1047:. When a vesicle is produced inside the cell and fuses with the plasma membrane to release its contents into the extracellular space, this process is known as exocytosis. In the reverse process, a region of the cell membrane will dimple inwards and eventually pinch off, enclosing a portion of the extracellular fluid to transport it into the cell. Endocytosis and exocytosis rely on very different molecular machinery to function, but the two processes are intimately linked and could not work without each other. The primary mechanism of this interdependence is the large amount of lipid material involved. In a typical cell, an area of bilayer equivalent to the entire plasma membrane will travel through the endocytosis/exocytosis cycle in about half an hour. If these two processes were not balancing each other, the cell would either balloon outward to an unmanageable size or completely deplete its plasma membrane within a short time.
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at least partially dehydrated, as the bound surface water normally present causes bilayers to strongly repel. The presence of ions, in particular divalent cations like magnesium and calcium, strongly affects this step. One of the critical roles of calcium in the body is regulating membrane fusion. Third, a destabilization must form at one point between the two bilayers, locally distorting their structures. The exact nature of this distortion is not known. One theory is that a highly curved "stalk" must form between the two bilayers. Proponents of this theory believe that it explains why phosphatidylethanolamine, a highly curved lipid, promotes fusion. Finally, in the last step of fusion, this point defect grows and the components of the two bilayers mix and diffuse away from the site of contact.
1537:. Since the lipid bilayer is the barrier between the interior and exterior of the cell, it is also the site of extensive signal transduction. Researchers over the years have tried to harness this potential to develop a bilayer-based device for clinical diagnosis or bioterrorism detection. Progress has been slow in this area and, although a few companies have developed automated lipid-based detection systems, they are still targeted at the research community. These include Biacore (now GE Healthcare Life Sciences), which offers a disposable chip for utilizing lipid bilayers in studies of binding kinetics and Nanion Inc., which has developed an
853:(AFM). Rather than using a beam of light or particles, a very small sharpened tip scans the surface by making physical contact with the bilayer and moving across it, like a record player needle. AFM is a promising technique because it has the potential to image with nanometer resolution at room temperature and even under water or physiological buffer, conditions necessary for natural bilayer behavior. Utilizing this capability, AFM has been used to examine dynamic bilayer behavior including the formation of transmembrane pores (holes) and phase transitions in supported bilayers. Another advantage is that AFM does not require fluorescent or
1488:” except that vesicle is a general term for the structure whereas liposome refers to only artificial not natural vesicles) The basic idea of liposomal drug delivery is that the drug is encapsulated in solution inside the liposome then injected into the patient. These drug-loaded liposomes travel through the system until they bind at the target site and rupture, releasing the drug. In theory, liposomes should make an ideal drug delivery system since they can isolate nearly any hydrophilic drug, can be grafted with molecules to target specific tissues and can be relatively non-toxic since the body possesses biochemical pathways for
826:
36:
932:. When a cell or vesicle with a high interior salt concentration is placed in a solution with a low salt concentration it will swell and eventually burst. Such a result would not be observed unless water was able to pass through the bilayer with relative ease. The anomalously large permeability of water through bilayers is still not completely understood and continues to be the subject of active debate. Small uncharged apolar molecules diffuse through lipid bilayers many orders of magnitude faster than ions or water. This applies both to fats and organic solvents like
1351:
607:
361:. Other lipids, such as sphingomyelin, appear to be synthesised at the external leaflet. Flippases are members of a larger family of lipid transport molecules that also includes floppases, which transfer lipids in the opposite direction, and scramblases, which randomize lipid distribution across lipid bilayers (as in apoptotic cells). In any case, once lipid asymmetry is established, it does not normally dissipate quickly because spontaneous flip-flop of lipids between leaflets is extremely slow.
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251:
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1615:. When they compared the area of the monolayer to the surface area of the cells, they found a ratio of two to one. Later analyses showed several errors and incorrect assumptions with this experiment but, serendipitously, these errors canceled out and from this flawed data Gorter and Grendel drew the correct conclusion- that the cell membrane is a lipid bilayer.
944:
177:. Because bilayers define the boundaries of the cell and its compartments, these membrane proteins are involved in many intra- and inter-cellular signaling processes. Certain kinds of membrane proteins are involved in the process of fusing two bilayers together. This fusion allows the joining of two distinct structures as in the
288:
group is located within this hydrated region, approximately 0.5 nm outside the hydrophobic core. In some cases, the hydrated region can extend much further, for instance in lipids with a large protein or long sugar chain grafted to the head. One common example of such a modification in nature is
1314:
is the process by which two lipid bilayers merge, resulting in one connected structure. If this fusion proceeds completely through both leaflets of both bilayers, a water-filled bridge is formed and the solutions contained by the bilayers can mix. Alternatively, if only one leaflet from each bilayer
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affect the ability of proteins and small molecules to insert into the bilayer, and bilayer mechanical properties have been shown to alter the function of mechanically activated ion channels. Bilayer mechanical properties also govern what types of stress a cell can withstand without tearing. Although
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in part by grafting these proteins from the host membrane onto its own surface. Alternatively, some membrane proteins penetrate all the way through the bilayer and serve to relay individual signal events from the outside to the inside of the cell. The most common class of this type of protein is the
400:
At a given temperature a lipid bilayer can exist in either a liquid or a gel (solid) phase. All lipids have a characteristic temperature at which they transition (melt) from the gel to liquid phase. In both phases the lipid molecules are prevented from flip-flopping across the bilayer, but in liquid
376:
It has been reported that the organization and dynamics of the lipid monolayers in a bilayer are coupled. For example, introduction of obstructions in one monolayer can slow down the lateral diffusion in both monolayers. In addition, phase separation in one monolayer can also induce phase separation
1346:
There are four fundamental steps in the fusion process. First, the involved membranes must aggregate, approaching each other to within several nanometers. Second, the two bilayers must come into very close contact (within a few angstroms). To achieve this close contact, the two surfaces must become
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both result from application of an electric field, the mechanisms involved are fundamentally different. In dielectric breakdown the barrier material is ionized, creating a conductive pathway. The material alteration is thus chemical in nature. In contrast, during electroporation the lipid molecules
264:
would be about as thick as a piece of office paper. Despite being only a few nanometers thick, the bilayer is composed of several distinct chemical regions across its cross-section. These regions and their interactions with the surrounding water have been characterized over the past several decades
1630:
Around the same time, the development of model membranes confirmed that the lipid bilayer is a stable structure that can exist independent of proteins. By “painting” a solution of lipid in organic solvent across an aperture, Mueller and Rudin were able to create an artificial bilayer and determine
1232:
is a measure of how much energy is needed to bend or flex the bilayer. Formally, bending modulus is defined as the energy required to deform a membrane from its intrinsic curvature to some other curvature. Intrinsic curvature is defined by the ratio of the diameter of the head group to that of the
1038:
Some molecules or particles are too large or too hydrophilic to pass through a lipid bilayer. Other molecules could pass through the bilayer but must be transported rapidly in such large numbers that channel-type transport is impractical. In both cases, these types of cargo can be moved across the
547:
bilayer core, as discussed in
Transport across the bilayer below. The nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts have two lipid bilayers, while other sub-cellular structures are surrounded by a single lipid bilayer (such as the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticula, Golgi apparatus and lysosomes). See
372:
deposition or a combination of
Langmuir-Blodgett and vesicle rupture deposition it is also possible to synthesize an asymmetric planar bilayer. This asymmetry may be lost over time as lipids in supported bilayers can be prone to flip-flop. However, it has been reported that lipid flip-flop is slow
311:
Next to the hydrated region is an intermediate region that is only partially hydrated. This boundary layer is approximately 0.3 nm thick. Within this short distance, the water concentration drops from 2M on the headgroup side to nearly zero on the tail (core) side. The hydrophobic core of the
153:
at higher temperatures, and the chemical properties of the lipids' tails influence at which temperature this happens. The packing of lipids within the bilayer also affects its mechanical properties, including its resistance to stretching and bending. Many of these properties have been studied with
136:
tail consisting of two fatty acid chains. Phospholipids with certain head groups can alter the surface chemistry of a bilayer and can, for example, serve as signals as well as "anchors" for other molecules in the membranes of cells. Just like the heads, the tails of lipids can also affect membrane
1208:
As discussed in the
Structure and organization section, the hydrophobic attraction of lipid tails in water is the primary force holding lipid bilayers together. Thus, the elastic modulus of the bilayer is primarily determined by how much extra area is exposed to water when the lipid molecules are
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of the bilayer is determined. This resistance is typically quite high (10 Ohm-cm or more) since the hydrophobic core is impermeable to charged species. The presence of even a few nanometer-scale holes results in a dramatic increase in current. The sensitivity of this system is such that even the
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is a measure of how much energy it takes to expose a bilayer edge to water by tearing the bilayer or creating a hole in it. The origin of this energy is the fact that creating such an interface exposes some of the lipid tails to water, but the exact orientation of these border lipids is unknown.
1111:
Electroporation is the rapid increase in bilayer permeability induced by the application of a large artificial electric field across the membrane. Experimentally, electroporation is used to introduce hydrophilic molecules into cells. It is a particularly useful technique for large highly charged
433:
Most natural membranes are a complex mixture of different lipid molecules. If some of the components are liquid at a given temperature while others are in the gel phase, the two phases can coexist in spatially separated regions, rather like an iceberg floating in the ocean. This phase separation
429:
chain, disrupting the lipid packing. This disruption creates extra free space within the bilayer that allows additional flexibility in the adjacent chains. An example of this effect can be noted in everyday life as butter, which has a large percentage saturated fats, is solid at room temperature
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in the late 1950s. Although he did not publish the first electron microscopy study of lipid bilayers J. David
Robertson was the first to assert that the two dark electron-dense bands were the headgroups and associated proteins of two apposed lipid monolayers. In this body of work, Robertson put
1610:
Although the results of this experiment were accurate, Fricke misinterpreted the data to mean that the cell membrane is a single molecular layer. Prof. Dr. Evert Gorter (1881–1954) and F. Grendel of Leiden
University approached the problem from a different perspective, spreading the erythrocyte
344:
and a variety of glycolipids. In some cases, this asymmetry is based on where the lipids are made in the cell and reflects their initial orientation. The biological functions of lipid asymmetry are imperfectly understood, although it is clear that it is used in several different situations. For
254:
Schematic cross sectional profile of a typical lipid bilayer. There are three distinct regions: the fully hydrated headgroups, the fully dehydrated alkane core and a short intermediate region with partial hydration. Although the head groups are neutral, they have significant dipole moments that
816:
is widely used for studies of phospholipid bilayers and biological membranes in native conditions. The analysis of P-NMR spectra of lipids could provide a wide range of information about lipid bilayer packing, phase transitions (gel phase, physiological liquid crystal phase, ripple phases, non
416:
interactions between adjacent lipid molecules. Longer-tailed lipids have more area over which to interact, increasing the strength of this interaction and, as a consequence, decreasing the lipid mobility. Thus, at a given temperature, a short-tailed lipid will be more fluid than an otherwise
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intracellular trafficking. Despite years of study, much is still unknown about the function of this protein class. In fact, there is still an active debate regarding whether SNAREs are linked to early docking or participate later in the fusion process by facilitating hemifusion.
857:
labeling of the lipids, since the probe tip interacts mechanically with the bilayer surface. Because of this, the same scan can image both lipids and associated proteins, sometimes even with single-molecule resolution. AFM can also probe the mechanical nature of lipid bilayers.
389:
Diagram showing the effect of unsaturated lipids on a bilayer. The lipids with an unsaturated tail (blue) disrupt the packing of those with only saturated tails (black). The resulting bilayer has more free space and is, as a consequence, more permeable to water and other small
5398:
Bermejo, M.; Avdeef, A.; Ruiz, A.; Nalda, R.; Ruell, J. A.; Tsinman, O.; González, I.; Fernández, C.; Sánchez, G.; Garrigues, T. M.; Merino, V. (2004). "PAMPA--a drug absorption in vitro model 7. Comparing rat in situ, Caco-2, and PAMPA permeability of fluoroquinolones".
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compartments from their surroundings. Without some form of barrier delineating “self” from “non-self”, it is difficult to even define the concept of an organism or of life. This barrier takes the form of a lipid bilayer in all known life forms except for a few species of
775:
A natural lipid bilayer is not fluorescent, so at least one fluorescent dye needs to be attached to some of the molecules in the bilayer. Resolution is usually limited to a few hundred nanometers, which is unfortunately much larger than the thickness of a lipid bilayer.
795:
interacts with the sample rather than a beam of light as in traditional microscopy. In conjunction with rapid freezing techniques, electron microscopy has also been used to study the mechanisms of inter- and intracellular transport, for instance in demonstrating that
1445:. These synthetic systems are called model lipid bilayers. There are many different types of model bilayers, each having experimental advantages and disadvantages. They can be made with either synthetic or natural lipids. Among the most common model systems are:
356:
Lipid asymmetry arises, at least in part, from the fact that most phospholipids are synthesised and initially inserted into the inner monolayer: those that constitute the outer monolayer are then transported from the inner monolayer by a class of enzymes called
217:
into a two-layered sheet with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the center of the sheet. This arrangement results in two “leaflets” that are each a single molecular layer. The center of this bilayer contains almost no water and excludes molecules like
1598:
By the early twentieth century scientists had come to believe that cells are surrounded by a thin oil-like barrier, but the structural nature of this membrane was not known. Two experiments in 1925 laid the groundwork to fill in this gap. By measuring the
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tail group. For two-tailed PC lipids, this ratio is nearly one so the intrinsic curvature is nearly zero. If a particular lipid has too large a deviation from zero intrinsic curvature it will not form a bilayer and will instead form other phases such as
738:
Electrical measurements are a straightforward way to characterize an important function of a bilayer: its ability to segregate and prevent the flow of ions in solution. By applying a voltage across the bilayer and measuring the resulting current, the
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that pass through the bilayer, but their roles are quite different. Ion pumps are the proteins that build and maintain the chemical gradients by utilizing an external energy source to move ions against the concentration gradient to an area of higher
434:
plays a critical role in biochemical phenomena because membrane components such as proteins can partition into one or the other phase and thus be locally concentrated or activated. One particularly important component of many mixed phase systems is
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Verkleij AJ, Zwaal RF, Roelofsen B, Comfurius P, Kastelijn D, van Deenen LL (October 1973). "The asymmetric distribution of phospholipids in the human red cell membrane. A combined study using phospholipases and freeze-etch electron microscopy".
729:
The lipid bilayer is a very difficult structure to study because it is so thin and fragile. In spite of these limitations dozens of techniques have been developed over the last seventy years to allow investigations of its structure and function.
1159:
Schematic showing two possible conformations of the lipids at the edge of a pore. In the top image the lipids have not rearranged, so the pore wall is hydrophobic. In the bottom image some of the lipid heads have bent over, so the pore wall is
1012:. All ion pumps have some sort of trigger or “gating” mechanism. In the previous example it was electrical bias, but other channels can be activated by binding a molecular agonist or through a conformational change in another nearby protein.
919:
core of a lipid bilayer and, as a consequence, have low permeability coefficients across the bilayer. This effect is particularly pronounced for charged species, which have even lower permeability coefficients than neutral polar molecules.
1362:
Diagram of the action of SNARE proteins docking a vesicle for exocytosis. Complementary versions of the protein on the vesicle and the target membrane bind and wrap around each other, drawing the two bilayers close together in the
259:
The lipid bilayer is very thin compared to its lateral dimensions. If a typical mammalian cell (diameter ~10 micrometers) were magnified to the size of a watermelon (~1 ft/30 cm), the lipid bilayer making up the
1635:
showed that bilayers, in the form of lipid vesicles, could also be formed simply by exposing a dried lipid sample to water. This was an important advance, since it demonstrated that lipid bilayers form spontaneously via
1135:
This increase in permeability primarily affects transport of ions and other hydrated species, indicating that the mechanism is the creation of nm-scale water-filled holes in the membrane. Although electroporation and
602:
for example, the plasma membrane accounts for only two percent of the total bilayer area of the cell, whereas the endoplasmic reticulum contains more than fifty percent and the mitochondria a further thirty percent.
1643:
In 1977, a totally synthetic bilayer membrane was prepared by
Kunitake and Okahata, from a single organic compound, didodecyldimethylammonium bromide. It clearly shows that the bilayer membrane was assembled by the
1306:
Illustration of lipid vesicles fusing showing two possible outcomes: hemifusion and full fusion. In hemifusion, only the outer bilayer leaflets mix. In full fusion both leaflets as well as the internal contents
307:
image of a bacterium. The furry appearance on the outside is due to a coat of long-chain sugars attached to the cell membrane. This coating helps trap water to prevent the bacterium from becoming dehydrated.
5264:
Maeda H, Sawa T, Konno T (July 2001). "Mechanism of tumor-targeted delivery of macromolecular drugs, including the EPR effect in solid tumor and clinical overview of the prototype polymeric drug SMANCS".
1000:
In contrast to ion pumps, ion channels do not build chemical gradients but rather dissipate them in order to perform work or send a signal. Probably the most familiar and best studied example is the
5469:
Avdeef, A.; Nielsen, P. E.; Tsinman, O. (2004). "PAMPA--a drug absorption in vitro model 11. Matching the in vivo unstirred water layer thickness by individual-well stirring in microtitre plates".
368:
will automatically make themselves slightly asymmetric, although the mechanism by which this asymmetry is generated is very different from that in cells. By utilizing two different monolayers in
715:
700:
equilibrates this distribution, displaying phosphatidylserine on the extracellular bilayer face. The presence of phosphatidylserine then triggers phagocytosis to remove the dead or dying cell.
657:
with the cell membrane at the pre-synaptic terminal and their contents are released into the space outside the cell. The contents then diffuse across the synapse to the post-synaptic terminal.
312:
bilayer is typically 3-4 nm thick, but this value varies with chain length and chemistry. Core thickness also varies significantly with temperature, in particular near a phase transition.
106:
and other molecules where they are needed and prevents them from diffusing into areas where they should not be. Lipid bilayers are ideally suited to this role, even though they are only a few
505:
crystals and subsequent bone mineralization. Unlike PC, some of the other headgroups carry a net charge, which can alter the electrostatic interactions of small molecules with the bilayer.
1530:
or other molecular markers onto the liposome surface in the hope of actively binding them to a specific cell or tissue type. Some examples of this approach are already in clinical trials.
20:
197:
into a cell. Because lipid bilayers are fragile and invisible in a traditional microscope, they are a challenge to study. Experiments on bilayers often require advanced techniques like
5434:
Avdeef, A.; Artursson, P.; Neuhoff, S.; Lazorova, L.; Gråsjö, J.; Tavelin, S. (2005). "Caco-2 permeability of weakly basic drugs predicted with the double-sink PAMPA pKa(flux) method".
685:(GPCR). GPCRs are responsible for much of the cell's ability to sense its surroundings and, because of this important role, approximately 40% of all modern drugs are targeted at GPCRs.
4245:
1495:
The first generation of drug delivery liposomes had a simple lipid composition and suffered from several limitations. Circulation in the bloodstream was extremely limited due to both
598:. All of these sub-cellular compartments are surrounded by one or more lipid bilayers and, together, typically comprise the majority of the bilayer area present in the cell. In liver
4878:
Leventis R, Gagné J, Fuller N, Rand RP, Silvius JR (November 1986). "Divalent cation induced fusion and lipid lateral segregation in phosphatidylcholine-phosphatidic acid vesicles".
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that this exhibited lateral fluidity, high electrical resistance and self-healing in response to puncture, all of which are properties of a natural cell membrane. A few years later,
4265:
3605:
Dubinnyi MA, Lesovoy DM, Dubovskii PV, Chupin VV, Arseniev AS (June 2006). "Modeling of P-NMR spectra of magnetically oriented phospholipid liposomes: A new analytical solution".
1437:
Lipid bilayers can be created artificially in the lab to allow researchers to perform experiments that cannot be done with natural bilayers. They can also be used in the field of
280:
The first region on either side of the bilayer is the hydrophilic headgroup. This portion of the membrane is completely hydrated and is typically around 0.8-0.9 nm thick. In
485:(PG). These alternate headgroups often confer specific biological functionality that is highly context-dependent. For instance, PS presence on the extracellular membrane face of
446:
While lipid tails primarily modulate bilayer phase behavior, it is the headgroup that determines the bilayer surface chemistry. Most natural bilayers are composed primarily of
4496:
Suchyna TM, Tape SE, Koeppe RE, Andersen OS, Sachs F, Gottlieb PA (July 2004). "Bilayer-dependent inhibition of mechanosensitive channels by neuroactive peptide enantiomers".
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772:. A sample is excited with one wavelength of light and observed in another, so that only fluorescent molecules with a matching excitation and emission profile will be seen.
696:. Normally, phosphatidylserine is asymmetrically distributed in the cell membrane and is present only on the interior side. During programmed cell death a protein called a
3645:
Roiter, Yuri; Ornatska, Maryna; Rammohan, Aravind R.; Balakrishnan, Jitendra; Heine, David R.; Minko, Sergiy (2008). "Interaction of
Nanoparticles with Lipid Membrane".
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Georgiev, Danko D.; Glazebrook, James F. (2007). "Subneuronal processing of information by solitary waves and stochastic processes". In
Lyshevski, Sergey Edward (ed.).
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they are especially “leaky” and allow liposomes to exit the bloodstream at a much higher rate than normal tissue would. More recently work has been undertaken to graft
1281:
1190:
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bilayer phases), lipid head group orientation/dynamics, and elastic properties of pure lipid bilayer and as a result of binding of proteins and other biomolecules.
688:
In addition to protein- and solution-mediated processes, it is also possible for lipid bilayers to participate directly in signaling. A classic example of this is
5927:; Horne, R. W. (1964). "Negative Staining of Phospholipids and Their Structural Modification by Surface-Active Agents As Observed in the Electron Microscope".
5300:
Lopes DE, Menezes DE, Kirchmeier MJ, Gagne JF (1999). "Cellular trafficking and cytotoxicity of anti-CD19-targeted liposomal doxorubicin in B lymphoma cells".
4629:
Rutkowski CA, Williams LM, Haines TH, Cummins HZ (June 1991). "The elasticity of synthetic phospholipid vesicles obtained by photon correlation spectroscopy".
890:
calculations of its properties is difficult and computationally expensive. Quantum chemical calculations has recently been successfully performed to estimate
5873:
Mueller P, Rudin DO, Tien HT, Wescott WC (June 1962). "Reconstitution of cell membrane structure in vitro and its transformation into an excitable system".
1141:
are not chemically altered but simply shift position, opening up a pore that acts as the conductive pathway through the bilayer as it is filled with water.
2540:
Crane JM, Kiessling V, Tamm LK (February 2005). "Measuring lipid asymmetry in planar supported bilayers by fluorescence interference contrast microscopy".
1503:. Refinement of the lipid composition to tune fluidity, surface charge density, and surface hydration resulted in vesicles that adsorb fewer proteins from
1339:
are a few of the many eukaryotic processes that rely on some form of fusion. Even the entry of pathogens can be governed by fusion, as many bilayer-coated
165:
typically includes several types of molecules in addition to the phospholipids comprising the bilayer. A particularly important example in animal cells is
470:
headgroup, as it has a negative charge on the phosphate group and a positive charge on the amine but, because these local charges balance, no net charge.
5784:
Sjöstrand FS, Andersson-Cedergren E, Dewey MM (April 1958). "The ultrastructure of the intercalated discs of frog, mouse and guinea pig cardiac muscle".
1623:
forward the concept of the “unit membrane.” This was the first time the bilayer structure had been universally assigned to all cell membranes as well as
3821:
Alireza
Mashaghi et al., Hydration strongly affects the molecular and electronic structure of membrane phospholipids. J. Chem. Phys. 136, 114709 (2012)
1548:
A supported lipid bilayer (SLB) as described above has achieved commercial success as a screening technique to measure the permeability of drugs. This
349:, the phosphatidylserine — normally localised to the cytoplasmic leaflet — is transferred to the outer surface: There, it is recognised by a
4246:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230817087_Electron_microscope_studies_of_surface_pilli_and_vesicles_of_Salmonella_310r-_organisms?ev=prf_pub
1379:
to insert its genetic material into the host cell (enveloped viruses are those surrounded by a lipid bilayer; some others have only a protein coat).
1093:
microbes, translocate bacterial signal molecules to host or target cells to carry out multiple processes in favour of the secreting microbe e.g., in
725:. The two dark bands around the edge are the two leaflets of the bilayer. Historically, similar images confirmed that the cell membrane is a bilayer
2505:
Litman BJ (July 1974). "Determination of molecular asymmetry in the phosphatidylethanolamine surface distribution in mixed phospholipid vesicles".
5329:"Phase I and pharmacokinetic study of MCC-465, a doxorubicin (DXR) encapsulated in PEG immunoliposome, in patients with metastatic stomach cancer"
4266:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230793568_Discovery_of_vesicular_exocytosis_in_prokaryotes_and_its_role_in_Salmonella_invasion?ev=prf_pub
3727:
Richter RP, Brisson A (2003). "Characterization of lipid bilayers and protein assemblies supported on rough surfaces by atomic force microscopy".
3128:
Eanes ED, Hailer AW (January 1987). "Calcium phosphate precipitation in aqueous suspensions of phosphatidylserine-containing anionic liposomes".
173:. Integral membrane proteins function when incorporated into a lipid bilayer, and they are held tightly to the lipid bilayer with the help of an
2575:
Kalb E, Frey S, Tamm LK (January 1992). "Formation of supported planar bilayers by fusion of vesicles to supported phospholipid monolayers".
1399:(PEG) causes fusion without significant aggregation or biochemical disruption. This procedure is now used extensively, for example by fusing
5553:
Sinkó, B.; Kökösi, J.; Avdeef, A.; Takács-Novák, K. (2009). "A PAMPA study of the permeability-enhancing effect of new ceramide analogues".
4730:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15042978_Destabilisation_of_lamellar_dispersion_of_thylakoid_membrane_lipids_by_sucrose?ev=prf_pub
1815:
Lewis BA, Engelman DM (May 1983). "Lipid bilayer thickness varies linearly with acyl chain length in fluid phosphatidylcholine vesicles".
1315:
is involved in the fusion process, the bilayers are said to be hemifused. Fusion is involved in many cellular processes, in particular in
1217:
but only weakly with tail length and unsaturation. Because the forces involved are so small, it is difficult to experimentally determine K
222:
or salts that dissolve in water. The assembly process and maintenance are driven by aggregation of hydrophobic molecules (also called the
3943:
Papahadjopoulos D, Watkins JC (September 1967). "Phospholipid model membranes. II. Permeability properties of hydrated liquid crystals".
2932:"Partitioning of Thy-1, GM1, and cross-linked phospholipid analogs into lipid rafts reconstituted in supported model membrane monolayers"
1415:
as determined by the B-cell involved, but is immortalized due to the melanoma component. Fusion can also be artificially induced through
1164:
Lipid bilayers are large enough structures to have some of the mechanical properties of liquids or solids. The area compression modulus K
1116:, which would never passively diffuse across the hydrophobic bilayer core. Because of this, electroporation is one of the key methods of
886:
Lipid bilayers are complicated molecular systems with many degrees of freedom. Thus, atomistic simulation of membrane and in particular
409:
and thus wander across the surface of the membrane. Unlike liquid phase bilayers, the lipids in a gel phase bilayer have less mobility.
4230:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230822402_'Exocytosis_in_prokaryotes'_and_its_role_in_Salmonella_invasion?ev=prf_pub
1196:, but like any liquid, the shear modulus is zero for fluid bilayers. These mechanical properties affect how the membrane functions. K
3980:"Permeation of protons, potassium ions, and small polar molecules through phospholipid bilayers as a function of membrane thickness"
3823:
1786:
1459:
527:
that utilize a specially adapted lipid monolayer. It has even been proposed that the very first form of life may have been a simple
6032:
2156:
Trauble H, Haynes DH (1971). "The volume change in lipid bilayer lamellae at the crystalline-liquid crystalline phase transition".
3849:
Chakrabarti AC (1994). "Permeability of membranes to amino acids and modified amino acids: mechanisms involved in translocation".
1691:
Andersen, Olaf S.; Koeppe, II, Roger E. (June 2007). "Bilayer
Thickness and Membrane Protein Function: An Energetic Perspective".
1515:(PEG) onto the liposome surface to produce “stealth” vesicles, which circulate over long times without immune or renal clearing.
813:
3271:
845:
scan of a supported lipid bilayer. The pits are defects in the bilayer, exposing the smooth surface of the substrate underneath.
1784:
Mashaghi et al. Hydration strongly affects the molecular and electronic structure of membrane phospholipids. 136, 114709 (2012)
1297:
5381:
6000:
5131:
5004:
4613:
3309:
3032:
2914:
1974:
4129:
Gundelfinger ED, Kessels MM, Qualmann B (February 2003). "Temporal and spatial coordination of exocytosis and endocytosis".
169:, which helps strengthen the bilayer and decrease its permeability. Cholesterol also helps regulate the activity of certain
5506:"P-glycoprotein deficient mouse in situ blood-brain barrier permeability and its prediction using an in combo PAMPA model"
1454:
364:
It is possible to mimic this asymmetry in the laboratory in model bilayer systems. Certain types of very small artificial
4035:
Xiang TX, Anderson BD (June 1994). "The relationship between permeant size and permeability in lipid bilayer membranes".
960:
Two special classes of protein deal with the ionic gradients found across cellular and sub-cellular membranes in nature-
668:
are membrane proteins. Some of these proteins are linked to the exterior of the cell membrane. An example of this is the
4461:
McIntosh TJ, Simon SA (2006). "Roles of Bilayer Material Properties in Function and Distribution of Membrane Proteins".
2790:
Deverall, Miranda A.; Garg, Sumit; LĂĽdtke, Karin; Jordan, Rainer; RĂĽhe, JĂĽrgen; Naumann, Christoph A. (12 August 2008).
1572:
technique measures the permeability across specifically formulated lipid cocktail(s) found to be highly correlated with
951:
penetrate the bilayer (boundaries indicated by red and blue lines), opening a hole through which potassium ions can flow
320:
In many naturally occurring bilayers, the compositions of the inner and outer membrane leaflets are different. In human
5071:
Köhler G, Milstein C (August 1975). "Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of predefined specificity".
1449:
1284:
There is some evidence that both hydrophobic (tails straight) and hydrophilic (heads curved around) pores can coexist.
940:. Regardless of their polar character larger molecules diffuse more slowly across lipid bilayers than small molecules.
928:. Compared to ions, water molecules actually have a relatively large permeability through the bilayer, as evidenced by
1423:
formed during electroporation, which can act as the local defect point to nucleate stalk growth between two bilayers.
3002:
1086:
1209:
stretched apart. It is not surprising given this understanding of the forces involved that studies have shown that K
1058:
3,10:r:- pathogens docking on plasma membrane of macrophage cells (M) in chicken ileum, for host-pathogen signaling
1541:
system. Other, more exotic applications are also being pursued such as the use of lipid bilayer membrane pores for
875:
718:
304:
114:) molecules. Bilayers are particularly impermeable to ions, which allows cells to regulate salt concentrations and
1395:
In studies of molecular and cellular biology it is often desirable to artificially induce fusion. The addition of
5991:
5237:
Boris EH, Winterhalter M, Frederik PM, Vallner JJ, Lasic DD (1997). "Stealth liposomes: from theory to product".
1593:
664:. This is an extremely broad and important class of biomolecule. It is estimated that up to a third of the human
155:
1054:
Exocytosis of outer membrane vesicles (MV) liberated from inflated periplasmic pockets (p) on surface of human
709:
5149:"Stealth liposomes: review of the basic science, rationale, and clinical applications, existing and potential"
4835:
Papahadjopoulos D, Nir S, DĂĽzgĂĽnes N (April 1990). "Molecular mechanisms of calcium-induced membrane fusion".
1484:
for drug delivery, especially for cancer treatment. (Note- the term “liposome” is in essence synonymous with “
768:
A lipid bilayer cannot be seen with a traditional microscope because it is too thin, so researchers often use
4913:
Markin VS, Kozlov MM, Borovjagin VL (October 1984). "On the theory of membrane fusion. The stalk mechanism".
2470:
Kornberg RD, McConnell HM (March 1971). "Inside-outside transitions of phospholipids in vesicle membranes".
6025:
5198:"Association of blood proteins with large unilamellar liposomes in vivo. Relation to circulation lifetimes"
1074:
395:
2724:"Noninvasive neutron scattering measurements reveal slower cholesterol transport in model lipid membranes"
653:
which are, inside the cell, loaded with the neurotransmitters to be released later. These loaded vesicles
6110:
3690:"Lipid membrane phase behavior elucidated in real time by controlled environment atomic force microscopy"
2612:"Lipid asymmetry in DLPC/DSPC-supported lipid bilayers: a combined AFM and fluorescence microscopy study"
870:
where the refractive index in the plane of the bilayer differs from that perpendicular by as much as 0.1
3558:"Synaptic vesicle exocytosis captured by quick freezing and correlated with quantal transmitter release"
3446:"Voltage-induced nonconductive pre-pores and metastable single pores in unmodified planar lipid bilayer"
2669:"Effective Parameters Controlling Sterol Transfer: A Time-Resolved Small-Angle Neutron Scattering Study"
672:
protein, which identifies cells as “self” and thus inhibits their destruction by the immune system. The
401:
phase bilayers a given lipid will exchange locations with its neighbor millions of times a second. This
6205:
682:
274:
4078:
Gouaux E, Mackinnon R (December 2005). "Principles of selective ion transport in channels and pumps".
2667:
Perez-Salas, Ursula; Porcar, Lionel; Garg, Sumit; Ayee, Manuela A. A.; Levitan, Irena (October 2022).
6210:
6101:
3387:"Formation of bimolecular membranes from lipid monolayers and a study of their electrical properties"
1375:. The first of these proteins to be studied were the viral fusion proteins, which allow an enveloped
1121:
969:
661:
227:
170:
4770:"The effects of intra-membrane viscosity on lipid membrane morphology: complete analytical solution"
2842:"Domain Registration in Raft-Mimicking Lipid Mixtures Studied Using Polymer-Tethered Lipid Bilayers"
2840:
Garg, Sumit; RĂĽhe, JĂĽrgen; LĂĽdtke, Karin; Jordan, Rainer; Naumann, Christoph A. (15 February 2007).
1464:
5692:
Dooren LJ, Wiedemann LR (1986). "On bimolecular layers of lipids on the chromocytes of the blood".
4988:
1612:
1129:
986:
478:
325:
95:
2791:
6018:
3444:
Melikov KC, Frolov VA, Shcherbakov A, Samsonov AV, Chizmadzhev YA, Chernomordik LV (April 2001).
1581:
1420:
1150:
850:
842:
830:
769:
214:
202:
985:. Alternatively, the energy source can be another chemical gradient already in place, as in the
825:
6114:
6096:
2792:"Transbilayer coupling of obstructed lipid diffusion in polymer-tethered phospholipid bilayers"
2320:
1577:
978:
874:
units. This has been used to characterise the degree of order and disruption in bilayers using
418:
369:
336:
and its phosphorylated derivatives. By contrast, the outer (extracellular) leaflet is based on
2183:
Bretscher MS (1 March 1972). "Asymmetrical Lipid Bilayer Structure for Biological Membranes".
1266:
1205:
lipid bilayers can easily bend, most cannot stretch more than a few percent before rupturing.
1175:
618:
a chemical reaction on the interior domain (red). The gray feature is the surrounding bilayer.
6150:
6105:
6007:
Simulations and publication links related to the cross sectional structure of lipid bilayers.
4957:
4474:
3892:
Hauser H, Phillips MC, Stubbs M (October 1972). "Ion permeability of phospholipid bilayers".
1704:
1221:. Most techniques require sophisticated microscopy and very sensitive measurement equipment.
740:
638:
595:
412:
The phase behavior of lipid bilayers is determined largely by the strength of the attractive
5819:
Robertson JD (1960). "The molecular structure and contact relationships of cell membranes".
4980:
2256:"Investigating lipid headgroup composition within epithelial membranes: a systematic review"
1077:, a Nobel prize-winning (year, 2013) process, is traditionally regarded as a prerogative of
35:
5924:
5882:
5609:
5080:
4781:
4677:
4560:
4505:
4419:
4366:
4087:
3991:
3901:
3827:
3778:
3654:
3514:
3457:
3398:
3228:
Koch AL (1984). "Primeval cells: possible energy-generating and cell-division mechanisms".
3184:
2943:
2853:
2803:
2735:
2623:
2424:
2369:
2267:
2112:
2003:
1863:
1790:
1645:
1632:
1432:
1311:
1293:
1137:
1040:
654:
482:
438:, which modulates bilayer permeability, mechanical strength, and biochemical interactions.
333:
5121:
3502:
3090:
2413:"Rapid transmembrane movement of newly synthesized phospholipids during membrane assembly"
1852:"Neutron Diffraction Studies on the Location of Water in Lecithin Bilayer Model Membranes"
1480:
To date, the most successful commercial application of lipid bilayers has been the use of
1419:
in a process known as electrofusion. It is believed that this phenomenon results from the
660:
Lipid bilayers are also involved in signal transduction through their role as the home of
8:
4981:
3767:"Mechanical properties of pore-spanning lipid bilayers probed by atomic force microscopy"
3327:"An ENSEMBLE machine learning approach for the prediction of all-alpha membrane proteins"
1662:
1619:
1512:
1469:
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91:
28:
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2007:
1867:
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5761:
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5717:
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5644:
5578:
5530:
5505:
5173:
5148:
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5053:
5010:
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4812:
4769:
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4581:
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4198:
4173:
4154:
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3979:
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3744:
3582:
3557:
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2644:
2611:
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1935:
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974:
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329:
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223:
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5278:
5250:
5214:
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4572:
4330:
4305:
4003:
3765:
Steltenkamp S, MĂĽller MM, Deserno M, Hennesthal C, Steinem C, Janshoff A (July 2006).
3469:
3421:
3386:
3196:
3173:"Binding of peptides with basic residues to membranes containing acidic phospholipids"
2447:
2412:
2337:
2124:
1926:
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1851:
1828:
1350:
6155:
5944:
5898:
5855:
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5709:
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5625:
5570:
5535:
5486:
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5219:
5178:
5127:
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5057:
5045:
5014:
5000:
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4922:
4895:
4852:
4817:
4799:
4703:
4646:
4609:
4586:
4521:
4478:
4435:
4392:
4387:
4354:
4335:
4278:
4256:
YashRoy R.C. (1998) Discovery of vesicular exocytosis in prokaryotes and its role in
4203:
4146:
4103:
4052:
4017:
3960:
3956:
3917:
3866:
3804:
3709:
3670:
3622:
3587:
3530:
3483:
3426:
3348:
3343:
3326:
3305:
3275:
3245:
3210:
3145:
3110:
3071:
3028:
2998:
2971:
2966:
2931:
2910:
2887:
2869:
2819:
2769:
2751:
2708:
2696:
2688:
2649:
2592:
2588:
2557:
2522:
2487:
2452:
2385:
2342:
2305:
2293:
2285:
2236:
2232:
2200:
2169:
2138:
2066:
2031:
2026:
1991:
1970:
1963:
1940:
1891:
1832:
1759:
1754:
1735:
1708:
1485:
1438:
1388:
1332:
912:
628:
365:
178:
5721:
5582:
4378:
4158:
4115:
4064:
3878:
3748:
3257:
3157:
2722:
Garg, S.; Porcar, L.; Woodka, A. C.; Butler, P. D.; Perez-Salas, U. (20 July 2011).
2397:
2078:
1771:
6170:
6088:
5971:
5936:
5910:
5890:
5846:
Robertson JD (1959). "The ultrastructure of cell membranes and their derivatives".
5793:
5756:
5748:
5701:
5664:
5656:
5617:
5562:
5525:
5517:
5478:
5443:
5408:
5378:
5340:
5309:
5274:
5246:
5209:
5168:
5160:
5108:
5088:
5037:
4992:
4953:
4887:
4864:
4844:
4807:
4789:
4750:
4693:
4685:
4638:
4576:
4568:
4533:
4513:
4470:
4447:
4427:
4382:
4374:
4325:
4317:
4193:
4185:
4138:
4095:
4044:
4007:
3999:
3952:
3929:
3909:
3858:
3794:
3786:
3736:
3701:
3662:
3614:
3577:
3569:
3542:
3522:
3473:
3465:
3416:
3406:
3338:
3237:
3200:
3192:
3137:
3102:
3061:
2961:
2951:
2877:
2861:
2811:
2759:
2743:
2680:
2639:
2631:
2584:
2549:
2514:
2479:
2442:
2432:
2377:
2332:
2275:
2228:
2192:
2165:
2128:
2120:
2058:
2021:
2011:
1930:
1922:
1881:
1871:
1824:
1749:
1720:
1700:
1372:
1319:, since the eukaryotic cell is extensively sub-divided by lipid bilayer membranes.
1214:
1005:
871:
833:
images showing formation of transmembrane pores (holes) in supported lipid bilayer
650:
646:
519:
466:(PC), accounting for about half the phospholipids in most mammalian cells. PC is a
146:
83:
6010:
5997:
462:
are also important components. Of the phospholipids, the most common headgroup is
6165:
6004:
5385:
4306:"Gene transfer into mouse lyoma cells by electroporation in high electric fields"
3503:"Single-channel currents recorded from membrane of denervated frog muscle fibres"
2990:
2381:
2049:
Marsh D (December 2002). "Membrane water-penetration profiles from spin labels".
1545:
by Oxford Nanolabs. To date, this technology has not proven commercially viable.
1442:
1416:
1384:
1106:
965:
261:
119:
3790:
3618:
3050:"The role of phosphatidylserine in recognition of apoptotic cells by phagocytes"
2865:
2635:
1607:
solutions, Hugo Fricke determined that the cell membrane was 3.3 nm thick.
417:
identical long-tailed lipid. Transition temperature can also be affected by the
293:
coat on a bacterial outer membrane, which helps retain a water layer around the
6050:
5621:
5521:
5482:
5447:
5412:
4794:
4549:"Mechanical properties of vesicles. II. A model for osmotic swelling and lysis"
4240:
YashRoy R C (1993) Electron microscope studies of surface pili and vesicles of
3091:"The role of matrix vesicles in growth plate development and biomineralization"
2684:
1740:
1542:
1001:
714:
606:
502:
377:
in other monolayer even when other monolayer can not phase separate by itself.
239:
138:
67:
56:
5313:
2747:
2062:
1257:
is not measured experimentally but rather is calculated from measurements of K
610:
Illustration of a GPCR signaling protein. In response to a molecule such as a
6199:
6175:
6135:
6042:
5164:
4996:
4803:
2873:
2823:
2755:
2692:
2289:
1637:
1508:
1328:
1324:
1193:
1090:
1085:
was however broken with the revelation that nanovesicles, popularly known as
1044:
937:
867:
761:
756:
722:
677:
559:
528:
451:
341:
235:
186:
182:
71:
5345:
5328:
4099:
3705:
3411:
2668:
385:
250:
66:. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around all
6073:
6063:
5948:
5902:
5859:
5832:
5805:
5770:
5678:
5629:
5574:
5566:
5539:
5490:
5455:
5420:
5354:
5286:
5182:
5049:
4965:
4821:
4707:
4525:
4482:
4439:
4396:
4150:
4107:
3921:
3870:
3808:
3713:
3674:
3626:
3487:
3352:
3114:
3075:
3066:
3049:
2975:
2956:
2909:(Extended Paperback ed.). Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
2891:
2773:
2700:
2653:
2561:
2437:
2360:
Bretscher MS (August 1973). "Membrane structure: some general principles".
2297:
2196:
2142:
2070:
2035:
2016:
1944:
1895:
1712:
1523:
1500:
1249:
made from galactolipid-rich thylakoid membranes destabilises bilayers into
1228:, which is a measure of how much energy is needed to stretch the bilayer, K
1117:
693:
587:
583:
571:
536:
532:
494:
447:
281:
129:
87:
5713:
5223:
5100:
4926:
4899:
4856:
4650:
4590:
4339:
4207:
4056:
4021:
3964:
3534:
3430:
3249:
3214:
3149:
2930:
Dietrich C, Volovyk ZN, Levi M, Thompson NL, Jacobson K (September 2001).
2596:
2526:
2491:
2389:
2346:
2240:
2204:
1876:
1836:
1763:
539:. The partitioning ability of the lipid bilayer is based on the fact that
6068:
5752:
4741:
Weaver JC, Chizmadzhev YA (1996). "Theory of electroporation: A review".
4189:
3573:
2456:
2101:"Effect of chain length and unsaturation on elasticity of lipid bilayers"
1604:
1600:
1504:
1029:
994:
961:
948:
916:
745:
544:
540:
486:
459:
435:
422:
402:
321:
166:
133:
111:
5975:
5660:
5645:"The electrical capacity of suspensions with special reference to blood"
5504:
Dagenais, C.; Avdeef, A.; Tsinman, O.; Dudley, A.; Beliveau, R. (2009).
5367:
5028:
Chen YA, Scheller RH (February 2001). "SNARE-mediated membrane fusion".
4891:
4642:
4517:
4355:"Laboratory-scale evidence for lightning-mediated gene transfer in soil"
3591:
2518:
2483:
1354:
Schematic illustration of the process of fusion through stalk formation.
989:. It is through the action of ion pumps that cells are able to regulate
837:
158:
made by model bilayers have also been used clinically to deliver drugs.
19:
6145:
6140:
5705:
5122:
Jordan, Carol A.; Neumann, Eberhard; Sowershi mason, Arthur E. (1989).
4942:"Protein-lipid interplay in fusion and fission of biological membranes"
4848:
4048:
3862:
3241:
3141:
2280:
2255:
1672:
1657:
1527:
1489:
1380:
1358:
1320:
1302:
1078:
1070:
1033:
933:
895:
797:
697:
632:
599:
555:
498:
467:
350:
126:
4303:
3978:
Paula S, Volkov AG, Van Hoek AN, Haines TH, Deamer DW (January 1996).
3740:
3666:
2553:
5894:
5092:
5041:
3913:
3526:
2815:
1624:
1534:
1408:
1316:
1125:
982:
887:
615:
579:
575:
563:
549:
490:
473:
Other headgroups are also present to varying degrees and can include
406:
346:
294:
285:
107:
75:
5597:
4941:
4431:
4142:
3689:
1371:
since biological fusion is almost always regulated by the action of
760:
Human red blood cells viewed through a fluorescence microscope. The
300:
6180:
6130:
3048:
Fadok VA, Bratton DL, Frasch SC, Warner ML, Henson PM (July 1998).
1481:
1412:
1336:
1050:
792:
665:
591:
358:
63:
40:
3764:
3644:
3556:
Heuser JE, Reese TS, Dennis MJ, Jan Y, Jan L, Evans L (May 1979).
3272:"5.1 Cell Membrane Structure | Life Science | University of Tokyo"
2099:
Rawicz W, Olbrich KC, McIntosh T, Needham D, Evans E (July 2000).
1383:
cells also use fusion proteins, the best-studied of which are the
562:(also known as the plasma membrane). Many prokaryotes also have a
118:
by transporting ions across their membranes using proteins called
5783:
5737:"On bimolecular layers of lipids on the chromocytes of the blood"
3106:
1404:
1343:
have dedicated fusion proteins to gain entry into the host cell.
1234:
1192:, can be used to describe them. Solid lipid bilayers also have a
1155:
929:
854:
801:
614:
binding to the exterior domain (blue) the GPCR changes shape and
611:
567:
524:
103:
5236:
4220:
YashRoy R.C. (1999) 'Exocytosis in prokaryotes' and its role in
3443:
1533:
Another potential application of lipid bilayers is the field of
1511:. The most significant advance in this area was the grafting of
1124:. It has even been proposed that electroporation resulting from
924:
typically have a higher rate of diffusion through bilayers than
518:
The primary role of the lipid bilayer in biology is to separate
6160:
6078:
2217:
1573:
1400:
1261:
and bilayer thickness, since the three parameters are related.
1009:
925:
891:
642:
455:
426:
150:
5433:
4720:
YashRoy R.C. (1994) Destabilisation of lamellar dispersion of
4628:
4304:
Neumann E, Schaefer-Ridder M, Wang Y, Hofschneider PH (1982).
3604:
1015:
110:
in width, because they are impermeable to most water-soluble (
39:
The three main structures phospholipids form in solution; the
5552:
4353:
Demanèche S, Bertolla F, Buret F, et al. (August 2001).
1569:
1519:
1496:
1376:
1367:
The situation is further complicated when considering fusion
1340:
921:
430:
while vegetable oil, which is mostly unsaturated, is liquid.
219:
194:
190:
79:
60:
24:
2098:
1019:
Schematic illustration of pinocytosis, a type of endocytosis
5962:
Kunitake T (1977). "A totally synthetic bilayer membrane".
5503:
5299:
4666:"Dynamic tension spectroscopy and strength of biomembranes"
4128:
3171:
Kim J, Mosior M, Chung LA, Wu H, McLaughlin S (July 1991).
2929:
764:
has been stained with a fluorescent dye. Scale bar is 20ÎĽm.
669:
4834:
4410:
Garcia ML (July 2004). "Ion channels: gate expectations".
4174:"Membrane flow during pinocytosis. A stereologic analysis"
3640:
3638:
3636:
2610:
Lin WC, Blanchette CD, Ratto TV, Longo ML (January 2006).
1960:
807:
641:, whereby a nerve impulse that has reached the end of one
154:
the use of artificial "model" bilayers produced in a lab.
4663:
4547:
Hallett FR, Marsh J, Nickel BG, Wood JM (February 1993).
4495:
3977:
2666:
1113:
673:
142:
99:
98:
in the cell. The lipid bilayer is the barrier that keeps
5327:
Matsumura Y, Gotoh M, Muro K, et al. (March 2004).
4987:. Nano and Microengineering Series. CRC Press. pp.
4664:
Evans E, Heinrich V, Ludwig F, Rawicz W (October 2003).
3324:
3047:
2789:
324:, the inner (cytoplasmic) leaflet is composed mostly of
5872:
4877:
3633:
2609:
1969:(10th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.
1518:
The first stealth liposomes were passively targeted at
990:
943:
637:
The most familiar form of cellular signaling is likely
115:
5397:
4912:
4546:
4352:
3942:
3088:
2721:
1849:
1693:
Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure
1522:
tissues. Because tumors induce rapid and uncontrolled
649:. This transmission is made possible by the action of
1992:"Polarity and permeation profiles in lipid membranes"
1269:
1178:
645:
is conveyed to an adjacent neuron via the release of
5468:
5146:
3891:
3681:
3555:
2839:
2254:
Coones, R. T.; Green, R. J.; Frazier, R. A. (2021).
1961:
Parker J, Madigan MT, Brock TD, Martinko JM (2003).
1734:
Divecha, Nullin; Irvine, Robin F (27 January 1995).
373:
compare to cholesterol and other smaller molecules.
6040:
5196:Chonn A, Semple SC, Cullis PR (15 September 1992).
4828:
3936:
3089:Anderson HC, Garimella R, Tague SE (January 2005).
1908:
1850:Zaccai G, Blasie JK, Schoenborn BP (January 1975).
861:
5994:An extensive database of lipid physical properties
5326:
4978:
4939:
4244:3,10:r:- organisms. Ind Jl of Anim Sci 63, 99-102.
4171:
3760:
3758:
2539:
2253:
1962:
1690:
1640:and do not require a patterned support structure.
1275:
1184:
1097:and microbe-environment interactions, in general.
5195:
5124:Electroporation and electrofusion in cell biology
4740:
3687:
2469:
2318:
878:to understand mechanisms of protein interaction.
6197:
4933:
4122:
3170:
881:
43:(a closed bilayer), the micelle and the bilayer.
5691:
4226:ICAR NEWS - A Science and Technology Newsletter
4077:
3842:
3755:
2904:
2319:Bell RM, Ballas LM, Coleman RA (1 March 1981).
901:
380:
5839:
5812:
5263:
5070:
4603:
4172:Steinman RM, Brodie SE, Cohn ZA (March 1976).
3848:
3726:
3299:
3295:
3293:
3022:
2410:
800:vesicles are the means of chemical release at
213:When phospholipids are exposed to water, they
145:phase state at lower temperatures but undergo
141:of the bilayer. The bilayer can adopt a solid
6026:
5955:
5777:
5734:
5320:
5140:
4622:
4608:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
4460:
4346:
4034:
3384:
3018:
3016:
3014:
2353:
2176:
2155:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2088:
1814:
1733:
1618:This theory was confirmed through the use of
1023:
513:
353:that then actively scavenges the dying cell.
208:
132:that have a hydrophilic phosphate head and a
27:bilayer cross section is made up entirely of
5923:
5917:
5866:
5845:
5818:
5027:
4972:
4871:
4454:
4279:"Exocytosis from gram negative bacteria for
4165:
3500:
3325:Martelli PL, Fariselli P, Casadio R (2003).
3318:
3082:
2923:
2574:
2463:
2359:
2211:
2182:
1909:Nagle JF, Tristram-Nagle S (November 2000).
1507:and thus are less readily recognized by the
1411:” from this combination expresses a desired
814:NMR(nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy
137:properties, for instance by determining the
125:Biological bilayers are usually composed of
5510:European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
5471:European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
5436:European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
5401:European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
4540:
4489:
4297:
3720:
3437:
3359:
3304:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
3290:
3127:
2404:
2149:
1956:
1954:
1810:
1808:
1684:
703:
6033:
6019:
5961:
5728:
5636:
5379:Nanion Technologies. Automated Patch Clamp
5115:
5064:
4906:
4734:
4403:
4071:
3885:
3549:
3378:
3041:
3011:
2498:
2085:
1727:
1475:
947:Structure of a potassium ion channel. The
820:
751:
733:
5760:
5694:Journal of European Journal of Pediatrics
5685:
5668:
5529:
5344:
5293:
5257:
5230:
5213:
5189:
5172:
4811:
4793:
4697:
4657:
4580:
4409:
4386:
4329:
4197:
4028:
4011:
3971:
3798:
3581:
3494:
3477:
3420:
3410:
3365:
3342:
3204:
3121:
3065:
2965:
2955:
2881:
2763:
2643:
2533:
2504:
2446:
2436:
2336:
2279:
2132:
2025:
2015:
1934:
1885:
1875:
1843:
1753:
1335:, and transport of waste products to the
955:
245:
16:Membrane of two layers of lipid molecules
5642:
5589:
5147:Immordino ML, Dosio F, Cattel L (2006).
5021:
4958:10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161504
4767:
4597:
4475:10.1146/annurev.biophys.35.040405.102022
3598:
3221:
3027:(2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press.
2898:
2568:
2312:
2042:
1983:
1951:
1902:
1805:
1705:10.1146/annurev.biophys.36.040306.132643
1460:Tethered Bilayer Lipid Membranes (t-BLM)
1387:. SNARE proteins are used to direct all
1357:
1349:
1301:
1154:
1128:strikes could be a mechanism of natural
1049:
1014:
942:
849:A new method to study lipid bilayers is
836:
824:
787:offers a higher resolution image. In an
755:
713:
605:
535:capability being the production of more
384:
299:
249:
82:are made of a lipid bilayer, as are the
34:
18:
5361:
4983:Nano and Molecular Electronics Handbook
4276:
3366:Filmore D (2004). "It's A GPCR World".
3227:
3164:
2988:
2603:
2048:
1989:
808:Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
6198:
5595:
5369:. Biacore Inc. Retrieved Feb 12, 2009.
3688:Tokumasu F, Jin AJ, Dvorak JA (2002).
1298:Interbilayer forces in membrane fusion
866:Lipid bilayers exhibit high levels of
779:
6014:
4743:Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics
4283:invasion of chicken ileal epithelium"
3385:Montal M, Mueller P (December 1972).
2835:
2833:
2785:
2783:
915:molecules have low solubility in the
906:
441:
255:influence the molecular arrangement.
5598:"The recent development of Biology"
4940:Chernomordik LV, Kozlov MM (2003).
4768:Zeidi, Mahdi; Kim, Chun IL (2018).
2411:Rothman JE, Kennedy EP (May 1977).
566:, but the cell wall is composed of
508:
421:of the lipid tails. An unsaturated
13:
4463:Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct
4322:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1982.tb01257.x
2830:
2780:
1270:
1237:or inverted micelles. Addition of
1179:
1100:
558:have only one lipid bilayer - the
543:molecules cannot easily cross the
14:
6222:
5998:Structure of Fluid Lipid Bilayers
5985:
4287:Indian Journal of Poultry Science
3824:"The Journal of Chemical Physics"
3501:Neher E, Sakmann B (April 1976).
2991:"Chapter 10: Membrane Structures"
1787:"The Journal of Chemical Physics"
1470:Droplet Interface Bilayers (DIBs)
1087:bacterial outer membrane vesicles
226:). This complex process includes
5741:Journal of Experimental Medicine
1426:
1004:, which allows conduction of an
876:dual polarisation interferometry
862:Dual polarisation interferometry
719:Transmission Electron Microscope
5546:
5497:
5462:
5427:
5391:
5388:. Retrieved Feb 28, 2010. (PDF)
5372:
4761:
4714:
4379:10.1128/AEM.67.8.3440-3444.2001
4270:
4250:
4234:
4228:, (Oct-Dec) vol. 5(4), page 18.
4214:
3815:
3264:
2982:
2715:
2673:The Journal of Membrane Biology
2660:
2247:
1965:Brock biology of microorganisms
1594:History of cell membrane theory
345:example, when a cell undergoes
5239:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
3694:Journal of Electron Microscopy
3344:10.1093/bioinformatics/btg1027
1778:
1455:Supported lipid bilayers (SLB)
1441:, to define the boundaries of
968:. Both pumps and channels are
710:Lipid bilayer characterization
497:vesicles is necessary for the
1:
5941:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80115-7
5798:10.1016/S0022-5320(58)80008-8
5649:Journal of General Physiology
5279:10.1016/S0168-3659(01)00309-1
5251:10.1016/S0169-409X(96)00456-5
5215:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)37026-7
4755:10.1016/S0302-4598(96)05062-3
4726:Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
4690:10.1016/S0006-3495(03)74658-X
4573:10.1016/S0006-3495(93)81384-5
4264:, vol. 75(10), pp. 1062-1066.
4004:10.1016/S0006-3495(96)79575-9
3470:10.1016/S0006-3495(01)76153-X
3302:Molecular biology of the cell
3197:10.1016/S0006-3495(91)82037-9
2995:Molecular Biology of the Cell
2338:10.1016/S0022-2275(20)34952-X
2125:10.1016/S0006-3495(00)76295-3
1927:10.1016/S0304-4157(00)00016-2
1911:"Structure of lipid bilayers"
1829:10.1016/S0022-2836(83)80007-2
1678:
882:Quantum chemical calculations
5929:Journal of Molecular Biology
5735:Gorter E, Grendel F (1925).
5555:Chemistry & Biodiversity
5302:Journal of Liposome Research
4724:membrane lipids by sucrose.
3957:10.1016/0005-2736(67)90095-8
2936:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
2589:10.1016/0005-2736(92)90101-Q
2417:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
2382:10.1126/science.181.4100.622
2233:10.1016/0005-2736(73)90143-0
2170:10.1016/0009-3084(71)90010-7
1996:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1856:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1755:10.1016/0092-8674(95)90409-3
1373:membrane-associated proteins
1144:
1075:membrane vesicle trafficking
902:Transport across the bilayer
898:moments of lipid membranes.
622:
396:Lipid bilayer phase behavior
381:Phases and phase transitions
315:
7:
6111:Peripheral membrane protein
3791:10.1529/biophysj.106.081398
3619:10.1016/j.ssnmr.2005.10.009
3607:Solid State Nucl Magn Reson
2866:10.1529/biophysj.106.091082
2636:10.1529/biophysj.105.067066
1651:
1611:lipids as a monolayer on a
1450:Black lipid membranes (BLM)
1239:small hydrophilic molecules
977:. The energy source can be
574:, not lipids. In contrast,
10:
6227:
6102:Integral membrane proteins
5622:10.1126/science.20.519.777
5522:10.1016/j.ejps.2009.06.009
5483:10.1016/j.ejps.2004.04.009
5448:10.1016/j.ejps.2004.11.011
5413:10.1016/j.ejps.2003.10.009
5126:. New York: Plenum Press.
4795:10.1038/s41598-018-31251-6
2685:10.1007/s00232-022-00231-3
1591:
1587:
1430:
1421:energetically active edges
1291:
1148:
1104:
1027:
1024:Endocytosis and exocytosis
970:integral membrane proteins
841:Illustration of a typical
707:
683:G protein-coupled receptor
662:integral membrane proteins
626:
514:Containment and separation
425:can produce a kink in the
393:
275:nuclear magnetic resonance
209:Structure and organization
171:integral membrane proteins
6123:
6087:
6049:
5314:10.3109/08982109909024786
4728:, vol. 1212, pp. 129-133.
2748:10.1016/j.bpj.2011.06.014
2063:10.1007/s00249-002-0245-z
1287:
1067:Exocytosis in prokaryotes
981:, as is the case for the
405:exchange allows lipid to
228:non-covalent interactions
96:membrane-bound organelles
5821:Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol
5596:Loeb J (December 1904).
5165:10.2217/17435889.1.3.297
5030:Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol
4997:10.1201/9781315221670-17
4359:Appl. Environ. Microbiol
4131:Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol
2905:Berg, Howard C. (1993).
1736:"Phospholipid signaling"
1613:Langmuir-Blodgett trough
1539:automated patch clamping
1276:{\displaystyle \Lambda }
1185:{\displaystyle \Lambda }
1130:horizontal gene transfer
1002:voltage-gated Na channel
704:Characterization methods
531:with virtually its sole
479:phosphatidylethanolamine
326:phosphatidylethanolamine
297:to prevent dehydration.
6146:Lipid raft/microdomains
4604:Boal, David H. (2001).
4100:10.1126/science.1113666
3412:10.1073/pnas.69.12.3561
3300:Alberts, Bruce (2002).
3023:Yeagle, Philip (1993).
2989:Alberts, Bruce (2017).
2907:Random walks in biology
1476:Commercial applications
1151:Lipid bilayer mechanics
851:Atomic force microscopy
821:Atomic force microscopy
770:fluorescence microscopy
752:Fluorescence microscopy
734:Electrical measurements
203:atomic force microscopy
6151:Membrane contact sites
6115:Lipid-anchored protein
6097:Membrane glycoproteins
5567:10.1002/cbdv.200900149
3945:Biochim. Biophys. Acta
3067:10.1038/sj.cdd.4400404
3025:The membranes of cells
2957:10.1073/pnas.191168698
2577:Biochim. Biophys. Acta
2438:10.1073/pnas.74.5.1821
2221:Biochim. Biophys. Acta
2197:10.1038/newbio236011a0
2017:10.1073/pnas.131023798
1915:Biochim. Biophys. Acta
1578:gastrointestinal tract
1407:cells. The resulting “
1364:
1355:
1308:
1277:
1186:
1161:
1063:
1039:cell membrane through
1020:
956:Ion pumps and channels
952:
846:
834:
765:
726:
619:
419:degree of unsaturation
391:
308:
256:
246:Cross section analysis
59:made of two layers of
44:
32:
6106:transmembrane protein
6003:11 April 2011 at the
5384:31 March 2010 at the
5346:10.1093/annonc/mdh092
4915:Gen. Physiol. Biophys
4837:J. Bioenerg. Biomembr
4606:Mechanics of the cell
3706:10.1093/jmicro/51.1.1
3391:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci
3368:Modern Drug Discovery
1990:Marsh D (July 2001).
1877:10.1073/pnas.72.1.376
1646:intermolecular forces
1592:Further information:
1431:Further information:
1361:
1353:
1305:
1278:
1213:varies strongly with
1187:
1158:
1149:Further information:
1120:as well as bacterial
1105:Further information:
1073:, popularly known as
1069:: Membrane vesicular
1053:
1018:
946:
840:
828:
759:
717:
708:Further information:
639:synaptic transmission
609:
596:endoplasmic reticulum
394:Further information:
388:
303:
253:
38:
22:
6131:Caveolae/Coated pits
5753:10.1084/jem.41.4.439
4190:10.1083/jcb.68.3.665
3574:10.1083/jcb.81.2.275
3337:(Suppl 1): i205–11.
1433:Model lipid bilayers
1294:Lipid bilayer fusion
1267:
1176:
1138:dielectric breakdown
791:, a beam of focused
489:is a marker of cell
483:phosphatidylglycerol
334:phosphatidylinositol
232:van der Waals forces
193:, or the entry of a
163:biological membranes
53:phospholipid bilayer
5976:10.1021/ja00453a066
5887:1962Natur.194..979M
5786:J. Ultrastruct. Res
5661:10.1085/jgp.9.2.137
5614:1904Sci....20..777L
5085:1975Natur.256..495K
4892:10.1021/bi00370a600
4786:2018NatSR...812845Z
4682:2003BpJ....85.2342E
4643:10.1021/bi00237a008
4565:1993BpJ....64..435H
4518:10.1038/nature02743
4510:2004Natur.430..235S
4424:2004Natur.430..153G
4371:2001ApEnM..67.3440D
4277:YashRoy RC (1998).
4092:2005Sci...310.1461G
3996:1996BpJ....70..339P
3906:1972Natur.239..342H
3783:2006BpJ....91..217S
3659:2008NanoL...8..941R
3519:1976Natur.260..799N
3462:2001BpJ....80.1829M
3403:1972PNAS...69.3561M
3278:on 22 February 2014
3189:1991BpJ....60..135K
2997:. Garland Science.
2948:2001PNAS...9810642D
2858:2007BpJ....92.1263G
2846:Biophysical Journal
2808:2008SMat....4.1899D
2740:2011BpJ...101..370G
2728:Biophysical Journal
2628:2006BpJ....90..228L
2519:10.1021/bi00711a010
2484:10.1021/bi00783a003
2429:1977PNAS...74.1821R
2374:1973Sci...181..622B
2321:"Lipid topogenesis"
2272:2021SMat...17.6773C
2117:2000BpJ....79..328R
2008:2001PNAS...98.7777M
1868:1975PNAS...72..376Z
1663:Membrane biophysics
1620:electron microscopy
1582:blood–brain barrier
1513:polyethylene glycol
1397:polyethylene glycol
1253:phase. Typically, K
1168:, bending modulus K
789:electron microscope
785:Electron microscopy
780:Electron microscopy
744:activity of single
464:phosphatidylcholine
338:phosphatidylcholine
267:x-ray reflectometry
199:electron microscopy
175:annular lipid shell
29:phosphatidylcholine
6156:Membrane nanotubes
6041:Structures of the
5848:Biochem. Soc. Symp
5706:10.1007/BF00439232
4946:Annu. Rev. Biochem
4849:10.1007/BF00762944
4774:Scientific Reports
4049:10.1007/bf00232899
3863:10.1007/BF00813743
3242:10.1007/BF02102359
3142:10.1007/BF02555727
3130:Calcif. Tissue Int
2281:10.1039/D1SM00703C
2185:Nature New Biology
2158:Chem. Phys. Lipids
1668:Lipid polymorphism
1365:
1356:
1309:
1273:
1247:lamellar liposomes
1182:
1172:, and edge energy
1162:
1112:molecules such as
1095:host cell invasion
1064:
1021:
995:pumping of protons
975:chemical potential
953:
847:
835:
766:
727:
690:phosphatidylserine
620:
475:phosphatidylserine
392:
330:phosphatidylserine
309:
291:lipopolysaccharide
271:neutron scattering
257:
224:hydrophobic effect
45:
33:
6206:Biological matter
6189:
6188:
6089:Membrane proteins
5970:(11): 3860–3861.
5643:Fricke H (1925).
5267:J Control Release
5133:978-0-306-43043-5
5006:978-0-8493-8528-5
4615:978-0-521-79681-1
3741:10.1021/la026427w
3667:10.1021/nl080080l
3513:(5554): 799–802.
3311:978-0-8153-4072-0
3054:Cell Death Differ
3034:978-0-12-769041-4
2916:978-0-691-00064-0
2554:10.1021/la047654w
2368:(4100): 622–629.
2266:(28): 6773–6786.
1976:978-0-13-049147-3
1439:Synthetic Biology
1245:into mixed lipid
907:Passive diffusion
748:can be resolved.
721:(TEM) image of a
676:virus evades the
651:synaptic vesicles
647:neurotransmitters
629:Neurotransmission
442:Surface chemistry
370:Langmuir-Blodgett
179:acrosome reaction
161:The structure of
6218:
6211:Membrane biology
6171:Nuclear envelope
6166:Nodes of Ranvier
6035:
6028:
6021:
6012:
6011:
5980:
5979:
5964:J. Am. Chem. Soc
5959:
5953:
5952:
5921:
5915:
5914:
5895:10.1038/194979a0
5881:(4832): 979–80.
5870:
5864:
5863:
5843:
5837:
5836:
5816:
5810:
5809:
5781:
5775:
5774:
5764:
5732:
5726:
5725:
5689:
5683:
5682:
5672:
5640:
5634:
5633:
5608:(519): 777–786.
5593:
5587:
5586:
5550:
5544:
5543:
5533:
5501:
5495:
5494:
5466:
5460:
5459:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5395:
5389:
5376:
5370:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5348:
5324:
5318:
5317:
5297:
5291:
5290:
5261:
5255:
5254:
5234:
5228:
5227:
5217:
5208:(26): 18759–65.
5193:
5187:
5186:
5176:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5119:
5113:
5112:
5093:10.1038/256495a0
5068:
5062:
5061:
5042:10.1038/35052017
5025:
5019:
5018:
4986:
4976:
4970:
4969:
4937:
4931:
4930:
4910:
4904:
4903:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4815:
4797:
4765:
4759:
4758:
4738:
4732:
4718:
4712:
4711:
4701:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4584:
4544:
4538:
4537:
4504:(6996): 235–40.
4493:
4487:
4486:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4390:
4350:
4344:
4343:
4333:
4301:
4295:
4294:
4274:
4268:
4254:
4248:
4238:
4232:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4201:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4086:(5753): 1461–5.
4075:
4069:
4068:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4015:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3914:10.1038/239342a0
3889:
3883:
3882:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3826:. Archived from
3819:
3813:
3812:
3802:
3762:
3753:
3752:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3685:
3679:
3678:
3642:
3631:
3630:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3585:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3527:10.1038/260799a0
3498:
3492:
3491:
3481:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3424:
3414:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3363:
3357:
3356:
3346:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3297:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3274:. Archived from
3268:
3262:
3261:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3208:
3168:
3162:
3161:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3069:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3020:
3009:
3008:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2959:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2885:
2852:(4): 1263–1270.
2837:
2828:
2827:
2816:10.1039/B800801A
2802:(9): 1899–1908.
2787:
2778:
2777:
2767:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2679:(4–5): 423–435.
2664:
2658:
2657:
2647:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2450:
2440:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2340:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2283:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2136:
2096:
2083:
2082:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2029:
2019:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1968:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1938:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1889:
1879:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1812:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1789:. Archived from
1782:
1776:
1775:
1757:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1688:
1443:artificial cells
1333:sperm activation
1282:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1224:In contrast to K
1215:osmotic pressure
1191:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1006:action potential
987:Ca/Na antiporter
930:osmotic swelling
872:refractive index
578:have a range of
509:Biological roles
493:, whereas PS in
147:phase transition
86:surrounding the
84:nuclear membrane
6226:
6225:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6217:
6216:
6215:
6196:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6119:
6083:
6051:Membrane lipids
6045:
6039:
6005:Wayback Machine
5988:
5983:
5960:
5956:
5922:
5918:
5871:
5867:
5844:
5840:
5817:
5813:
5782:
5778:
5733:
5729:
5690:
5686:
5641:
5637:
5594:
5590:
5561:(11): 1867–74.
5551:
5547:
5502:
5498:
5467:
5463:
5432:
5428:
5396:
5392:
5386:Wayback Machine
5377:
5373:
5366:
5362:
5325:
5321:
5298:
5294:
5262:
5258:
5245:(2–3): 165–77.
5235:
5231:
5194:
5190:
5145:
5141:
5134:
5120:
5116:
5079:(5517): 495–7.
5069:
5065:
5026:
5022:
5007:
4977:
4973:
4938:
4934:
4911:
4907:
4886:(22): 6978–87.
4876:
4872:
4833:
4829:
4766:
4762:
4739:
4735:
4719:
4715:
4662:
4658:
4637:(23): 5688–96.
4627:
4623:
4616:
4602:
4598:
4545:
4541:
4494:
4490:
4459:
4455:
4432:10.1038/430153a
4418:(6996): 153–5.
4408:
4404:
4351:
4347:
4302:
4298:
4275:
4271:
4262:Current Science
4255:
4251:
4239:
4235:
4219:
4215:
4170:
4166:
4143:10.1038/nrm1016
4127:
4123:
4076:
4072:
4033:
4029:
3976:
3972:
3941:
3937:
3900:(5371): 342–4.
3890:
3886:
3847:
3843:
3833:
3831:
3822:
3820:
3816:
3763:
3756:
3725:
3721:
3686:
3682:
3643:
3634:
3603:
3599:
3554:
3550:
3499:
3495:
3442:
3438:
3383:
3379:
3364:
3360:
3323:
3319:
3312:
3298:
3291:
3281:
3279:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3226:
3222:
3169:
3165:
3126:
3122:
3101:(1–3): 822–37.
3087:
3083:
3046:
3042:
3035:
3021:
3012:
3005:
2987:
2983:
2942:(19): 10642–7.
2928:
2924:
2917:
2903:
2899:
2838:
2831:
2788:
2781:
2720:
2716:
2665:
2661:
2608:
2604:
2573:
2569:
2538:
2534:
2503:
2499:
2468:
2464:
2409:
2405:
2358:
2354:
2317:
2313:
2252:
2248:
2216:
2212:
2181:
2177:
2154:
2150:
2097:
2086:
2051:Eur. Biophys. J
2047:
2043:
2002:(14): 7777–82.
1988:
1984:
1977:
1959:
1952:
1907:
1903:
1848:
1844:
1813:
1806:
1796:
1794:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1732:
1728:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1654:
1596:
1590:
1478:
1435:
1429:
1417:electroporation
1300:
1290:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1212:
1203:
1199:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1153:
1147:
1109:
1107:Electroporation
1103:
1101:Electroporation
1036:
1026:
958:
909:
904:
884:
864:
823:
810:
782:
754:
736:
712:
706:
635:
625:
516:
511:
444:
398:
383:
322:red blood cells
318:
262:plasma membrane
248:
211:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6224:
6214:
6213:
6208:
6187:
6186:
6184:
6183:
6178:
6176:Phycobilisomes
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6136:Cell junctions
6133:
6127:
6125:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6117:
6108:
6099:
6093:
6091:
6085:
6084:
6082:
6081:
6076:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6055:
6053:
6047:
6046:
6038:
6037:
6030:
6023:
6015:
6009:
6008:
5995:
5987:
5986:External links
5984:
5982:
5981:
5954:
5935:(5): 660–668.
5925:Bangham, A. D.
5916:
5865:
5838:
5811:
5776:
5727:
5684:
5635:
5588:
5545:
5496:
5461:
5426:
5390:
5371:
5360:
5319:
5308:(2): 199–228.
5292:
5273:(1–3): 47–61.
5256:
5229:
5188:
5159:(3): 297–315.
5139:
5132:
5114:
5063:
5020:
5005:
4971:
4952:(1): 175–207.
4932:
4905:
4870:
4827:
4760:
4733:
4713:
4676:(4): 2342–50.
4656:
4621:
4614:
4596:
4539:
4488:
4453:
4402:
4345:
4296:
4269:
4249:
4233:
4213:
4164:
4121:
4070:
4037:J. Membr. Biol
4027:
3970:
3935:
3884:
3841:
3830:on 15 May 2016
3814:
3754:
3735:(5): 1632–40.
3719:
3680:
3653:(3): 941–944.
3632:
3613:(4): 305–311.
3597:
3568:(2): 275–300.
3548:
3493:
3456:(4): 1829–36.
3436:
3397:(12): 3561–6.
3377:
3358:
3331:Bioinformatics
3317:
3310:
3289:
3263:
3220:
3163:
3120:
3081:
3040:
3033:
3010:
3003:
2981:
2922:
2915:
2897:
2829:
2779:
2734:(2): 370–377.
2714:
2659:
2602:
2567:
2548:(4): 1377–88.
2532:
2513:(14): 2844–8.
2497:
2478:(7): 1111–20.
2462:
2403:
2352:
2331:(3): 391–403.
2311:
2246:
2210:
2175:
2148:
2084:
2041:
1982:
1975:
1950:
1901:
1862:(1): 376–380.
1842:
1804:
1793:on 15 May 2016
1777:
1748:(2): 269–278.
1726:
1699:(1): 107–130.
1682:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1653:
1650:
1589:
1586:
1576:cultures, the
1543:DNA sequencing
1477:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1428:
1425:
1289:
1286:
1272:
1258:
1254:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1181:
1169:
1165:
1146:
1143:
1122:transformation
1102:
1099:
1089:, released by
1043:or budding of
1025:
1022:
957:
954:
908:
905:
903:
900:
883:
880:
863:
860:
822:
819:
809:
806:
781:
778:
753:
750:
735:
732:
705:
702:
624:
621:
582:including the
570:or long chain
515:
512:
510:
507:
503:hydroxyapatite
443:
440:
382:
379:
317:
314:
247:
244:
240:hydrogen bonds
210:
207:
74:of almost all
72:cell membranes
57:polar membrane
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6223:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6203:
6201:
6194:
6192:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6161:Myelin sheath
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6122:
6116:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6086:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6074:Sphingolipids
6072:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6064:Phospholipids
6062:
6060:
6059:Lipid bilayer
6057:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6043:cell membrane
6036:
6031:
6029:
6024:
6022:
6017:
6016:
6013:
6006:
6002:
5999:
5996:
5993:
5990:
5989:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5958:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5920:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5869:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5842:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5792:(3): 271–87.
5791:
5787:
5780:
5772:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5747:(4): 439–43.
5746:
5742:
5738:
5731:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5688:
5680:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5655:(2): 137–52.
5654:
5650:
5646:
5639:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5592:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5549:
5541:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5516:(2): 121–37.
5515:
5511:
5507:
5500:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5477:(5): 365–74.
5476:
5472:
5465:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5442:(4): 333–49.
5441:
5437:
5430:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5407:(4): 429–41.
5406:
5402:
5394:
5387:
5383:
5380:
5375:
5368:
5364:
5356:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5339:(3): 517–25.
5338:
5334:
5330:
5323:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5296:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5225:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5202:J. Biol. Chem
5199:
5192:
5184:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5153:Int J Nanomed
5150:
5143:
5135:
5129:
5125:
5118:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5067:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5036:(2): 98–106.
5035:
5031:
5024:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4985:
4984:
4975:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4936:
4928:
4924:
4921:(5): 361–77.
4920:
4916:
4909:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4874:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4843:(2): 157–79.
4842:
4838:
4831:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4764:
4756:
4752:
4749:(2): 135–60.
4748:
4744:
4737:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4717:
4709:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4660:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4625:
4617:
4611:
4607:
4600:
4592:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4559:(2): 435–42.
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4492:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4469:(1): 177–98.
4468:
4464:
4457:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4406:
4398:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4365:(8): 3440–4.
4364:
4360:
4356:
4349:
4341:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4293:(2): 119–123.
4292:
4288:
4284:
4282:
4273:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4253:
4247:
4243:
4237:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4184:(3): 665–87.
4183:
4179:
4175:
4168:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4137:(2): 127–39.
4136:
4132:
4125:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4074:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4043:(2): 111–22.
4042:
4038:
4031:
4023:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3990:(1): 339–48.
3989:
3985:
3981:
3974:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3951:(4): 639–52.
3950:
3946:
3939:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3888:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3857:(3): 213–29.
3856:
3852:
3845:
3829:
3825:
3818:
3810:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3777:(1): 217–26.
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3759:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3684:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3639:
3637:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3601:
3593:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3552:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3381:
3373:
3369:
3362:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3313:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3294:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3183:(1): 135–48.
3182:
3178:
3174:
3167:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3124:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3095:Front. Biosci
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3060:(7): 551–62.
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3036:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3017:
3015:
3006:
3004:9781317563747
3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2977:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2918:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2893:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2834:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2786:
2784:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2655:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2622:(1): 228–37.
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2583:(2): 307–16.
2582:
2578:
2571:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2536:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2423:(5): 1821–5.
2422:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2227:(2): 178–93.
2226:
2222:
2214:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2191:(61): 11–12.
2190:
2186:
2179:
2171:
2167:
2164:(4): 324–35.
2163:
2159:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2111:(1): 328–39.
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2057:(7): 559–62.
2056:
2052:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1978:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1957:
1955:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1921:(3): 159–95.
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1809:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1683:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1638:self assembly
1634:
1628:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1614:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1509:immune system
1506:
1502:
1499:clearing and
1498:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1427:Model systems
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1325:fertilization
1322:
1318:
1313:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1262:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1222:
1216:
1206:
1195:
1194:shear modulus
1157:
1152:
1142:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1091:gram-negative
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1031:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
998:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
971:
967:
963:
950:
949:alpha helices
945:
941:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
918:
914:
899:
897:
893:
889:
879:
877:
873:
869:
868:birefringence
859:
856:
852:
844:
839:
832:
827:
818:
815:
805:
803:
799:
794:
790:
786:
777:
773:
771:
763:
762:cell membrane
758:
749:
747:
742:
731:
724:
723:lipid vesicle
720:
716:
711:
701:
699:
695:
691:
686:
684:
679:
678:immune system
675:
671:
667:
663:
658:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
634:
630:
617:
613:
608:
604:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
572:carbohydrates
569:
565:
561:
560:cell membrane
557:
553:
551:
546:
542:
538:
537:phospholipids
534:
530:
529:lipid vesicle
526:
521:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
471:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
452:sphingolipids
449:
448:phospholipids
439:
437:
431:
428:
424:
420:
415:
414:Van der Waals
410:
408:
404:
397:
387:
378:
374:
371:
367:
362:
360:
354:
352:
348:
343:
342:sphingomyelin
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
313:
306:
302:
298:
296:
292:
287:
284:bilayers the
283:
278:
276:
272:
268:
263:
252:
243:
241:
237:
236:electrostatic
233:
229:
225:
221:
216:
215:self-assemble
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:fertilization
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
159:
157:
152:
148:
144:
140:
135:
131:
130:phospholipids
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
62:
58:
54:
50:
49:lipid bilayer
42:
37:
30:
26:
21:
6193:
6191:
6069:Lipoproteins
6058:
5967:
5963:
5957:
5932:
5928:
5919:
5878:
5874:
5868:
5851:
5847:
5841:
5824:
5820:
5814:
5789:
5785:
5779:
5744:
5740:
5730:
5697:
5693:
5687:
5652:
5648:
5638:
5605:
5601:
5591:
5558:
5554:
5548:
5513:
5509:
5499:
5474:
5470:
5464:
5439:
5435:
5429:
5404:
5400:
5393:
5374:
5363:
5336:
5332:
5322:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5270:
5266:
5259:
5242:
5238:
5232:
5205:
5201:
5191:
5156:
5152:
5142:
5123:
5117:
5076:
5072:
5066:
5033:
5029:
5023:
4982:
4974:
4949:
4945:
4935:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4883:
4880:Biochemistry
4879:
4873:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4780:(1): 12845.
4777:
4773:
4763:
4746:
4742:
4736:
4725:
4721:
4716:
4673:
4669:
4659:
4634:
4631:Biochemistry
4630:
4624:
4605:
4599:
4556:
4552:
4542:
4501:
4497:
4491:
4466:
4462:
4456:
4415:
4411:
4405:
4362:
4358:
4348:
4316:(7): 841–5.
4313:
4309:
4299:
4290:
4286:
4280:
4272:
4261:
4257:
4252:
4241:
4236:
4225:
4221:
4216:
4181:
4178:J. Cell Biol
4177:
4167:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4083:
4079:
4073:
4040:
4036:
4030:
3987:
3983:
3973:
3948:
3944:
3938:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3832:. Retrieved
3828:the original
3817:
3774:
3770:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3697:
3693:
3683:
3650:
3647:Nano Letters
3646:
3610:
3606:
3600:
3565:
3562:J. Cell Biol
3561:
3551:
3510:
3506:
3496:
3453:
3449:
3439:
3394:
3390:
3380:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3334:
3330:
3320:
3301:
3280:. Retrieved
3276:the original
3266:
3236:(3): 270–7.
3233:
3230:J. Mol. Evol
3229:
3223:
3180:
3176:
3166:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3107:10.2741/1576
3098:
3094:
3084:
3057:
3053:
3043:
3024:
2994:
2984:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2906:
2900:
2849:
2845:
2799:
2795:
2731:
2727:
2717:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2510:
2507:Biochemistry
2506:
2500:
2475:
2472:Biochemistry
2471:
2465:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2365:
2361:
2355:
2328:
2325:J. Lipid Res
2324:
2314:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2108:
2104:
2054:
2050:
2044:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1964:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1859:
1855:
1845:
1823:(2): 211–7.
1820:
1817:J. Mol. Biol
1816:
1795:. Retrieved
1791:the original
1780:
1745:
1739:
1729:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1642:
1633:Alec Bangham
1629:
1617:
1609:
1597:
1565:
1564:ermeability
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1547:
1532:
1524:angiogenesis
1517:
1501:phagocytosis
1494:
1479:
1436:
1394:
1368:
1366:
1345:
1310:
1263:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1223:
1207:
1163:
1160:hydrophilic.
1134:
1118:transfection
1110:
1094:
1082:
1081:cells. This
1066:
1065:
1059:
1055:
1037:
999:
962:ion channels
959:
910:
885:
865:
848:
811:
783:
774:
767:
746:ion channels
737:
728:
694:phagocytosis
687:
659:
636:
588:mitochondria
554:
533:biosynthetic
517:
495:growth plate
487:erythrocytes
472:
468:zwitterionic
445:
432:
411:
399:
375:
363:
355:
319:
310:
282:phospholipid
279:
277:techniques.
258:
212:
160:
124:
88:cell nucleus
55:) is a thin
52:
48:
46:
5827:: 343–418.
3851:Amino Acids
3282:10 November
3136:(1): 43–8.
2796:Soft Matter
2260:Soft Matter
1627:membranes.
1605:erythrocyte
1601:capacitance
1030:Endocytosis
983:Na-K ATPase
917:hydrocarbon
829:3d-Adapted
692:-triggered
600:hepatocytes
556:Prokaryotes
545:hydrophobic
541:hydrophilic
460:cholesterol
436:cholesterol
423:double bond
403:random walk
167:cholesterol
151:fluid state
134:hydrophobic
127:amphiphilic
112:hydrophilic
23:This fluid
6200:Categories
6141:Glycocalyx
5700:(5): 329.
5333:Ann. Oncol
4991:–1–17–41.
4670:Biophys. J
4553:Biophys. J
4281:Salmonella
4260:invasion.
4258:Salmonella
4242:Salmonella
4224:invasion.
4222:salmonella
3984:Biophys. J
3771:Biophys. J
3700:(1): 1–9.
3450:Biophys. J
3177:Biophys. J
2616:Biophys. J
2105:Biophys. J
1679:References
1673:Lipidomics
1658:Surfactant
1584:and skin.
1556:rtificial
1535:biosensors
1528:antibodies
1381:Eukaryotic
1321:Exocytosis
1317:eukaryotes
1292:See also:
1079:eukaryotic
1071:exocytosis
1056:Salmonella
1034:Exocytosis
1028:See also:
934:chloroform
896:quadrupole
798:exocytotic
741:resistance
698:scramblase
633:Lipid raft
627:See also:
580:organelles
576:eukaryotes
499:nucleation
390:molecules.
351:macrophage
108:nanometers
6181:Porosomes
5058:205012830
5015:199021983
4804:2045-2322
4722:thylakoid
2874:0006-3495
2824:1744-6848
2756:1542-0086
2709:248375027
2693:1432-1424
2306:235708094
2290:1744-683X
1625:organelle
1490:degrading
1482:liposomes
1409:hybridoma
1389:vesicular
1271:Λ
1180:Λ
1145:Mechanics
1126:lightning
966:ion pumps
888:ab initio
793:electrons
623:Signaling
616:catalyzes
592:lysosomes
564:cell wall
550:Organelle
491:apoptosis
481:(PE) and
359:flippases
347:apoptosis
316:Asymmetry
295:bacterium
286:phosphate
120:ion pumps
92:membranes
78:and many
76:organisms
64:molecules
6001:Archived
5949:14187392
5903:14476933
5860:13651159
5854:: 3–43.
5833:13742209
5806:13550367
5771:19868999
5722:36842138
5679:19872238
5630:17730464
5583:27395246
5575:19937821
5540:19591928
5491:15265506
5456:15734300
5421:14998573
5382:Archived
5355:14998859
5287:11489482
5183:17717971
5050:11252968
4966:14527322
4822:30150612
4708:14507698
4526:15241420
4483:16689633
4440:15241399
4397:11472916
4159:14415959
4151:12563290
4116:16323721
4108:16322449
4065:20394005
3922:12635233
3879:24350029
3871:11543596
3809:16617084
3749:56532332
3729:Langmuir
3714:12003236
3675:18254602
3627:16298110
3488:11259296
3353:12855459
3258:21635206
3158:26435152
3115:15569622
3076:10200509
2976:11535814
2892:17114215
2774:21767489
2701:35467109
2654:16214871
2562:15697284
2542:Langmuir
2398:34501546
2298:34212942
2143:10866959
2079:36212541
2071:12602343
2036:11438731
1945:11063882
1896:16592215
1772:14120598
1713:17263662
1652:See also
1560:embrane
1552:arallel
1492:lipids.
1465:Vesicles
1413:antibody
1363:process.
1337:lysozome
1251:micellar
1235:micelles
1045:vesicles
993:via the
855:isotopic
802:synapses
666:proteome
568:proteins
458:such as
230:such as
156:Vesicles
104:proteins
41:liposome
6079:Sterols
5992:LIPIDAT
5911:2110051
5883:Bibcode
5762:2130960
5714:3539619
5670:2140799
5610:Bibcode
5602:Science
5531:2747801
5224:1527006
5174:2426795
5109:4161444
5101:1172191
5081:Bibcode
4927:6510702
4900:3801406
4865:1465571
4857:2139437
4813:6110749
4782:Bibcode
4699:1303459
4678:Bibcode
4651:2043611
4591:8457669
4582:1262346
4561:Bibcode
4534:4401688
4506:Bibcode
4448:4427370
4420:Bibcode
4367:Bibcode
4340:6329708
4208:1030706
4199:2109655
4088:Bibcode
4080:Science
4057:7932645
4022:8770210
4013:1224932
3992:Bibcode
3965:6048247
3930:4185197
3902:Bibcode
3800:1479081
3779:Bibcode
3655:Bibcode
3583:2110310
3543:4204985
3535:1083489
3515:Bibcode
3479:1301372
3458:Bibcode
3431:4509315
3399:Bibcode
3374:: 24–9.
3250:6242168
3215:1883932
3206:1260045
3185:Bibcode
3150:3103899
2944:Bibcode
2883:1783876
2854:Bibcode
2804:Bibcode
2765:3136766
2736:Bibcode
2645:1367021
2624:Bibcode
2597:1311950
2527:4407872
2492:4324203
2425:Bibcode
2390:4724478
2370:Bibcode
2362:Science
2347:7017050
2268:Bibcode
2241:4356540
2205:4502419
2134:1300937
2113:Bibcode
2004:Bibcode
1936:2747654
1864:Bibcode
1837:6854644
1764:7834746
1721:6521535
1588:History
1486:vesicle
1405:myeloma
1401:B-cells
1369:in vivo
1341:viruses
1243:sucrose
1060:in vivo
1010:neurons
926:cations
612:hormone
584:nucleus
525:archaea
520:aqueous
456:sterols
407:diffuse
366:vesicle
181:during
94:of the
80:viruses
5947:
5909:
5901:
5875:Nature
5858:
5831:
5804:
5769:
5759:
5720:
5712:
5677:
5667:
5628:
5581:
5573:
5538:
5528:
5489:
5454:
5419:
5353:
5285:
5222:
5181:
5171:
5130:
5107:
5099:
5073:Nature
5056:
5048:
5013:
5003:
4964:
4925:
4898:
4863:
4855:
4820:
4810:
4802:
4706:
4696:
4649:
4612:
4589:
4579:
4532:
4524:
4498:Nature
4481:
4446:
4438:
4412:Nature
4395:
4385:
4338:
4331:553119
4328:
4310:EMBO J
4206:
4196:
4157:
4149:
4114:
4106:
4063:
4055:
4020:
4010:
3963:
3928:
3920:
3894:Nature
3877:
3869:
3834:17 May
3807:
3797:
3747:
3712:
3673:
3625:
3590:
3580:
3541:
3533:
3507:Nature
3486:
3476:
3429:
3422:389821
3419:
3351:
3308:
3256:
3248:
3213:
3203:
3156:
3148:
3113:
3074:
3031:
3001:
2974:
2964:
2913:
2890:
2880:
2872:
2822:
2772:
2762:
2754:
2707:
2699:
2691:
2652:
2642:
2595:
2560:
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