelectricity and regeneration. I. Initiation of frog limb regeneration by minute currents".

15755:

Sirnes, S.; Bruun, J.; Kolberg, M.; et al. (2012). "Connexin43 acts as a colorectal cancer tumor suppressor and predicts disease outcome".

14650:

Kumai, M; Nishii, K; Nakamura, K; Takeda, N; Suzuki, M; Shibata, Y (2000). "Loss of connexin45 causes a cushion defect in early cardiogenesis".

12373:"De novo mutations in NALCN cause a syndrome characterized by congenital contractures of the limbs and face, hypotonia, and developmental delay" 9201:"Light-activation of the Archaerhodopsin H+-pump reverses age-dependent loss of vertebrate regeneration: Sparking system-level controls in vivo" 7210:

Fritz, H.; Müller, D.; Hess, R. (1976). "Comparative study of the teratogenicity of phenobarbitone, diphenlhydatoin and carbamazepine in mice".

4869:"Principles, Development and Applications of Self-Referencing Electrochemical Microelectrodes to the Determination of Fluxes at Cell Membranes" 2710:

McCaig, Colin D.; Rajnicek, Ann M; Song, Bing; Zhao, Min (2005). "Controlling Cell Behavior Electrically: Current Views and Future Potential".

2388:

Robinson, K.; Messerli, M. (1996). "Electric Embryos: the embryonic epithelium as a generator of development information". In McCaig, C (ed.).

7985:

Gruler, Hans; Nuccitelli, Richard (2000). "The Galvanotaxis Response Mechanism of Keratinocytes Can Be Modeled as a Proportional Controller".

2507: 793:

Misexpression of specific ion channels in diverse areas of frog embryos can induce the creation of ectopic organs, such as eyes on gut tissue.

12875:

Rivas, A; Francis, H. W (2005). "Inner ear abnormalities in a Kcnq1 (Kvlqt1) knockout mouse: A model of Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome".

12422:"Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene mutations in infertile males with congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens" 11432:"Re-membering the body: Applications of computational neuroscience to the top-down control of regeneration of limbs and other complex organs" 6798:

Kortüm, Fanny; Caputo, Viviana; Bauer, Christiane K; et al. (2015). "Mutations in KCNH1 and ATP6V1B2 cause Zimmermann-Laband syndrome".

6085:"Endogenous Gradients of Resting Potential Instructively Pattern Embryonic Neural Tissue via Notch Signaling and Regulation of Proliferation" 328:

made of insulated copper wire coils. He unveiled the fast-changing electricity associated with muscle contraction and nerve excitation – the

268:

regeneration, and cancer suppression. Bioelectric control mechanisms are an important emerging target for advances in regenerative medicine,

15909:"Overexpression of KCNJ3 gene splice variants affects vital parameters of the malignant breast cancer cell line MCF-7 in an opposing manner" 3063:

Frazee, Oren E. (1909). "The effect of electrical stimulation upon the rate of regeneration in Rana pipiens and Amblystoma jeffersonianum".

15102:

Oh, S. K; Shin, J. O; Baek, J. I; Lee, J; Bae, J. W; Ankamerddy, H; Kim, M. J; Huh, T. L; Ryoo, Z. Y; Kim, U. K; Bok, J; Lee, K. Y (2015).

10353:"Transmembrane voltage potential is an essential cellular parameter for the detection and control of tumor development in a Xenopus model" 5972:"Bioelectric signalling via potassium channels: A mechanism for craniofacial dysmorphogenesis in KCNJ2-associated Andersen-Tawil Syndrome" 5621:"Bioelectric gene and reaction networks: Computational modelling of genetic, biochemical and bioelectrical dynamics in pattern regulation" 4459:"ElectroTaxis-on-a-Chip (ETC): An integrated quantitative high-throughput screening platform for electrical field-directed cell migration" 301:

showed that the frog's leg muscle twitching was due to a static electricity generator and from dissimilar metals undergoing or catalyzing

12789:

Moore, E. S.; Ward, R. E; Escobar, L. F.; Carlin, M. E. (2000). "Heterogeneity in Wiedemann-Beckwith syndrome: Anthropometric evidence".

11780:"Electrochemical cues regulate assembly of the Frizzled/Dishevelled complex at the plasma membrane during planar epithelial polarization" 6895:

Perks, T; Popat, H.; Cronin, A. J.; Durning, P; Maggs, R (2013). "The orthodontic and surgical management of Zimmerman-Laband syndrome".

4051:

Borgens, Richard B; Vanable, Joseph W; Jaffe, Lionel F (1979). "Role of subdermal current shunts in the failure of frogs to regenerate".

60: 12802: 8945:

Leppik, Liudmila P; Froemel, Dara; Slavici, Andrei; Ovadia, Zachri N; Hudak, Lukasz; Henrich, Dirk; Marzi, Ingo; Barker, John H (2015).

6137:"Local and long-range endogenous resting potential gradients antagonistically regulate apoptosis and proliferation in the embryonic CNS" 4837: 2053:"Effects of electromagnetic fields on cells: Physiological and therapeutic approaches and molecular mechanisms of interaction. A review" 448:, therefore the voltage readout is proportional to the ion concentration in the measuring condition. Then, flux is calculated using the 12230:

Hiraki, Y.; Miyatake, S.; Hayashidani, M.; et al. (2014). "Aortic aneurysm and craniosynostosis in a family with Cantu syndrome".

370:

by Marsh and Beams in the 1940s and 1950s, inducing the formation of heads or tails at cut sites, reversing the primary body polarity.

14428: 11943:"A phenocopy of CAII deficiency: A novel genetic explanation for inherited infantile osteopetrosis with distal renal tubular acidosis" 8173:"Directional movement of rat prostate cancer cells in direct-current electric field: Involvement of voltagegated Na+ channel activity" 332:. Du Bois-Reymond also reported in detail less fluctuating electricity at wounds – injury current and potential – he made to himself. 10508:"Selective depolarization of transmembrane potential alters muscle patterning and muscle cell localization in Xenopus laevis embryos" 7909:"Human keratinocytes migrate to the negative pole in direct current electric fields comparable to those measured in mammalian wounds" 2917:"Regulation of Cell Behavior and Tissue Patterning by Bioelectrical Signals: Challenges and Opportunities for Biomedical Engineering" 1028:

Zimmermman-Laband and Temple-Baraitser syndrome – craniofacial and brain defects, dysplasia/aplasia of nails of thumb and great toe.

3625:

Cone, C. D. Jr; Tongier, M. Jr (1971). "Control of Somatic Cell Mitosis by Simulated Changes in the Transmembrane Potential Level".

247:) modulate targeted translocators to produce a current or to enhance, mitigate or even reverse an initial current, being switchers. 15849:"Tumor-suppressor function of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors is associated with activation of receptor-operated calcium influx" 13679:"Pigment pattern in jaguar/obelix zebrafish is caused by a Kir7.1 mutation: Implications for the regulation of melanosome movement" 10457:Özkucur, Nurdan; Quinn, Kyle P; Pang, Jin C; Du, Chuang; Georgakoudi, Irene; Miller, Eric; Levin, Michael; Kaplan, David L (2015). 9099:"H+ pump-dependent changes in membrane voltage are an early mechanism necessary and sufficient to induce Xenopus tail regeneration" 14499:

Araya, R; Eckardt, D; Riquelme, M. A; Willecke, K; Sáez, J. C (2003). "Presence and importance of connexin43 during myogenesis".

7546:

Shen, Yunyun; Pfluger, Trisha; Ferreira, Fernando; Liang, Jiebing; Navedo, Manuel F; Zeng, Qunli; Reid, Brian; Zhao, Min (2016).

13427:

Teng, G. Q.; Zhao, X.; Lees-Miller, J. P.; Quinn, F. R.; Li, P.; Rancourt, D. E.; London, B.; Cross, J. C.; Duff, H. J. (2008).

7611:

Klyce, S. D. Electrical profiles in the corneal epithelium. J Physiol 226, 407-429. Pubmed Central reference number: PMC1331188

4181:

Reid, Brian; Nuccitelli, Richard; Zhao, Min (2007). "Non-invasive measurement of bioelectric currents with a vibrating probe".

3660:

Stillwell, E. F.; Cone, C. M.; Cone, C. D. (1973). "Stimulation of DNA Synthesis in CNS Neurones by Sustained Depolarisation".

3541:

Borgens, Richard B. (1982). "What Is the Role of Naturally Produced Electric Current in Vertebrate Regeneration and Healing?".

12656:"Activating Mutations in the Gene Encoding the ATP-Sensitive Potassium-Channel Subunit Kir6.2 and Permanent Neonatal Diabetes" 10010:

Fraser, S. P; Ozerlat-Gunduz, I; Brackenbury, W. J; Fitzgerald, E. M; Campbell, T. M; Coombes, R. C; Djamgoz, M. B. A (2014).

5215:"General Principles for Measuring Resting Membrane Potential and Ion Concentration Using Fluorescent Bioelectricity Reporters" 3582:

McCaig, Colin D.; Rajnicek, Ann M.; Song, Bing; Zhao, Min (2002). "Has electrical growth cone guidance found its potential?".

478:(control ion channels/pumps), and bioelectrically guided 2nd messengers (control neurotransmitters and other small molecules). 15673:"Downregulation of CFTR promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and is associated with poor prognosis of breast cancer" 15240:"HERG1/Kv11.1 activation stimulates transcription of p21waf/cip in breast cancer cells via a calcineurin-dependent mechanism" 13730:"Deletion of Kvβ1.1 subunit leads to electrical and haemodynamic changes causing cardiac hypertrophy in female murine hearts" 7186: 6550: 5112:

Adams, D. S.; Robinson, K. R.; Fukumoto, T.; Yuan, S; Albertson, R. C.; Yelick, P; Kuo, L.; McSweeney, M.; Levin, M. (2006).

4880: 4582: 4335: 4162: 3857: 3558: 3463: 3373: 3144: 2886: 2658: 2625: 2559: 13791:

Chopra, S. S; Stroud, D. M; Watanabe, H; Bennett, J. S; Burns, C. G; Wells, K. S; Yang, T; Zhong, T. P; Roden, D. M (2010).

9797:

Leithe, Edward; Sirnes, Solveig; Omori, Yasufumi; Rivedal, Edgar (2006). "Downregulation of Gap Junctions in Cancer Cells".

9593:"Vertically- and horizontally-transmitted memories – the fading boundaries between regeneration and inheritance in planaria" 9443:"Characterization of innexin gene expression and functional roles of gap-junctional communication in planarian regeneration" 13133:"Mice devoid of gamma-aminobutyrate type a receptor beta3 subunit have epilepsy, cleft palate, and hypersensitive behavior" 6576:"Pretreatment with Ascorbic Acid Prevents Lethal Gastrointestinal Syndrome in Mice Receiving a Massive Amount of Radiation" 1879:"Molecular bioelectricity: How endogenous voltage potentials control cell behavior and instruct pattern regulation in vivo" 851:. Thus, the proximal mechanisms of bioelectric signaling within single cells are becoming well-understood, and advances in 509:

Computational platforms that are coming on-line to assist in building predictive models of bioelectric dynamics in tissues.

15191:"Voltage-gated Na+ channel SCN5A is a key regulator of a gene transcriptional network that controls colon cancer invasion" 2289:"Single cell wound generates electric current circuit and cell membrane potential variations that requires calcium influx" 15800:"BKCa channel inhibitor modulates the tumorigenic ability of hormone-independent breast cancer cells via the Wnt pathway" 10747:"Reprogramming cells and tissue patterning via bioelectrical pathways: Molecular mechanisms and biomedical opportunities" 5114:"Early, H+-V-ATPase-dependent proton flux is necessary for consistent left-right patterning of non-mammalian vertebrates" 11618:

Rigas, S; Debrosses, G; Haralampidis, K; Vicente-Agullo, F; Feldmann, K. A; Grabov, A; Dolan, L; Hatzopoulos, P (2001).

9832:

Trosko, J.E (2005). "The role of stem cells and gap junctions as targets for cancer chemoprevention and chemotherapy".

9534:

Durant, Fallon; Morokuma, Junji; Fields, Christopher; Williams, Katherine; Adams, Dany Spencer; Levin, Michael (2017).

9340:"A Chemical Genetics Approach Reveals H,K-ATPase-Mediated Membrane Voltage is Required for Planarian Head Regeneration" 305:. Galvani showed, in a 1794 study, twitching without metal electricity by touching the leg muscle with a deviating cut 14603:"Combining Foxc2 and Connexin37 deletions in mice leads to severe defects in lymphatic vascular growth and remodeling" 12956:"Properties of KvLQT1 K+ channel mutations in Romano-Ward and Jervell and Lange-Nielsen inherited cardiac arrhythmias" 8466:

Borgens, Richard B (1984). "Are limb development and limb regeneration both initiated by an integumentary wounding?".

7948:"Orientation and directed migration of cultured corneal epithelial cells in small electric fields are serum dependent" 2592: 78: 15573:

Martino, J. J; Wall, B. A; Mastrantoni, E; Wilimczyk, B. J; La Cava, S. N; Degenhardt, K; White, E; Chen, S (2013).

14040:"The Drosophila gap junction channel gene innexin 2 controls foregut development in response to Wingless signalling" 11086:"Tracing Information Flow from Erk to Target Gene Induction Reveals Mechanisms of Dynamic and Combinatorial Control" 7283:

Barker, A. T.; Jaffe, L. F.; Vanable, J. W. (1982). "The glabrous epidermis of cavies contains a powerful battery".

2528:

Pullar, C. E. The physiology of bioelectricity in development, tissue regeneration, and cancer., (CRC Press, 1996).

649:

and joint instability. Craniofacial defects associated with mutations in KCNH1 include cleft or high arched palate,

289:

Developmental bioelectricity began in the 18th century. Several seminal works stimulating muscle contractions using

7987: 645:) syndrome. Common features of Temple-Baraitser syndrome include absent or hypoplastic of finger and toe nails and 210:

Distribution of bioelectric potential in the flank of a frog embryo stained with voltage-sensitive fluorescent dye.

10234:"Modulation of potassium channel function confers a hyperproliferative invasive phenotype on embryonic stem cells" 3514:

Borgens, R. B (1986). "The role of natural and applied electric fields in neuronal regeneration and development".

15395:

Saito, Tsuyoshi; Schlegel, Richard; Andresson, Thirkell; Yuge, Louis; Yamamoto, Masao; Yamasaki, Hiroshi (1998).

366:

tumors, in a range of animals and plants. Applied electric fields were demonstrated to alter the regeneration of

14906:"Inhibition of gap junction communication at ectopic Eph/ephrin boundaries underlies craniofrontonasal syndrome" 11530:"Endogenous bioelectrical networks store non-genetic patterning information during development and regeneration" 15289:"Potassium channel activation inhibits proliferation of breast cancer cells by activating a senescence program" 10012:"Regulation of voltage-gated sodium channel expression in cancer: Hormones, growth factors and auto-regulation" 7321:

Blüh, O; Scott, B. I. H. (1950). "Vibrating Probe Electrometer for the Measurement of Bioelectric Potentials".

3781:

Monteiro, Joana; Aires, Rita; Becker, Jörg D; Jacinto, António; Certal, Ana C; Rodríguez-León, Joaquín (2014).

642: 142:

networks, and other physical forces to regulate cell behaviour and large-scale patterning in processes such as

17: 14291:"Mutations of the Connexin43 gap-junction gene in patients with heart malformations and defects of laterality" 13728:

Tur, J; Chapalamadugu, K. C; Padawer, T; Badole, S. L; Kilfoil Pj, 2nd; Bhatnagar, A; Tipparaju, S. M (2016).

13589:"Asymmetries in H+/K+-ATPase and cell membrane potentials comprise a very early step in left-right patterning" 11184:"Cellular perception and misperception: Internal models for decision-making shaped by evolutionary experience" 10796:"Gap junctional signaling in pattern regulation: Physiological network connectivity instructs growth and form" 8588:"Reduction of the Current of Injury Leaving the Amputation Inhibits Limb Regeneration in the Red Spotted Newt" 7548:"Diabetic cornea wounds produce significantly weaker electric signals that may contribute to impaired healing" 3875:"Diabetic cornea wounds produce significantly weaker electric signals that may contribute to impaired healing" 13088:

Wee, E. L; Zimmerman, E. F (1985). "GABA uptake in embryonic palate mesenchymal cells of two mouse strains".

7762:"Electrophoresis of Cellular Membrane Components Creates the Directional Cue Guiding Keratocyte Galvanotaxis" 5011:"Optogenetics in Developmental Biology: Using light to control ion flux-dependent signals in Xenopus embryos" 664:, which causes severe cardiac arrhythmia (long-QT) along with syndactyly and similar craniofacial defects to 500:

Pharmacological screens to identify endogenous channels and pumps responsible for specific patterning events;

103: 11331:"Rewiring Cells: Synthetic Biology as a Tool to Interrogate the Organizational Principles of Living Systems" 10185:-expressing instructor cells induces a neoplastic-like conversion of melanocytes via a serotonergic pathway" 7623:"Nerve regeneration and wound healing are stimulated and directed by an endogenous electrical field in vivo" 600:, enamel hypoplasia, delayed dentition eruption, malocclusion, broad forehead, wide set eyes, low set ears, 14452:"Connexin43 deficiency causes delayed ossification, craniofacial abnormalities, and osteoblast dysfunction" 13991:"Gap junction channel protein innexin 2 is essential for epithelial morphogenesis in the Drosophila embryo" 10459:"Membrane potential depolarization causes alterations in neuron arrangement and connectivity in cocultures" 9645:"Resting potential, oncogene-induced tumorigenesis, and metastasis: the bioelectric basis of cancerin vivo" 4561: 4275:"Measurement of Extracellular Ion Fluxes Using the Ion-selective Self-referencing Microelectrode Technique" 3973:

Graham, Judith; Gerard, R. W (1946). "Membrane potentials and excitation of impaled single muscle fibers".

621: 10657:"Initiation of human myoblast differentiation via dephosphorylation of Kir2.1 K+ channels at tyrosine 242" 9754:

Kandouz, Mustapha; Batist, Gerald (2010). "Gap junctions and connexins as therapeutic targets in cancer".

6021:"V-ATPase-dependent ectodermal voltage and ph regionalization are required for craniofacial morphogenesis" 4018:

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part N: Journal of Nanoengineering and Nanosystems

2208:

Lane, N; Allen, J. F; Martin, W (2010). "How did LUCA make a living? Chemiosmosis in the origin of life".

1373:

Dominant mutations cause cerebellar displasia in humans, and wing venation and eye defects in Drosophila.

11380:"Top-down models in biology: Explanation and control of complex living systems above the molecular level" 9484:"Long-range neural and gap junction protein-mediated cues control polarity during planarian regeneration" 6301:"Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range" 3269:

Marsh, G.; Beams, H. W. (1947). "Electrical control of growth polarity in regenerating Dugesia tigrina".

665: 573: 449: 53: 13276:"Weaver mutant mouse cerebellum: Defective neuronal migration secondary to abnormality of Bergmann glia" 6451:"Keppen-Lubinsky Syndrome is Caused by Mutations in the Inwardly Rectifying K+ Channel Encoded by KCNJ6" 6247:"Long-range gap junctional signaling controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis in Xenopus laevis embryos" 5673:"Bioelectrical Signals and Ion Channels in the Modeling of Multicellular Patterns and Cancer Biophysics" 2459:"Endogenous Bioelectric Signaling Networks: Exploiting Voltage Gradients for Control of Growth and Form" 760:

Recent molecular work has identified proton and sodium flux as being important for tail regeneration in

239:(conductors), generating measurable electric currents – net ion fluxes – and fields. Some ions (such as 14039: 8831: 8172: 6398:"Mutations in Kir2.1 Cause the Developmental and Episodic Electrical Phenotypes of Andersen's Syndrome" 585: 15624:"Metabotropic glutamate receptor-1: A potential therapeutic target for the treatment of breast cancer" 12463:"Mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator gene and in vivo transepithelial potentials" 11029:"Magnetogenetics: Remote non-invasive magnetic activation of neuronal activity with a magnetoreceptor" 9536:"Long-Term, Stochastic Editing of Regenerative Anatomy via Targeting Endogenous Bioelectric Gradients" 7947: 7908: 2016:

Funk, R. H; Monsees, T; Ozkucur, N (2009). "Electromagnetic effects - from cell biology to medicine".

5264:"Measuring Resting Membrane Potential Using the Fluorescent Voltage Reporters DiBAC4(3) and CC2-DMPE" 848: 202:

Electric potential difference across corneal epithelium, and the generation of wound electric fields.

15960:"KCNJ3 is a new independent prognostic marker for estrogen receptor positive breast cancer patients" 13335:"Weaver mouse cerebellar granule neurons fail to migrate on wild-type astroglial processes in vitro" 8031: 785:

Bioelectricity and genetic expression work together in an integrated fashion; nothing is downstream.

431:

connecting the biological specimen with the electrode, protecting tissues from leachable toxins and

15055:"Bi-directional gap junction-mediated soma-germline communication is essential for spermatogenesis" 11886:"The medaka mutation tintachina sheds light on the evolution of V-ATPase B subunits in vertebrates" 10608:"Depolarization Alters Phenotype, Maintains Plasticity of Predifferentiated Mesenchymal Stem Cells" 8063:"KCNJ15/Kir4.2 couples with polyamines to sense weak extracellular electric fields in galvanotaxis" 391: 12655: 8689:

Borgens, Richard B; Vanable, Joseph W; Jaffe, Lionel F (1979). "Small artificial currents enhance

7713:"The epithelial sodium channel mediates the directionality of galvanotaxis in human keratinocytes" 7016:"CaV1.2 Calcium Channel Dysfunction Causes a Multisystem Disorder Including Arrhythmia and Autism" 5511:

Pai, Vaibhav P; Pietak, Alexis; Willocq, Valerie; Ye, Bin; Shi, Nian-Qing; Levin, Michael (2018).

3250:

Marsh, G.; Beams, H. W. (1949). "Electrical control of axial polarity in a regenerating annelid".

16042: 13638:"Left-right asymmetry in the sea urchin embryo is regulated by nodal signaling on the right side" 9250:"Smedinx-11 is a planarian stem cell gap junction gene required for regeneration and homeostasis" 5313:"Comparative measurements of membrane potentials with microelectrodes and voltage-sensitive dyes" 836: 139: 8898:"BioDome regenerative sleeve for biochemical and biophysical stimulation of tissue regeneration" 3365: 3356: 8896:

Hechavarria, Daniel; Dewilde, Abiche; Braunhut, Susan; Levin, Michael; Kaplan, David L (2010).

7170: 7162: 4774:

Jayaram, Dhanya T; Luo, Qingjie; Thourson, Scott B; Finlay, Adam H; Payne, Christine K (2017).

273: 147: 7245:

Feldman, Gerald L.; Weaver, D. D.; Lovrien, E. W. (1977). "The Fetal Trimethadione Syndrome".

4868: 4513:"Physiological inputs regulate species-specific anatomy during embryogenesis and regeneration" 4457:

Zhao, Siwei; Zhu, Kan; Zhang, Yan; Zhu, Zijie; Xu, Zhengping; Zhao, Min; Pan, Tingrui (2014).

13771: 8629:"Bioelectricity and regeneration: Large currents leave the stumps of regenerating newt limbs" 5570:"Exploring Instructive Physiological Signaling with the Bioelectric Tissue Simulation Engine" 115: 13192:"The transmembrane protein TMEM16A is required for normal development of the murine trachea" 3930:

Hodgkin, A. L; Huxley, A. F (1939). "Action Potentials Recorded from Inside a Nerve Fibre".

3873:

Shen, Y; Pfluger, T; Ferreira, F; Liang, J; Navedo, M. F; Zeng, Q; Reid, B; Zhao, M (2016).

3738:

Hodgkin, A. L; Huxley, A. F (1939). "Action Potentials Recorded from Inside a Nerve Fibre".

1118:

Birk-Barel Dysmorphism Syndrome – craniofacial defects, brain (cortical patterning) defects

162:

Developmental bioelectricity is a sub-discipline of biology, related to, but distinct from,

16037: 15860: 15484: 15349: 15006:"Connexin43 (GJA1) is required in the population of dividing cells during fin regeneration" 14729: 14255: 13894: 13541: 13287: 13144: 11897: 11840: 11732: 11590: 11040: 10847:"Transducing Bioelectric Signals into Epigenetic Pathways During Tadpole Tail Regeneration" 10413: 10245: 9656: 9547: 8958: 8847: 8817:

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9109:(7): 1323–1335. 9094: 9083: 9082: 9072: 9040: 9034: 9033: 9023: 8999: 8993: 8992: 8982: 8942: 8936: 8935: 8925: 8908:(9): 1065–1073. 8893: 8884: 8883: 8873: 8863: 8827: 8818: 8815: 8809: 8808: 8780: 8774: 8773: 8737: 8728: 8725: 8719: 8718: 8686: 8677: 8676: 8666: 8656: 8624: 8618: 8617: 8607: 8583: 8574: 8573: 8533: 8527: 8526: 8503:Psychophysiology 8498: 8492: 8491: 8463: 8457: 8456: 8428: 8422: 8421: 8413: 8407: 8406: 8396: 8386: 8354: 8348: 8347: 8329: 8305: 8299: 8298: 8288: 8256: 8250: 8249: 8239: 8222:(6): 1375–1384. 8207: 8201: 8200: 8168: 8162: 8161: 8151: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8098: 8058: 8052: 8051: 8027: 8021: 8020: 7982: 7976: 7975: 7958:(6): 1405–1414. 7943: 7937: 7936: 7904: 7898: 7897: 7887: 7870:(6): 2023–2037. 7855: 7849: 7848: 7838: 7814: 7808: 7807: 7797: 7757: 7751: 7750: 7740: 7723:(9): 1942–1951. 7708: 7702: 7701: 7691: 7674:(4): 2465–2471. 7659: 7653: 7652: 7642: 7621:Song, B (2004). 7618: 7612: 7609: 7603: 7600: 7594: 7593: 7583: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7492: 7479: 7478: 7468: 7458: 7434: 7425: 7424: 7396: 7390: 7389: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7318: 7309: 7308: 7280: 7271: 7270: 7242: 7236: 7235: 7207: 7201: 7200: 7158: 7152: 7151: 7141: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7092: 7060: 7054: 7053: 7035: 7011: 7005: 7004: 6994: 6962: 6956: 6955: 6927: 6921: 6920: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6823: 6795: 6786: 6785: 6748: 6742: 6741: 6712: 6706: 6705: 6695: 6685: 6661: 6655: 6654: 6644: 6620: 6614: 6613: 6603: 6571: 6565: 6564: 6530: 6524: 6523: 6495: 6489: 6488: 6478: 6445: 6436: 6435: 6417: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6348: 6339: 6338: 6328: 6311:(10): 3287–306. 6296: 6287: 6286: 6276: 6266: 6242: 6233: 6232: 6222: 6212: 6188: 6177: 6176: 6166: 6156: 6132: 6123: 6122: 6112: 6080: 6069: 6068: 6050: 6040: 6031:(8): 1889–1904. 6016: 6010: 6009: 5999: 5988:10.1113/JP271930 5967: 5958: 5957: 5947: 5915: 5909: 5908: 5898: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5841: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5793:(7): 2968–2978. 5782: 5776: 5775: 5765: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5708: 5668: 5659: 5658: 5648: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5599: 5589: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5548: 5508: 5497: 5496: 5486: 5454: 5439: 5438: 5428: 5396: 5390: 5389: 5379: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5291: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5242: 5210: 5204: 5203: 5193: 5161: 5152: 5151: 5141: 5124:(9): 1657–1671. 5109: 5100: 5099: 5089: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5040: 5030: 5006: 4997: 4996: 4986: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4925: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4820: 4814: 4813: 4803: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4747:(4): 1268–1272. 4736: 4730: 4729: 4719: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4670: 4659:10.1002/btpr.609 4638: 4632: 4631: 4614:(1–2): 129–139. 4603: 4597: 4596: 4568: 4557: 4551: 4550: 4540: 4508: 4497: 4496: 4486: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4422:(6): 1479–1489. 4416:Nature Protocols 4410: 4404: 4403: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4349: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4298: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4253: 4236:(5): 1565–1573. 4221: 4215: 4214: 4183:Nature Protocols 4178: 4169: 4168: 4142: 4133: 4132: 4096: 4085: 4084: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3952:10.1038/144710a0 3927: 3921: 3920: 3910: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3820: 3810: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3760:10.1038/144710a0 3735: 3729: 3728: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3668:(152): 110–111. 3657: 3651: 3650: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3418: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3359: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3334: 3302: 3287: 3286: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3204: 3198: 3195: 3189: 3188: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3060: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2944: 2912: 2901: 2900: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2707: 2696: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2680: 2672: 2646: 2640: 2639: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2520: 2519: 2503: 2497: 2496: 2486: 2454: 2443: 2442: 2432: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2368: 2336: 2325: 2324: 2284: 2275: 2274: 2264: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2188: 2178: 2154: 2141: 2140: 2130: 2098: 2089: 2088: 2048: 2042: 2041: 2013: 2007: 2006: 1996: 1972: 1963: 1962: 1952: 1928: 1917: 1916: 1906: 1874: 1868: 1867: 1839: 1615:NaV 1.5 channel 1598: 1597: 1392: 1391: 1250:KCNQ1 K channel 1235:KCNH2 K channel 1220:Girk2 K channel 1160:KCNQ1 K channel 983:Growth deficits 980:KCNC1 K channel 908:Wing patterning 873: 872: 700:epithelial cells 662:Timothy syndrome 450:Fick's first law 425:giant axon squid 403:Study techniques 299:Alessandro Volta 84: 77: 73: 70: 64: 45: 44: 37: 32:action potential 21: 16058: 16057: 16053: 16052: 16051: 16049: 16048: 16047: 16023: 16022: 16007: 16002: 16001: 15956: 15952: 15904: 15900: 15845: 15841: 15796: 15792: 15753: 15749: 15710: 15706: 15669: 15665: 15620: 15616: 15571: 15567: 15532:Nature Genetics 15528: 15524: 15469: 15465: 15434: 15430: 15393: 15389: 15334: 15330: 15285: 15281: 15236: 15232: 15195:Cancer Research 15187: 15180: 15149: 15145: 15100: 15096: 15051: 15047: 15002: 14998: 14953: 14949: 14902: 14898: 14861: 14857: 14812: 14808: 14769: 14765: 14718: 14714: 14683: 14679: 14648: 14644: 14599: 14595: 14550: 14546: 14497: 14493: 14448: 14444: 14412: 14408: 14377: 14373: 14328: 14324: 14287: 14283: 14244: 14240: 14200: 14196: 14151: 14147: 14116: 14112: 14075: 14071: 14036: 14032: 13987: 13983: 13938: 13934: 13893:(5): e0173565. 13879: 13875: 13838: 13834: 13789: 13785: 13769: 13768: 13726: 13722: 13675: 13671: 13634: 13630: 13585: 13581: 13526: 13522: 13477: 13470: 13425: 13421: 13386:Nature Genetics 13382: 13378: 13331: 13327: 13272: 13268: 13229: 13225: 13188: 13184: 13129: 13125: 13086: 13082: 13047:Nature Genetics 13042: 13038: 13001: 12997: 12952: 12948: 12916: 12912: 12873: 12869: 12822: 12818: 12787: 12783: 12746: 12739: 12694: 12690: 12658: 12652: 12645: 12600: 12596: 12557: 12553: 12508: 12504: 12459: 12455: 12418: 12414: 12369: 12365: 12334:(12): 678–682. 12320: 12316: 12271: 12267: 12228: 12224: 12177: 12173: 12150:10.1038/ng.3153 12138:Nature Genetics 12134: 12130: 12099: 12095: 12090: 12086: 12055:(11): 841–855. 12041: 12037: 11988: 11984: 11939: 11935: 11882: 11878: 11833:Current Biology 11825: 11821: 11796:10.1038/ncb1836 11776: 11772: 11731:(9): e0139284. 11717: 11713: 11668: 11661: 11616: 11612: 11575: 11571: 11526: 11522: 11477: 11473: 11428: 11421: 11376: 11372: 11327: 11323: 11278: 11274: 11243:(179): 179ps7. 11229: 11225: 11180: 11176: 11131: 11127: 11082: 11078: 11025: 11021: 10976: 10972: 10927: 10923: 10892: 10888: 10843: 10839: 10792: 10788: 10743: 10739: 10694: 10690: 10653: 10649: 10604: 10600: 10555: 10551: 10504: 10500: 10455: 10451: 10398: 10394: 10349: 10345: 10300: 10293: 10230: 10226: 10177: 10173: 10142: 10138: 10106: 10102: 10057: 10053: 10008: 10004: 9965:Pharmaceuticals 9957: 9953: 9908: 9904: 9881:10.1038/nrc3635 9865: 9861: 9830: 9826: 9795: 9791: 9752: 9745: 9698: 9694: 9641: 9634: 9589: 9585: 9532: 9525: 9480: 9476: 9439: 9435: 9388: 9381: 9336: 9332: 9287: 9283: 9246: 9242: 9197: 9188: 9143: 9132: 9095: 9086: 9041: 9037: 9000: 8996: 8943: 8939: 8894: 8887: 8846:(6): e0155618. 8832:Kaplan, David L 8828: 8821: 8816: 8812: 8781: 8777: 8738: 8731: 8726: 8722: 8687: 8680: 8639:(10): 4528–32. 8625: 8621: 8584: 8577: 8534: 8530: 8499: 8495: 8468:Differentiation 8464: 8460: 8429: 8425: 8414: 8410: 8355: 8351: 8306: 8302: 8257: 8253: 8208: 8204: 8169: 8165: 8116: 8112: 8059: 8055: 8028: 8024: 7983: 7979: 7944: 7940: 7905: 7901: 7856: 7852: 7815: 7811: 7766:Current Biology 7758: 7754: 7709: 7705: 7660: 7656: 7619: 7615: 7610: 7606: 7601: 7597: 7544: 7540: 7493: 7482: 7435: 7428: 7397: 7393: 7372:(6): 999–1003. 7362: 7358: 7329:(10): 867–868. 7319: 7312: 7291:(3): R358–366. 7281: 7274: 7243: 7239: 7208: 7204: 7189: 7159: 7155: 7110: 7106: 7075:(5): 405.e1–7. 7061: 7057: 7012: 7008: 6963: 6959: 6928: 6924: 6903:(1): e168–176. 6893: 6889: 6849: 6845: 6812:10.1038/ng.3282 6800:Nature Genetics 6796: 6789: 6749: 6745: 6713: 6709: 6662: 6658: 6621: 6617: 6572: 6568: 6553: 6531: 6527: 6496: 6492: 6446: 6439: 6393: 6389: 6349: 6342: 6297: 6290: 6243: 6236: 6203:(1): e1004080. 6189: 6180: 6133: 6126: 6095:(10): 4366–85. 6081: 6072: 6017: 6013: 5968: 5961: 5916: 5912: 5881:(3): e1309488. 5867: 5863: 5818: 5814: 5783: 5779: 5726: 5722: 5669: 5662: 5617: 5613: 5566: 5562: 5509: 5500: 5455: 5442: 5397: 5393: 5348: 5344: 5309: 5305: 5260: 5256: 5211: 5207: 5162: 5155: 5110: 5103: 5072:(11): 530–540. 5058: 5054: 5007: 5000: 4975:10.1038/496159a 4951: 4947: 4910:Nature Medicine 4902: 4898: 4883: 4865: 4861: 4821: 4817: 4786:(27): 1700789. 4772: 4768: 4737: 4733: 4688: 4684: 4639: 4635: 4604: 4600: 4585: 4566: 4558: 4554: 4523:(4): e1192733. 4509: 4500: 4455: 4451: 4411: 4407: 4367: 4363: 4338: 4316: 4312: 4271: 4267: 4222: 4218: 4179: 4172: 4165: 4143: 4136: 4097: 4088: 4049: 4045: 4014: 4010: 3971: 3967: 3928: 3924: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3838: 3834: 3779: 3775: 3736: 3732: 3693: 3689: 3658: 3654: 3623: 3619: 3580: 3576: 3561: 3539: 3535: 3512: 3508: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3444: 3440: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3352: 3348: 3303: 3290: 3277:(1 Pt 2): 163. 3267: 3263: 3248: 3244: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3131: 3127: 3096: 3092: 3061: 3057: 3016: 3012: 2989: 2985: 2962: 2958: 2913: 2904: 2889: 2875: 2871: 2856: 2852: 2821: 2817: 2796:(11): 463–464. 2782: 2778: 2743: 2739: 2708: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2674: 2673: 2661: 2647: 2643: 2628: 2614: 2610: 2595: 2581: 2577: 2562: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2523: 2504: 2500: 2455: 2446: 2401: 2397: 2386: 2382: 2337: 2328: 2285: 2278: 2241: 2237: 2206: 2202: 2155: 2144: 2099: 2092: 2049: 2045: 2014: 2010: 1973: 1966: 1929: 1920: 1875: 1871: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1548: 1010:KCNJ6 Kchannel 857:magnetogenetics 832: 830:Future research 809: 800: 712: 675: 624:which includes 563:channelopathies 533: 528: 485: 477: 410: 405: 376: 347: 315: 287: 282: 265:gene expression 257:Tight junctions 164:neurophysiology 160: 140:transcriptional 85: 74: 68: 65: 58: 52:may contain an 46: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16056: 16046: 16045: 16043:Bioelectricity 16040: 16035: 16021: 16020: 16006: 16005:External links 16003: 16000: 15999: 15950: 15898: 15839: 15810:(2): 533–538. 15790: 15763:(3): 570–581. 15747: 15704: 15663: 15634:(2): 565–573. 15614: 15565: 15538:(2): 181–185. 15522: 15463: 15428: 15387: 15328: 15279: 15230: 15178: 15143: 15094: 15045: 15016:(2): 541–548. 14996: 14967:(2): 410–418. 14947: 14896: 14875:(1): 208–219. 14855: 14826:(9): 893–897. 14806: 14763: 14712: 14693:(6): 213–218. 14677: 14642: 14593: 14564:(2): 253–266. 14544: 14491: 14462:(4): 931–944. 14442: 14423:(1–2): 33–42. 14406: 14371: 14342:(2): 188–192. 14322: 14281: 14238: 14194: 14159:Human Mutation 14145: 14126:(4): 377–387. 14110: 14069: 14030: 13981: 13932: 13873: 13832: 13783: 13740:(4): 494–508. 13720: 13669: 13648:(1): 147–158. 13628: 13579: 13520: 13468: 13419: 13392:(2): 126–129. 13376: 13325: 13286:(1): 240–244. 13266: 13239:(2): 103–132. 13223: 13202:(1): 141–149. 13182: 13123: 13080: 13053:(3): 344–346. 13036: 12995: 12946: 12927:(3): 555–564. 12910: 12883:(3): 415–424. 12867: 12816: 12797:(4): 283–290. 12781: 12737: 12688: 12643: 12614:(2): 193–199. 12594: 12567:(3): 397–407. 12551: 12522:(5): 560–564. 12502: 12473:(7): 787–794. 12453: 12432:(4): 279–285. 12412: 12383:(3): 462–473. 12363: 12314: 12285:(7): 809–813. 12279:Human Mutation 12265: 12238:(1): 231–236. 12222: 12171: 12128: 12093: 12084: 12035: 12006:(2): 119–121. 11982: 11953:(2): 115–121. 11933: 11876: 11819: 11790:(3): 286–294. 11770: 11711: 11659: 11630:(1): 139–151. 11624:The Plant Cell 11610: 11569: 11520: 11471: 11419: 11370: 11321: 11292:(2): 320–332. 11272: 11223: 11194:(9): 845–849. 11174: 11125: 11090:Molecular Cell 11076: 11019: 10970: 10921: 10902:(6): 261–270. 10886: 10837: 10806:(5): 643–673. 10786: 10757:(6): 657–676. 10737: 10708:(3): 205–217. 10688: 10667:(5): 859–867. 10647: 10598: 10549: 10498: 10449: 10392: 10363:(3): 595–607. 10343: 10291: 10224: 10171: 10146:Cancer Letters 10136: 10100: 10051: 10002: 9951: 9922:(2): 151–162. 9902: 9859: 9824: 9789: 9762:(7): 681–692. 9743: 9692: 9632: 9583: 9523: 9494:(1): 188–199. 9474: 9453:(2): 314–335. 9433: 9379: 9330: 9301:(2): 313–322. 9281: 9240: 9211:(3): 306–313. 9186: 9130: 9084: 9035: 9014:(1): 198–207. 8994: 8937: 8885: 8819: 8810: 8775: 8729: 8720: 8701:(2): 217–226. 8678: 8619: 8598:(2): 251–262. 8575: 8528: 8509:(2): 262–275. 8493: 8458: 8439:(2): 191–213. 8423: 8408: 8349: 8320:(8): 857–859. 8300: 8251: 8202: 8163: 8110: 8053: 8022: 7977: 7938: 7919:(1): 199–207. 7899: 7850: 7809: 7772:(7): 560–568. 7752: 7703: 7654: 7613: 7604: 7595: 7538: 7480: 7449:(3): 379–386. 7426: 7407:(2): 377–385. 7391: 7356: 7310: 7272: 7237: 7218:(3): 323–330. 7202: 7187: 7153: 7124:(6): 943–959. 7104: 7055: 7006: 6957: 6938:(3): 297–300. 6922: 6887: 6860:(2): 528–534. 6843: 6787: 6754:Human Genetics 6743: 6724:(2): 123–136. 6707: 6656: 6635:(2): 321–325. 6615: 6586:(2): 145–156. 6566: 6551: 6525: 6506:(2): 441–443. 6490: 6461:(2): 295–300. 6437: 6408:(4): 511–519. 6387: 6360:(4): 312–321. 6340: 6288: 6234: 6178: 6124: 6070: 6011: 5959: 5910: 5861: 5812: 5777: 5720: 5660: 5611: 5560: 5498: 5469:(2): 313–323. 5440: 5391: 5342: 5323:(2): 208–216. 5303: 5274:(4): 459–464. 5254: 5225:(4): 385–397. 5205: 5153: 5101: 5052: 4998: 4955:Slaoui, Moncef 4945: 4896: 4881: 4859: 4832:(6): 398–417. 4815: 4766: 4731: 4702:(6): 1377–86. 4682: 4633: 4598: 4583: 4552: 4498: 4449: 4405: 4372:Applied Optics 4361: 4336: 4310: 4281:(99): e52782. 4265: 4216: 4189:(3): 661–669. 4170: 4163: 4134: 4107:(3): 403–416. 4086: 4043: 4008: 3965: 3922: 3865: 3858: 3832: 3773: 3730: 3703:(4): 377–401. 3687: 3652: 3633:(2): 168–182. 3617: 3574: 3559: 3533: 3506: 3471: 3464: 3438: 3381: 3374: 3346: 3288: 3261: 3242: 3221:10.1086/394488 3215:(3): 322–333. 3199: 3190: 3152: 3145: 3125: 3090: 3071:(3): 457–475. 3055: 3010: 2999:(3): 241–275. 2983: 2972:(4): 294–299. 2956: 2902: 2887: 2869: 2850: 2815: 2776: 2757:(1): 173–207. 2737: 2718:(3): 943–978. 2697: 2688: 2659: 2641: 2626: 2608: 2593: 2575: 2560: 2530: 2521: 2498: 2444: 2415:(2): 177–189. 2395: 2380: 2326: 2299:(7): 662–672. 2276: 2255:(7): 1406–16. 2235: 2216:(4): 271–280. 2200: 2142: 2090: 2043: 2024:(4): 177–264. 2008: 1964: 1918: 1869: 1850:(6): 667–673. 1833: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1768: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1706: 1702: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1686: 1683: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1671: 1668: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1646: 1642: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1631: 1627: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1588: 1587: 1585: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1572: 1570: 1565: 1562: 1558: 1557: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1538: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1523: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1510: 1508: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1495: 1493: 1488: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1478: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1465: 1463: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1450: 1448: 1443: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1433: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1418: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1382: 1381: 1379: 1374: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1364: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1349: 1344: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1334: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1319: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1304: 1299: 1296: 1292: 1291: 1289: 1284: 1281: 1277: 1276: 1274: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1261: 1259: 1254: 1251: 1247: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1229: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1201: 1199: 1194: 1191: 1187: 1186: 1184: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1171: 1169: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1146: 1142: 1141: 1139: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1124: 1119: 1116: 1112: 1111: 1109: 1104: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1094: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1079: 1074: 1071: 1067: 1066: 1064: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1044: 1041: 1037: 1036: 1034: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1021: 1019: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1006: 1004: 999: 996: 992: 991: 989: 984: 981: 977: 976: 974: 969: 966: 962: 961: 959: 954: 951: 947: 946: 944: 939: 936: 932: 931: 929: 924: 921: 917: 916: 914: 909: 906: 902: 901: 899: 894: 891: 887: 886: 883: 880: 877: 831: 828: 808: 805: 799: 796: 711: 708: 674: 671: 538:Xenopus laevis 532: 529: 527: 524: 511: 510: 507: 504: 501: 484: 481: 475: 418:microelectrode 409: 406: 404: 401: 375: 372: 346: 343: 314: 311: 286: 283: 281: 278: 274:bioengineering 159: 156: 87: 86: 49: 47: 40: 26: 18:Bioelectricity 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16055: 16044: 16041: 16039: 16036: 16034: 16031: 16030: 16028: 16018: 16013: 16009: 16008: 15995: 15991: 15986: 15981: 15977: 15973: 15969: 15965: 15961: 15954: 15946: 15942: 15937: 15932: 15927: 15922: 15918: 15914: 15910: 15902: 15894: 15890: 15885: 15880: 15875: 15870: 15866: 15862: 15858: 15854: 15850: 15843: 15835: 15831: 15826: 15821: 15817: 15813: 15809: 15805: 15801: 15794: 15786: 15782: 15778: 15774: 15770: 15766: 15762: 15758: 15751: 15743: 15739: 15735: 15731: 15727: 15723: 15719: 15715: 15708: 15700: 15696: 15691: 15686: 15682: 15678: 15674: 15667: 15659: 15655: 15650: 15645: 15641: 15637: 15633: 15629: 15625: 15618: 15610: 15606: 15601: 15596: 15592: 15588: 15584: 15580: 15576: 15569: 15561: 15557: 15553: 15549: 15545: 15541: 15537: 15533: 15526: 15518: 15514: 15509: 15504: 15499: 15494: 15490: 15486: 15483:(7): e11451. 15482: 15478: 15474: 15467: 15459: 15455: 15451: 15447: 15443: 15439: 15438:Life Sciences 15432: 15424: 15420: 15415: 15410: 15406: 15402: 15398: 15391: 15383: 15379: 15374: 15369: 15364: 15359: 15355: 15351: 15347: 15343: 15339: 15332: 15324: 15320: 15315: 15310: 15306: 15302: 15298: 15294: 15290: 15283: 15275: 15271: 15266: 15261: 15257: 15253: 15249: 15245: 15241: 15234: 15226: 15222: 15217: 15212: 15208: 15204: 15200: 15196: 15192: 15185: 15183: 15174: 15170: 15166: 15162: 15158: 15154: 15147: 15139: 15135: 15131: 15127: 15122: 15117: 15113: 15109: 15105: 15098: 15090: 15086: 15081: 15076: 15072: 15068: 15064: 15060: 15056: 15049: 15041: 15037: 15032: 15027: 15023: 15019: 15015: 15011: 15007: 15000: 14992: 14988: 14983: 14978: 14974: 14970: 14966: 14962: 14958: 14951: 14943: 14939: 14934: 14929: 14924: 14919: 14915: 14911: 14907: 14900: 14892: 14888: 14883: 14878: 14874: 14870: 14866: 14859: 14851: 14847: 14842: 14837: 14833: 14829: 14825: 14821: 14817: 14810: 14802: 14798: 14794: 14790: 14786: 14782: 14778: 14774: 14767: 14759: 14755: 14751: 14747: 14743: 14739: 14735: 14731: 14727: 14723: 14716: 14708: 14704: 14700: 14696: 14692: 14688: 14681: 14673: 14669: 14665: 14661: 14657: 14653: 14646: 14638: 14634: 14629: 14624: 14620: 14616: 14612: 14608: 14604: 14597: 14589: 14585: 14580: 14575: 14571: 14567: 14563: 14559: 14555: 14548: 14540: 14536: 14532: 14528: 14523: 14518: 14514: 14510: 14506: 14502: 14495: 14487: 14483: 14478: 14473: 14469: 14465: 14461: 14457: 14453: 14446: 14438: 14434: 14430: 14426: 14422: 14418: 14410: 14402: 14398: 14394: 14390: 14386: 14382: 14375: 14367: 14363: 14358: 14353: 14349: 14345: 14341: 14337: 14333: 14326: 14318: 14314: 14309: 14304: 14300: 14296: 14292: 14285: 14277: 14273: 14269: 14265: 14261: 14257: 14253: 14249: 14242: 14234: 14230: 14226: 14222: 14218: 14214: 14210: 14206: 14198: 14190: 14186: 14182: 14178: 14173: 14168: 14164: 14160: 14156: 14149: 14141: 14137: 14133: 14129: 14125: 14121: 14114: 14106: 14102: 14097: 14092: 14088: 14084: 14080: 14073: 14065: 14061: 14057: 14053: 14049: 14045: 14041: 14034: 14026: 14022: 14017: 14012: 14008: 14004: 14000: 13996: 13992: 13985: 13977: 13973: 13968: 13963: 13959: 13955: 13951: 13947: 13943: 13936: 13928: 13924: 13919: 13914: 13909: 13904: 13900: 13896: 13892: 13888: 13884: 13877: 13869: 13865: 13860: 13855: 13851: 13847: 13843: 13836: 13828: 13824: 13819: 13814: 13810: 13806: 13802: 13798: 13794: 13787: 13779: 13773: 13765: 13761: 13756: 13751: 13747: 13743: 13739: 13735: 13731: 13724: 13716: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13697: 13692: 13688: 13684: 13683:PLOS Genetics 13680: 13673: 13665: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13647: 13643: 13639: 13632: 13624: 13620: 13616: 13612: 13607: 13602: 13598: 13594: 13590: 13583: 13575: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13547: 13543: 13540:(3): e92594. 13539: 13535: 13531: 13524: 13516: 13512: 13507: 13502: 13498: 13494: 13490: 13486: 13482: 13475: 13473: 13464: 13460: 13455: 13450: 13446: 13442: 13438: 13434: 13430: 13423: 13415: 13411: 13407: 13403: 13399: 13395: 13391: 13387: 13380: 13372: 13368: 13363: 13358: 13353: 13348: 13344: 13340: 13336: 13329: 13321: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13302: 13297: 13293: 13289: 13285: 13281: 13277: 13270: 13262: 13258: 13254: 13250: 13246: 13242: 13238: 13234: 13227: 13219: 13215: 13210: 13205: 13201: 13197: 13193: 13186: 13178: 13174: 13169: 13164: 13159: 13154: 13150: 13146: 13142: 13138: 13134: 13127: 13119: 13115: 13111: 13107: 13103: 13099: 13095: 13091: 13084: 13076: 13072: 13068: 13064: 13060: 13056: 13052: 13048: 13040: 13032: 13028: 13023: 13018: 13014: 13010: 13006: 12999: 12991: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12973: 12969: 12965: 12961: 12957: 12950: 12942: 12938: 12934: 12930: 12926: 12922: 12914: 12906: 12902: 12898: 12894: 12890: 12886: 12882: 12878: 12871: 12863: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12839: 12835: 12831: 12827: 12820: 12812: 12808: 12804: 12800: 12796: 12792: 12785: 12777: 12773: 12768: 12763: 12759: 12755: 12751: 12744: 12742: 12733: 12729: 12724: 12719: 12715: 12711: 12707: 12703: 12699: 12692: 12684: 12680: 12676: 12672: 12668: 12664: 12657: 12650: 12648: 12639: 12635: 12630: 12625: 12621: 12617: 12613: 12609: 12605: 12598: 12590: 12586: 12582: 12578: 12574: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12555: 12547: 12543: 12538: 12533: 12529: 12525: 12521: 12517: 12513: 12506: 12498: 12494: 12489: 12484: 12480: 12476: 12472: 12468: 12464: 12457: 12449: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12431: 12427: 12423: 12416: 12408: 12404: 12399: 12394: 12390: 12386: 12382: 12378: 12374: 12367: 12359: 12355: 12350: 12345: 12341: 12337: 12333: 12329: 12325: 12318: 12310: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12292: 12288: 12284: 12280: 12276: 12269: 12261: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12245: 12241: 12237: 12233: 12226: 12218: 12214: 12209: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12190: 12186: 12185:BMC Neurology 12182: 12175: 12167: 12163: 12159: 12155: 12151: 12147: 12143: 12139: 12132: 12124: 12120: 12116: 12112: 12108: 12104: 12097: 12088: 12080: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12062: 12058: 12054: 12050: 12046: 12039: 12031: 12027: 12022: 12017: 12013: 12009: 12005: 12001: 11997: 11995: 11986: 11978: 11974: 11969: 11964: 11960: 11956: 11952: 11948: 11944: 11937: 11929: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11911: 11907: 11903: 11899: 11895: 11891: 11887: 11880: 11872: 11868: 11864: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11846: 11842: 11838: 11834: 11830: 11823: 11815: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11797: 11793: 11789: 11785: 11781: 11774: 11766: 11762: 11757: 11752: 11747: 11742: 11738: 11734: 11730: 11726: 11722: 11715: 11707: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11689: 11685: 11681: 11677: 11673: 11666: 11664: 11655: 11651: 11646: 11641: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11625: 11621: 11614: 11605: 11600: 11596: 11592: 11589:(3): 031001. 11588: 11584: 11580: 11573: 11565: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11547: 11543: 11539: 11535: 11531: 11524: 11516: 11512: 11507: 11502: 11498: 11494: 11490: 11486: 11482: 11475: 11467: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11437: 11433: 11426: 11424: 11415: 11411: 11406: 11401: 11397: 11393: 11389: 11385: 11381: 11374: 11366: 11362: 11357: 11352: 11348: 11344: 11340: 11336: 11332: 11325: 11317: 11313: 11308: 11303: 11299: 11295: 11291: 11287: 11283: 11276: 11268: 11264: 11259: 11254: 11250: 11246: 11242: 11238: 11234: 11227: 11219: 11215: 11210: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11178: 11170: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11152: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11136: 11129: 11121: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11103: 11099: 11095: 11091: 11087: 11080: 11072: 11068: 11063: 11058: 11054: 11050: 11046: 11042: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11023: 11015: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10997: 10993: 10989: 10985: 10981: 10974: 10966: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10925: 10917: 10913: 10909: 10905: 10901: 10897: 10890: 10882: 10878: 10873: 10868: 10864: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10848: 10841: 10833: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10814: 10809: 10805: 10801: 10797: 10790: 10782: 10778: 10773: 10768: 10764: 10760: 10756: 10752: 10748: 10741: 10733: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10707: 10703: 10699: 10692: 10684: 10680: 10675: 10670: 10666: 10662: 10658: 10651: 10643: 10639: 10634: 10629: 10625: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10609: 10602: 10594: 10590: 10585: 10580: 10576: 10572: 10568: 10564: 10560: 10553: 10545: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10517: 10513: 10509: 10502: 10494: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10453: 10445: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10403: 10396: 10388: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10370: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10347: 10339: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10298: 10296: 10287: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10269: 10265: 10260: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10243: 10239: 10235: 10228: 10220: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10202: 10198: 10194: 10190: 10186: 10184: 10175: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10140: 10132: 10128: 10124: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10104: 10096: 10092: 10087: 10082: 10078: 10074: 10070: 10066: 10062: 10055: 10047: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10021: 10017: 10013: 10006: 9998: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9970: 9966: 9962: 9955: 9947: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9929: 9925: 9921: 9917: 9913: 9906: 9898: 9894: 9890: 9886: 9882: 9878: 9874: 9870: 9863: 9855: 9851: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9828: 9820: 9816: 9812: 9808: 9804: 9800: 9793: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9750: 9748: 9739: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9711: 9707: 9703: 9696: 9688: 9684: 9679: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9662: 9658: 9655:(6): 065002. 9654: 9650: 9646: 9639: 9637: 9628: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9587: 9579: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9561: 9557: 9553: 9549: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9530: 9528: 9519: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9478: 9470: 9466: 9461: 9456: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9437: 9429: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9393: 9386: 9384: 9375: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9345: 9341: 9334: 9326: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9308: 9304: 9300: 9296: 9292: 9285: 9277: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9259: 9255: 9251: 9244: 9236: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9218: 9214: 9210: 9206: 9202: 9195: 9193: 9191: 9182: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9141: 9139: 9137: 9135: 9126: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9093: 9091: 9089: 9080: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9055:(1): e22595. 9054: 9050: 9046: 9039: 9031: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9005: 8998: 8990: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8948: 8941: 8933: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8892: 8890: 8881: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8826: 8824: 8814: 8806: 8802: 8798: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8779: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8759: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8736: 8734: 8724: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8692: 8685: 8683: 8674: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8630: 8623: 8615: 8611: 8606: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8582: 8580: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8532: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8497: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8462: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8427: 8419: 8412: 8404: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8368: 8364: 8360: 8353: 8345: 8341: 8337: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8304: 8296: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8255: 8247: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8206: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8167: 8159: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8134:(378): ra50. 8133: 8129: 8125: 8123: 8114: 8106: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8057: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8026: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7989: 7981: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7942: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7903: 7895: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7854: 7846: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7813: 7805: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7763: 7756: 7748: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7707: 7699: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7658: 7650: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7617: 7608: 7599: 7591: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7542: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7485: 7476: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7433: 7431: 7422: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7402: 7395: 7387: 7383: 7379: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7360: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7317: 7315: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7279: 7277: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7241: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7206: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7157: 7149: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7059: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7010: 7002: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6961: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6926: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6847: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6792: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6747: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6660: 6652: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6619: 6611: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6570: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6529: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6494: 6486: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6444: 6442: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6391: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6347: 6345: 6336: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6295: 6293: 6284: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6241: 6239: 6230: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6197:PLOS Genetics 6194: 6187: 6185: 6183: 6174: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6129: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6015: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5966: 5964: 5955: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5914: 5906: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5865: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5816: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5716: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5665: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5564: 5556: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5505: 5503: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5451: 5449: 5447: 5445: 5436: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5395: 5387: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5307: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5258: 5250: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5209: 5201: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5176:(1): 95–122. 5175: 5171: 5167: 5160: 5158: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5108: 5106: 5097: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5056: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5005: 5003: 4994: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4819: 4811: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4770: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4678: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4602: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4564: 4556: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4314: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4287:10.3791/52782 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4175: 4166: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4139: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4012: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3981:(1): 99–117. 3980: 3976: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3869: 3861: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3828: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3793:(3): e92594. 3792: 3788: 3784: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3746:(3651): 710. 3745: 3741: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3377: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3317:(2): 614–28. 3316: 3312: 3308: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3258:(3): 513–514. 3257: 3253: 3246: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3194: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3148: 3142: 3138: 3137: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2987: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2792:(in German). 2791: 2787: 2780: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2753:(in German). 2752: 2748: 2741: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2692: 2684: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2652: 2645: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2594:0-520-05694-9 2590: 2586: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2525: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2502: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2399: 2391: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2281: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2097: 2095: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2047: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2004: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1969: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1873: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1838: 1834: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812:KCNJ3 (Girk) 1811: 1810: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1780: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1734: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1643: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1003: 1000: 997: 994: 993: 990: 988: 985: 982: 979: 978: 975: 973: 970: 967: 964: 963: 960: 958: 955: 952: 949: 948: 945: 943: 940: 937: 934: 933: 930: 928: 925: 922: 919: 918: 915: 913: 910: 907: 904: 903: 900: 898: 895: 892: 889: 888: 884: 881: 878: 875: 874: 871: 869: 865: 861: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 827: 824: 820: 815: 804: 791: 783: 774: 770: 768: 763: 758: 755: 751: 747: 743: 742:bone fracture 739: 735: 730: 724: 721: 717: 707: 703: 701: 698: 694: 688: 684: 681: 670: 667: 663: 659: 656:Mutations in 654: 652: 651:hypertelorism 648: 644: 640: 635: 634:Down syndrome 631: 630:lipodystrophy 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 610:brachydactyly 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 568: 564: 559: 555: 553: 552:tumorigenesis 549: 544: 540: 539: 523: 521: 517: 508: 505: 502: 499: 498: 497: 493: 491: 472: 468: 464: 462: 458: 453: 451: 447: 441: 437: 434: 430: 426: 421: 419: 415: 400: 396: 393: 388: 386: 385:wound healing 380: 371: 369: 364: 360: 359:Elmer J. Lund 355: 353: 337: 333: 331: 327: 323: 320: 310: 308: 307:sciatic nerve 304: 300: 296: 295:Luigi Galvani 292: 277: 275: 271: 270:birth defects 266: 262: 258: 254: 253:gap junctions 248: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 217: 216:lipid bilayer 208: 200: 192: 188: 186: 182: 178: 173: 169: 165: 155: 154:suppression. 153: 149: 145: 144:embryogenesis 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 93: 83: 80: 72: 69:November 2023 62: 56: 55: 50:This article 48: 39: 38: 33: 19: 16019:at Wikiquote 15967: 15963: 15953: 15916: 15912: 15901: 15856: 15852: 15842: 15807: 15803: 15793: 15760: 15756: 15750: 15717: 15713: 15707: 15680: 15676: 15666: 15631: 15627: 15617: 15582: 15578: 15568: 15535: 15531: 15525: 15480: 15476: 15466: 15441: 15437: 15431: 15404: 15400: 15390: 15345: 15341: 15331: 15296: 15292: 15282: 15247: 15243: 15233: 15198: 15194: 15156: 15152: 15146: 15111: 15107: 15097: 15062: 15058: 15048: 15013: 15009: 14999: 14964: 14960: 14950: 14916:(10): e315. 14913: 14910:PLOS Biology 14909: 14899: 14872: 14868: 14858: 14823: 14820:EMBO Reports 14819: 14809: 14776: 14772: 14766: 14725: 14721: 14715: 14690: 14686: 14680: 14655: 14651: 14645: 14613:(1): 33–46. 14610: 14606: 14596: 14561: 14557: 14547: 14522:10533/174413 14504: 14500: 14494: 14459: 14455: 14445: 14420: 14416: 14409: 14384: 14380: 14374: 14339: 14335: 14325: 14298: 14294: 14284: 14251: 14247: 14241: 14208: 14204: 14197: 14162: 14158: 14148: 14123: 14119: 14113: 14089:(1): 26–40. 14086: 14082: 14072: 14047: 14043: 14033: 13998: 13994: 13984: 13949: 13945: 13935: 13890: 13886: 13876: 13849: 13845: 13835: 13800: 13796: 13786: 13772:cite journal 13737: 13733: 13723: 13689:(11): e197. 13686: 13682: 13672: 13645: 13641: 13631: 13599:(1): 77–89. 13596: 13592: 13582: 13537: 13533: 13523: 13488: 13484: 13436: 13432: 13422: 13389: 13385: 13379: 13342: 13338: 13328: 13283: 13279: 13269: 13236: 13232: 13226: 13199: 13195: 13185: 13140: 13136: 13126: 13093: 13089: 13083: 13050: 13046: 13039: 13012: 13008: 12998: 12963: 12959: 12949: 12924: 12920: 12913: 12880: 12876: 12870: 12833: 12829: 12819: 12794: 12790: 12784: 12757: 12753: 12705: 12701: 12691: 12666: 12662: 12611: 12607: 12597: 12564: 12560: 12554: 12519: 12515: 12505: 12470: 12466: 12456: 12429: 12425: 12415: 12380: 12376: 12366: 12331: 12327: 12317: 12282: 12278: 12268: 12235: 12231: 12225: 12188: 12184: 12174: 12144:(1): 73–77. 12141: 12137: 12131: 12106: 12102: 12096: 12087: 12052: 12048: 12038: 12003: 11999: 11993: 11985: 11950: 11946: 11936: 11893: 11889: 11879: 11836: 11832: 11822: 11787: 11783: 11773: 11728: 11724: 11714: 11679: 11675: 11627: 11623: 11613: 11586: 11582: 11572: 11537: 11533: 11523: 11488: 11484: 11474: 11439: 11435: 11387: 11383: 11373: 11338: 11334: 11324: 11289: 11285: 11275: 11240: 11236: 11226: 11191: 11187: 11177: 11145:(1): 25–28. 11142: 11138: 11128: 11093: 11089: 11079: 11036: 11032: 11022: 10987: 10983: 10973: 10938: 10934: 10924: 10899: 10895: 10889: 10854: 10850: 10840: 10803: 10799: 10789: 10754: 10750: 10740: 10705: 10701: 10691: 10664: 10660: 10650: 10615: 10611: 10601: 10566: 10563:Biomaterials 10562: 10552: 10515: 10511: 10501: 10469:(1): 24–38. 10466: 10462: 10452: 10409: 10405: 10395: 10360: 10356: 10346: 10311: 10307: 10241: 10237: 10227: 10195:(1): 67–85. 10192: 10188: 10182: 10174: 10152:(1): 58–61. 10149: 10145: 10139: 10114: 10110: 10103: 10068: 10064: 10054: 10019: 10015: 10005: 9968: 9964: 9954: 9919: 9915: 9905: 9875:(1): 39–48. 9872: 9868: 9862: 9840:: S326–331. 9837: 9833: 9827: 9802: 9798: 9792: 9759: 9755: 9709: 9705: 9695: 9652: 9648: 9600: 9597:Biology Open 9596: 9586: 9543: 9539: 9491: 9487: 9477: 9450: 9446: 9436: 9399: 9395: 9350:(1): 77–89. 9347: 9343: 9333: 9298: 9294: 9284: 9257: 9253: 9243: 9208: 9205:Biology Open 9204: 9154: 9150: 9106: 9102: 9052: 9048: 9038: 9011: 9007: 8997: 8954: 8950: 8940: 8905: 8901: 8843: 8839: 8813: 8788: 8784: 8778: 8745: 8741: 8723: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8636: 8632: 8622: 8595: 8591: 8548:(1): 89–97. 8545: 8541: 8538:Rana pipiens 8537: 8531: 8506: 8502: 8496: 8474:(2): 87–93. 8471: 8467: 8461: 8436: 8432: 8426: 8417: 8411: 8366: 8362: 8352: 8317: 8313: 8303: 8268: 8264: 8254: 8219: 8215: 8205: 8180: 8176: 8166: 8131: 8127: 8121: 8113: 8070: 8066: 8056: 8039: 8035: 8025: 7995:(1): 33–51. 7992: 7986: 7980: 7955: 7951: 7941: 7916: 7912: 7902: 7867: 7863: 7853: 7826: 7822: 7812: 7769: 7765: 7755: 7720: 7716: 7706: 7671: 7667: 7657: 7630: 7626: 7616: 7607: 7598: 7555: 7551: 7541: 7500: 7496: 7446: 7442: 7404: 7400: 7394: 7369: 7365: 7359: 7326: 7322: 7288: 7284: 7250: 7246: 7240: 7215: 7211: 7205: 7166: 7156: 7121: 7117: 7107: 7072: 7068: 7058: 7026:(1): 19–31. 7023: 7019: 7009: 6974: 6970: 6960: 6935: 6931: 6925: 6900: 6897:Orthodontics 6896: 6890: 6857: 6853: 6846: 6806:(6): 661–7. 6803: 6799: 6757: 6753: 6746: 6721: 6717: 6710: 6673: 6669: 6659: 6632: 6628: 6618: 6583: 6579: 6569: 6534: 6528: 6503: 6499: 6493: 6458: 6454: 6405: 6401: 6390: 6357: 6353: 6308: 6304: 6254: 6250: 6200: 6196: 6144: 6140: 6092: 6088: 6028: 6024: 6014: 5979: 5975: 5927: 5924:Biology Open 5923: 5913: 5878: 5874: 5864: 5832:(1): 13–18. 5829: 5825: 5815: 5790: 5786: 5780: 5737: 5733: 5723: 5680: 5676: 5628: 5624: 5614: 5577: 5573: 5563: 5520: 5516: 5466: 5462: 5408: 5404: 5394: 5359: 5355: 5345: 5320: 5316: 5306: 5271: 5267: 5257: 5222: 5218: 5208: 5173: 5169: 5121: 5117: 5069: 5065: 5055: 5018: 5014: 4966: 4962: 4948: 4913: 4909: 4899: 4872: 4862: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4744: 4740: 4734: 4699: 4695: 4685: 4653:(3): 891–5. 4650: 4646: 4636: 4611: 4607: 4601: 4562: 4555: 4520: 4516: 4466: 4462: 4452: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4319: 4313: 4278: 4268: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4186: 4182: 4146: 4104: 4100: 4059:(1): 49–56. 4056: 4052: 4046: 4021: 4017: 4011: 3978: 3974: 3968: 3935: 3931: 3925: 3882: 3878: 3868: 3841: 3835: 3790: 3786: 3776: 3743: 3739: 3733: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3590:(7): 354–9. 3587: 3583: 3577: 3542: 3536: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3484: 3480: 3474: 3447: 3441: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3361: 3349: 3314: 3310: 3274: 3270: 3264: 3255: 3251: 3245: 3212: 3208: 3202: 3193: 3168: 3164: 3155: 3135: 3128: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3023: 3019: 3013: 2996: 2992: 2986: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2924: 2920: 2878: 2872: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2793: 2789: 2779: 2754: 2750: 2740: 2715: 2711: 2691: 2650: 2644: 2617: 2611: 2584: 2578: 2543: 2539: 2533: 2524: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2466: 2462: 2412: 2408: 2398: 2389: 2383: 2348: 2344: 2296: 2293:Integr. Biol 2292: 2252: 2248: 2238: 2213: 2209: 2203: 2166: 2162: 2113:(1): 65–88. 2110: 2106: 2063:(2): 59–78. 2060: 2056: 2046: 2021: 2017: 2011: 1984: 1980: 1940: 1936: 1886: 1882: 1872: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1816:Homo sapiens 1815: 1800: 1786:Homo sapiens 1785: 1771:Homo sapiens 1770: 1756:Homo sapiens 1755: 1740:Mus musculus 1739: 1725:Homo sapiens 1724: 1709:Homo sapiens 1708: 1694:Mus musculus 1693: 1679:Homo sapiens 1678: 1664:Mus musculus 1663: 1649:Mus musculus 1648: 1634:Homo sapiens 1633: 1619:Homo sapiens 1618: 1610:Cancer-role 1592: 1591: 1583:Mus musculus 1582: 1567: 1552: 1535: 1521:Mus musculus 1520: 1506:Mus musculus 1505: 1491:Mus musculus 1490: 1476:Mus musculus 1475: 1460: 1445: 1430: 1415: 1386: 1385: 1376: 1361: 1346: 1340:Kv channels 1331: 1316: 1301: 1286: 1271: 1257:Mus musculus 1256: 1242:Mus musculus 1241: 1227:Mus musculus 1226: 1212:Mus musculus 1211: 1196: 1181: 1166: 1151: 1137:Homo sapiens 1136: 1122:Homo sapiens 1121: 1107:Homo sapiens 1106: 1092:Homo sapiens 1091: 1077:Homo sapiens 1076: 1062:Homo sapiens 1061: 1047:Homo sapiens 1046: 1032:Homo sapiens 1031: 1017:Homo sapiens 1016: 1002:Mus musculus 1001: 987:Mus musculus 986: 972:Mus musculus 971: 956: 941: 927:Mus musculus 926: 911: 896: 867: 866: 862: 853:optogenetics 833: 813: 810: 801: 759: 754:osteoclastic 750:electrotaxis 745: 744:healing and 725: 713: 704: 693:electrotaxis 689: 685: 676: 655: 626:microcephaly 606:clinodactyly 594:micrognathia 560: 556: 537: 534: 519: 516:fluorescence 512: 494: 489: 486: 483:Fluorescence 465: 459:optrode (or 454: 442: 438: 422: 414:micropipette 411: 397: 389: 381: 377: 356: 352:Libbie Hyman 348: 326:galvanometer 316: 313:19th century 288: 285:18th century 249: 225:ion channels 213: 171: 161: 148:regeneration 99: 98: 75: 66: 59:Please help 51: 16038:Electricity 15299:(6): e652. 15059:Development 14779:: 418–427. 14652:Development 14381:Development 14205:Development 13846:Development 11676:Development 10990:: 389–412. 10661:Development 9295:Development 9254:Development 9103:Development 8748:: 457–465. 7829:: 317–336. 6821:2108/118197 5463:Development 5118:Development 4230:J Cell Biol 3522:: 239–250. 3487:: 445–476. 3364:. pp. 3106:(1): 1–33. 2927:: 295–323. 2469:: 353–387. 2345:Development 1987:: 211–232. 1943:: 231–247. 1767:Connexin43 1607:References 1536:Danio rerio 1499:Cx50, Cx46 1424:Innexin1,2 1404:References 1362:Danio rerio 1332:Danio rerio 897:Arabidopsis 598:oligodontia 429:salt bridge 291:Leyden jars 16033:Biophysics 16027:Categories 15964:Oncotarget 15913:BMC Cancer 15244:Oncotarget 14165:(3): 286. 11341:: 515–37. 10308:Oncotarget 7212:Toxicology 6971:Pediatrics 6535:Pheromones 6305:Oncotarget 5523:(1): 998. 4916:(6): 654. 3026:(2): 331. 2163:Biosystems 1829:References 1576:Pannexin3 1568:Drosophila 1561:Inx4,Inx2 1446:Drosophila 1439:Innexin 2 1431:Drosophila 1416:C. Elegans 942:Drosophila 912:Drosophila 885:Reference 729:Amputation 614:dysplastic 602:syndactyly 408:Electrodes 340:polarized. 104:regulation 14801:207068577 12109:: 24–35. 11188:BioEssays 10702:BioEssays 10412:: 21044. 8957:: 18353. 7558:: 26525. 6676:(1): 42. 6065:205768092 5740:: 35201. 5683:: 20403. 3885:: 26525. 2897:864592470 2831:: 164–8. 2677:cite book 2669:859536612 2636:889251161 2210:BioEssays 2169:: 76–93. 1822:Oncogene 1792:Oncogene 1747:Oncogene 1731:Oncogene 1716:Oncogene 1700:Oncogene 1685:Oncogene 1670:Oncogene 1655:Oncogene 1640:Oncogene 1625:Oncogene 1442:Eye size 1409:Innexins 716:cnidarian 697:monolayer 647:phalanges 596:, dental 578:paralysis 543:zebrafish 446:ionophore 368:planarian 233:cytoplasm 185:biophoton 15994:27835900 15945:27519272 15834:25422049 15777:21866551 15742:21255355 15734:22797075 15714:Oncogene 15699:23916755 15658:21681448 15609:23085756 15579:Oncogene 15560:24715509 15517:20625512 15477:PLOS ONE 15458:16375929 15401:Oncogene 15382:12782791 15323:23744352 15274:25945833 15225:20651255 15173:19835862 15130:26183770 15089:26116660 15040:18406403 14991:19150347 14942:16968134 14891:15649473 14850:16845369 14793:25251605 14758:25744002 14750:11786642 14707:11673050 14672:10903175 14637:26079578 14588:21515254 14539:33491307 14531:14681056 14486:11076975 14437:10079509 14401:10518488 14366:18424255 14189:13345970 14181:14974090 14140:16378922 14105:26455410 14064:11956317 14025:15047872 13976:25195067 13946:Genetics 13927:28467418 13887:PLOS ONE 13868:14602677 13827:20339120 13764:27038296 13715:17121467 13664:15992548 13615:12372302 13574:24671205 13534:PLOS ONE 13515:23975432 13485:Oncogene 13463:18948620 13414:23470275 13218:18585372 13118:26049392 13075:19397785 13031:14522976 12941:15498462 12921:Genomics 12897:15891643 12862:16267222 12811:10710224 12776:11751681 12732:11120752 12683:15115830 12638:18678320 12589:14790826 12581:24342771 12546:28145425 12497:16840743 12448:16272798 12407:25683120 12358:24176758 12309:24700710 12252:24352916 12217:27506666 12166:52799681 12158:25420144 12123:27103460 12079:23821603 12030:26216856 11994:Handbook 11977:12566520 11928:24225653 11896:: 3217. 11871:15407237 11863:20579879 11814:19234454 11765:26402555 11725:PLOS ONE 11706:22949619 11654:11158535 11564:24882814 11515:25788538 11466:26571046 11414:27807271 11365:20192780 11316:23039994 11267:23552369 11218:27461864 11169:28003330 11120:28826673 11071:26740890 11014:21692661 10965:21068304 10916:17498955 10881:22933452 10832:27265625 10823:10478170 10781:23897652 10732:22237730 10683:18216177 10642:23738690 10593:23764116 10544:26198143 10535:10461602 10493:25722947 10444:26869018 10387:23471912 10338:26988909 10286:18931301 10268:25465142 10219:20959630 10166:22484465 10131:23683551 10095:24493741 10046:24493753 9997:27713296 9946:25049269 9897:28497543 9889:24336491 9854:16507402 9819:17425504 9784:30844116 9776:20446866 9738:23882223 9687:23196890 9627:27565761 9578:28538159 9518:20026026 9469:16243308 9428:26610482 9374:21276941 9325:23250205 9276:17670787 9235:23519324 9181:20881138 9125:17329365 9079:23802040 9030:19733557 8989:26678416 8932:20708956 8880:27257960 8840:PLOS ONE 8834:(2016). 8770:84676921 8570:22547794 8453:14946235 8403:28739955 8344:31682478 8336:11967227 8295:27427485 8246:26580832 8197:11683396 8158:26012633 8105:26449415 8073:: 8532. 8017:11731666 8009:11322511 7845:25062359 7804:23541731 7747:23447677 7698:18684937 7649:15371524 7590:27283241 7525:16871217 7475:15746181 7351:14786543 7197:17433919 7148:20518610 7099:22917484 7050:15325633 7042:15454078 7001:23690510 6952:22838235 6917:23646327 6882:12063113 6874:24311540 6838:12060592 6830:25915598 6782:14238362 6774:26264464 6738:27267311 6702:27282200 6651:24145769 6610:19959877 6561:20831951 6520:24334122 6485:25620207 6432:17015195 6424:11371347 6382:33899188 6374:16419128 6335:24830454 6283:25646081 6229:24453984 6173:26198142 6164:10505512 6119:25762681 6057:21761475 6048:10277013 6006:26864374 5954:28818840 5905:28702127 5848:20851856 5807:25622192 5772:27731412 5715:26841954 5655:28954851 5606:27458581 5555:29519998 5493:22159581 5435:21356693 5426:10468776 5386:27428174 5298:22474652 5249:22474653 5200:22350846 5148:16554361 5096:17078061 5047:25896279 5038:10468825 4993:23579662 4957:(2013). 4932:23744134 4891:21204387 4854:25177705 4846:10504217 4810:28556571 4761:20656468 4726:20367249 4677:21574266 4593:12107878 4547:27574538 4493:25242672 4463:Lab Chip 4444:25924011 4436:17545984 4400:19823237 4356:22341329 4305:25993490 4211:15237787 4203:17406628 4038:53316098 4024:: 1–11. 4003:45361295 3995:21002959 3917:27283241 3827:24671205 3787:PLOS ONE 3627:Oncology 3604:12079763 3283:20342775 3237:84480134 3185:17795612 2951:22809139 2942:10472538 2845:53175297 2771:32435163 2732:15987799 2603:13456516 2570:14711011 2546:: 1–26. 2493:28633567 2484:10478168 2439:29291972 2375:27827821 2313:24801267 2271:23260134 2230:20108228 2195:28855098 2186:10464596 2137:22020127 2085:10705650 2077:16804297 2038:19167986 2003:24773017 1959:26566112 1913:25425556 1864:22050517 1742:, Human 1711:, mouse 1604:Species 1601:Protein 1593:Table 3: 1401:Species 1387:Table 2: 1055:KCNJ8 K 882:Species 876:Protein 868:Table 1: 823:flatworm 767:planaria 746:in vitro 734:lampreys 680:diabetic 590:philtrum 561:Several 548:endoderm 221:membrane 181:myocytes 158:Overview 124:electron 15985:5356693 15936:4983040 15919:: 628. 15893:7680475 15861:Bibcode 15825:4306270 15785:6293505 15649:3898178 15600:3910169 15552:9020845 15508:2897890 15485:Bibcode 15423:9796696 15350:Bibcode 15314:3698542 15265:5312283 15216:2936697 15138:8219978 15080:6514411 15031:2429987 14982:2913275 14933:1563491 14841:1559663 14730:Bibcode 14722:Science 14628:4529811 14579:3134316 14477:2169447 14357:2441851 14317:7715640 14276:7892609 14256:Bibcode 14248:Science 14225:9118799 13967:4224157 13918:5414954 13895:Bibcode 13818:2869449 13755:4827621 13706:1657052 13623:2502945 13565:3966808 13542:Bibcode 13506:3935979 13454:2774899 13406:7550338 13371:3528411 13362:6568692 13320:4509657 13288:Bibcode 13261:6553698 13253:4128371 13177:9108119 13145:Bibcode 13110:4088436 13067:7581464 12990:9312006 12981:1170178 12905:1700736 12853:6725806 12629:2495061 12537:5437909 12488:2648063 12398:4375444 12349:3902017 12300:4277879 12208:4979147 12191:: 132. 12070:3829632 12021:4516783 11968:1735376 11919:3827601 11898:Bibcode 11841:Bibcode 11805:2803043 11756:4581704 11733:Bibcode 11697:3436115 11591:Bibcode 11555:4048089 11506:4387527 11457:4667987 11405:5134011 11356:2965450 11307:3498761 11258:3772767 11209:4996742 11160:5223619 11111:5591080 11062:4692962 11041:Bibcode 11005:6699620 10956:2997431 10872:3442154 10772:3841289 10723:3430077 10633:3726227 10584:3724996 10484:4321392 10435:4751571 10414:Bibcode 10378:3634644 10329:4991402 10277:2575467 10246:Bibcode 10210:3008964 10086:3917347 10037:3917359 9988:4034029 9937:4107787 9729:3713347 9712:: 185. 9678:3528107 9657:Bibcode 9618:5051648 9569:5443973 9548:Bibcode 9509:2823934 9419:4661923 9365:3278711 9316:3597208 9226:3603412 9172:2965411 9070:3689572 8980:4683620 8959:Bibcode 8923:2967604 8871:4892606 8848:Bibcode 8793:Bibcode 8762:4531275 8703:Bibcode 8691:Xenopus 8641:Bibcode 8614:8812127 8562:6033441 8523:5499129 8488:6526168 8394:5559012 8371:Bibcode 8286:5756539 8237:4832312 8149:4470479 8096:4603535 8075:Bibcode 8048:8977469 7972:8799828 7933:8834804 7894:3905820 7885:2114002 7795:3718648 7774:Bibcode 7738:3666251 7689:2572691 7581:4901296 7560:Bibcode 7533:4391475 7505:Bibcode 7466:1459277 7421:1864462 7386:1521590 7331:Bibcode 7305:7065232 7139:2970517 7090:3484193 6992:3666110 6693:4901505 6588:Bibcode 6476:4320262 6326:4102810 6274:4298169 6257:: 519. 6220:3894163 6110:4355204 5997:4908029 5945:5665463 5896:5501196 5856:5265189 5763:5059667 5742:Bibcode 5706:4740742 5685:Bibcode 5646:5636277 5597:4933718 5546:5843655 5525:Bibcode 5484:3243095 5377:5222532 5337:6704395 5289:4001116 5240:4001120 5191:3869965 5139:3136117 5087:3142945 5066:Genesis 4984:4179459 4940:2260750 4801:5560653 4717:3003917 4668:4557870 4628:1367098 4538:4988443 4484:4437771 4380:Bibcode 4347:3494096 4296:4541607 4260:2335563 4251:2200169 4109:Bibcode 4061:Bibcode 3960:4104520 3940:Bibcode 3908:4901296 3887:Bibcode 3818:3966808 3795:Bibcode 3768:4104520 3748:Bibcode 3725:2443763 3705:Bibcode 3682:4518935 3647:5148061 3612:7534545 3569:6749746 3528:3960913 3433:6117911 3425:2395645 3403:Bibcode 3366:183–215 3341:4421919 3332:2110946 3229:2808474 3165:Science 3108:Bibcode 3073:Bibcode 3028:Bibcode 2798:Bibcode 2430:5753428 2366:5201032 2321:7313742 2128:3242826 1904:4244194 1529:Cx41.8 1287:Xenopus 1272:Xenopus 1265:NaV1.2 819:tadpole 814:in vivo 762:Xenopus 738:mammals 520:in vivo 490:in vivo 280:History 241:calcium 177:neurons 172:in vivo 102:is the 15992: 15982: 15943: 15933: 15891: 15881: 15832: 15822: 15783: 15775: 15740: 15732: 15697: 15656: 15646: 15607: 15597: 15558: 15550: 15515: 15505: 15456: 15421: 15380: 15373:164668 15370: 15321: 15311: 15272: 15262: 15223: 15213: 15171: 15136: 15128: 15087: 15077: 15038: 15028: 14989: 14979: 14940: 14930: 14889: 14848: 14838: 14799: 14791: 14756: 14748: 14705: 14670: 14635: 14625: 14586: 14576: 14537: 14529: 14484: 14474: 14435: 14399: 14364: 14354: 14315: 14274: 14233:189036 14231: 14223: 14187: 14179: 14138: 14103: 14062: 14023: 14016:420120 14013: 13974: 13964: 13925: 13915: 13866: 13825: 13815: 13762: 13752: 13713: 13703: 13662: 13621: 13613: 13572: 13562: 13513: 13503: 13461: 13451: 13412: 13404: 13369: 13359: 13318: 13311:433223 13308: 13259: 13251: 13216: 13175: 13165: 13116: 13108: 13073: 13065: 13029: 12988: 12978: 12939: 12903: 12895: 12860: 12850: 12809: 12774: 12730: 12723:387258 12720: 12681: 12636: 12626: 12587: 12579: 12544: 12534: 12495: 12485: 12446: 12405: 12395: 12356: 12346: 12307: 12297: 12258: 12250: 12215: 12205: 12164: 12156: 12121: 12077: 12067: 12028: 12018: 11975: 11965: 11926: 11916: 11869: 11861: 11812: 11802: 11763: 11753: 11704: 11694: 11652: 11645:102205 11642: 11562: 11552: 11513: 11503: 11464: 11454: 11412: 11402: 11363: 11353: 11314: 11304: 11265: 11255: 11216: 11206: 11167: 11157: 11118: 11108: 11069: 11059: 11012: 11002: 10963: 10953: 10914: 10879: 10869: 10830: 10820: 10779: 10769: 10730: 10720: 10681: 10640: 10630: 10591: 10581: 10542: 10532: 10491: 10481: 10442: 10432: 10385: 10375: 10336: 10326: 10284: 10274: 10266: 10217: 10207: 10164: 10129: 10093: 10083: 10044: 10034: 9995: 9985: 9944: 9934: 9895: 9887: 9852: 9817: 9782: 9774: 9736: 9726: 9685: 9675: 9625: 9615: 9576: 9566: 9516: 9506: 9467: 9426: 9416: 9372: 9362: 9323: 9313: 9274: 9233: 9223: 9179: 9169: 9123: 9077: 9067: 9028: 8987: 8977: 8930: 8920: 8878: 8868: 8768: 8760: 8673:270701 8671: 8664:431978 8661: 8612: 8568: 8560: 8521: 8486: 8451: 8401: 8391: 8342: 8334: 8293: 8283: 8244: 8234: 8195: 8156: 8146: 8103: 8093: 8046: 8015: 8007: 7970: 7931: 7892: 7882: 7843: 7802: 7792: 7745: 7735: 7696: 7686: 7647: 7588: 7578: 7531: 7523: 7497:Nature 7473: 7463: 7419: 7384: 7349: 7303: 7267:412416 7265: 7232:996878 7230: 7195: 7185: 7171:85–110 7146: 7136: 7097: 7087: 7048: 7040: 6999: 6989: 6950: 6915: 6880: 6872: 6836: 6828: 6780: 6772: 6736: 6700: 6690: 6649: 6608: 6559: 6549: 6518: 6483: 6473: 6430: 6422: 6380: 6372: 6333: 6323: 6281: 6271: 6227: 6217: 6171: 6161: 6117: 6107: 6063: 6055: 6045: 6004: 5994: 5952: 5942: 5903: 5893: 5854: 5846: 5805: 5770: 5760: 5713: 5703: 5653: 5643: 5604: 5594: 5580:: 55. 5553: 5543: 5491: 5481: 5433: 5423: 5384: 5374: 5335: 5296: 5286: 5247: 5237: 5198: 5188: 5146: 5136: 5094: 5084: 5045: 5035: 4991: 4981: 4963:Nature 4938: 4930: 4889: 4879: 4852: 4844: 4808: 4798: 4759: 4724: 4714: 4675: 4665: 4626: 4591: 4581: 4545: 4535: 4491: 4481: 4442: 4434: 4398: 4354: 4344: 4334: 4303: 4293: 4258: 4248: 4209: 4201: 4161: 4129:301554 4127: 4081:314968 4079: 4036: 4001: 3993: 3958: 3932:Nature 3915: 3905: 3856: 3825: 3815: 3766: 3740:Nature 3723: 3680: 3645: 3610: 3602: 3567: 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