884:'." Based on testimony which was heard during the trial of Poole's killer, Dayton Dean, Wayne County Prosecutor Duncan McRae conducted a widespread investigation and prosecuted dozens of other Legionnaires suspected of committing murders and assaults. Overall, nearly 50 Legionnaires were convicted of murder, conspiracy to commit murder, kidnapping, arson, and perjury. Additional convictions were obtained against Legionnaires and their sympathizers for contempt of court for refusing to cooperate with the investigation. Within a year, the organization had been crushed. The prosecutions and associated negative publicity resulted in a rapid decline in Legion membership. The sensational cases inspired two related films, one starring
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kidnapping, arson, and perjury, with additional prosecutions on contempt of court against
Legionnaires and sympathizers who refused to cooperate with the investigation. The trials revealed the wide network of Black Legion members in local governments, particularly in Highland Park. For instance, member N. Ray Markland had served as mayor of Highland Park. Members also included a chief of police and a city councilman in the suburb, in addition to persons in civil service jobs. Following the convictions and publicity, membership in the Legion dropped quickly; its reign of terror ended in the Detroit area.
36:
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1249:, who was a candidate for mayor in 1934. They had planned to shoot him in 1933 because he ran against Markland, a Legionnaire politician. Sixteen Black Legion members were indicted in Kingsley's case, including "two factory policemen, a police officer, and several Highland Park city employees. Nine of them were convicted, and each received sentences of one to five years in prison. At the time of his arrest, Markland was employed as an investigator in the office of Wayne County Prosecutor McCrea." Nine members were convicted in this case, including Markland and
1253:, then a milk inspector for the Detroit Board of Health. Lupp was said to have founded the Legion in Michigan by setting up the chapter in Highland Park. One of the most notable plots of the Legion was a plot by Lupp and Charles McCutcheon, a department bacteriologist, to inject typhoid germs into milk and dairy products distributed through Jewish markets. In the following weeks, Lupp also asked McCutcheon if the germs could be produced in large quantities, put into milk bottles, would flourish in cottage cheese, spread via an infected needle.
1242:, on May 26, 1935, nearly a year before Poole's abduction and murder. The ringleader of the murder, Harvey Davis, wanted to see "how it felt to shoot a Negro," according to Dean. Coleman had been abducted, forced to run for his life, and then hunted down and shot. Five men were convicted of first degree murder for killing Coleman and sentenced to life in prison: Harvey Davis, James Roy Lorance, John Bannerman, Ervin D. Lee, and Charles Rouse. Lorance died in prison of tuberculosis on January 3, 1938.
1222:. Lipps, who was determined to have had the least involvement in the murder, was the first convict to be recommended for clemency. At the time of his release, Lowell Rushing, Paul Edwards, Edgar Baldwin, Ervin Lee, John Bannerman, Harvey Davis, and Charles Rouse were still in prison. Harvey Davis died in the prison in the 1960s. In 1966, Ervin Lee, now 60, had his sentence commuted by Governor
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sentenced separately, was sentenced to 20 months to 15 years in prison. On
February 25, 1938, Douglas Gill, a Detroit factory worker and sheriff's deputy, was sentenced to 10 days in jail for contempt of court, after giving false testimony. He was released from jail the following day, after telling the truth in three hours of testimony.
880:. Eleven men were found guilty of Poole's murder. At the time of Poole's murder, the Associated Press described the organization as "A group of loosely federated night-riding bands operating in several States without central discipline or common purpose beyond the enforcement by lash and pistol of individual leaders' notions of '
1234:
Dean's testimony and other evidence stimulated investigations by
Prosecutor McRae. He gained indictments into a series of other murders and attempted murders in the Detroit area during the previous three years. In total, nearly 50 Legionnaires were prosecuted for murder, conspiracy to commit murder,
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as a member of the Black Legion, worked to restore his public reputation and vowed to bring the killers of Poole to justice. Authorities arrested and prosecuted a gang of twelve
Legionnaires. Dayton Dean pleaded guilty and testified against numerous other members; ten others were convicted of first
1304:
Six
Legionnaires were convicted of perjury for lying about not being involved in the organization. Walter C. Bair, a former council man was sentenced to 100 days in jail, while Robert Grogan, Edgar Cox, Walter Allen, and James Brannon were each sentenced to 60 days in jail. Earl St. John, who was
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group, the Legion members operated in gangs in order to enforce their view of society, sometimes attacking immigrants to intimidate them at work, or to enforce their idea of moral behavior. They generally opposed socialism and union organizing. They had a reputation for frequent violence against
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had been identified as a potential target of the Legion; its members had resented his hiring
African Americans for city jobs. McRae prosecuted and gained convictions of a total of 37 Legion members on these and related charges, beyond those charged in the Poole case. All received prison terms,
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A secret society that practices ritual murder, and is known as the Black Legion, has been discovered in
Detroit. A number of its members are to be charged with murder. It is believed by the police to be an offshoot of the Ku Klux Klan and to have more than 10,000 members. Its aim is to oppose
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Dean provided considerable testimony to authorities about other activities of the Black Legion. Prejudiced primarily against
Catholics, particularly Italian and Slavic immigrants, he and his collaborators had never learned that Becky Poole had a great-grandmother who was African American.
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men. One-third of its members lived in the city of
Detroit, which had also been a strong center of KKK activity in the 1920s. The Michigan Legion was organized along military lines, with 5 brigades, 16 regiments, 64 battalions, and 256 companies. It boasted of a membership of one million
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in 1936 and removed himself from the team over Black Legion suspicions. One of these Legion members, Dayton Dean, broke their code and told the authorities of Black Legion's illegal activities. Dayton Dean participated in two of the murders that the Black Legion committed.
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1049:, was kidnapped from his home by a gang of Black Legion members. They claimed that Poole, a French Catholic married to a Protestant woman, beat his wife, and that they intended to punish him for this. He was shot and killed that night by Dayton Dean.
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them, if necessary—then threaten them if they didn't join and swear they’d never tell anybody." They would also beat up members if they threatened to quit. The Legion wanted sports figures as members. It was looking into recruiting
955:. A sexual scandal in the Ku Klux Klan's national leadership in 1925, and local actions by opponents who were determined to unmask the secrecy of Klan members, caused the Klan's membership to drop rapidly through the late 1920s.
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men in the
Midwest. These men feared the rapid social changes underway and resented competition with immigrants such as Italians and Jews. They also feared migrants in the industrial economy of major cities, such as
1358:, was based on the events which led to the murder of Charles Poole, but the details of the case and the names of the people who were involved in it were changed in the film. It depicted the devastating effect of
1010:, the Black Legion continued to expand across Michigan until the mid-1930s, when its estimated membership peaked at between 20,000 and 30,000. In general, Black Legion members in the state were native-born
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alleged enemies, whether political or social. From 1933 to 1936, they were rumored to be responsible for some unsolved deaths that had officially been attributed to suicide or unknown perpetrators.
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The Black Legion is widely viewed as an even more violent and radical offshoot of the Klan. In 1936, the group was suspected of having killed as many as 50 people, according to the
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Dayton Dean died in prison on January 18, 1960, at the age of 59. In June 1960, Urban Lipps, another man convicted in the case, had his sentence commuted to 71 years by Governor
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1378:, a radio show which was based on the magazine which had the same title, broadcast an episode on April 1, 1937, which directly referred to the Black Legion and Poole's murder.
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Legionnaires in Michigan, but observers estimated that it had between 20,000 and 30,000 members. One-third of them were located in Detroit, with many living in Highland Park.
923:, established new chapters nationwide, particularly in urban areas, including the rapidly changing cities of the industrialized Midwest. Throughout the 1920s, cities such as
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in the title role, broadcast an episode on March 20, 1938, titled "The White Legion"; the group which was described in the episode was loosely based on the Black Legion.
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In May 1937, Lupp was sentenced to one to five years in prison for conspiracy to commit murder. He was released on parole in December 1938. Lupp died in obscurity in
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Among the cases, the prosecutor indicted Black Legion members for the 1935 murder of Silas Coleman of Detroit. The African-American man had been found killed outside
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13. Littlefield, Bill. "The Secret Society That Terrorized Detroit During The City's Greatest Sports Era." WBUR. September 16, 2016. Accessed December 03, 2018.
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The five-man "arson squad" of the Black Legion confessed to the August 1934 burning of the farm of labor organizer William Mollenhauer, which was located in
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On June 23, 1936, witness Lonnie Holley was sentenced to 30 days in jail for contempt of court after being "insolent" and "untruthful" on the stand.
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1416:, where his family lived. Malcolm X was six years old when his father died in 1931; he believed that his father was killed by the Black Legion.
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2356:, New York: Workers Library Publishers, August 1936; full text at Internet Archive: pamphlet about the Black Legion in Detroit and Michigan
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George Marchuk, Secretary of the Auto Workers Union in Lincoln Park, was found dead on December 22, 1933, with a bullet in his head.
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plant, who had led a drive for a wage increase, "was found riddled with bullets on March 15, 1934, on a road about ten miles from
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of that community, who styled himself its major general. Throughout and perhaps fueled by the economic and social upheaval of the
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On December 21, 1936, Isaac "Peg Leg" Stull White, 49, one of the founding members of the Black Legion, died of pneumonia in
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were centers of an increase in Klan membership and activity in local chapters, in reaction to high rates of immigration from
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The cases received international media coverage. For instance, the Poole case and the secret Black Legion were reported by
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1944:
1817:, New York: Workers Library Publishers,(Communist Party, USA) August 1936, Internet Archive, accessed 16 September 2015
1287:, near Pontiac. Members also described numerous plans to disrupt legitimate political meetings and similar activities.
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Hollywood, radio and, later TV, responded to the lurid nature of the Legion by producing works that referred to it.
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Terror in the City of Champions: Murder, Baseball, and the Secret Society that Shocked Depression-era Detroit
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Terror in the City of Champions: Murder, Baseball, and the Secret Society that Shocked Depression-era Detroit
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Terror in the City of Champions: Murder, Baseball, and the Secret Society that Shocked Depression-era Detroit
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877:
647:
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20:
2113:"Maurice Sugar: law, labor, and the left in Detroit, 1912-1950 - Wayne State University Digital Collections"
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groups like the Black Legion on an ordinary American man, his family, his neighbors, and his coworkers. The
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estimated that its membership numbered "at 135,000, including a large number of public officials, including
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Members were also indicted for a 1933 conspiracy to murder Arthur Kingsley, a Highland Park publisher of a
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degree murder or second degree murder, nine by a jury and one in a bench trial. One man was acquitted.
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Among other murders linked to the Black Legion were two labor organizers, both from eastern Europe:
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865:'s police chief." Historian Peter H. Amann put the number at between 60,000 and 100,000, while
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http://www.wbur.org/onlyagame/2016/09/16/detroit-black-legion-terror-in-the-city-of-champions
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David J. Krajicek, "Wrongful murder in 1936 led Black Legion leader Dayton Dean's confession"
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Since the late 20th century, the group has received renewed historic and popular attention.
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the best film of 1937, and it named Humphrey Bogart the best actor for his work on the film.
1297:. At the time of his death, he'd recently been detained, having fled from an indictment for
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1298:
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667:
637:
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1945:"1960-06-01 Hate Gang Member Sentence Commuted from 1936 Rouge Park Murder Det Free Press"
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presented an episode about the group entitled "Terror in the Heartland: The Black Legion".
8:
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Black Legion members created a network for jobs and influence. In addition, as a secret
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1226:. The commutations were granted with the recommendations of the Michigan Parole Board.
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1718:"The murder that brought down the Black Legion - Michigan History - The Detroit News"
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2023:"The Secret Society That Terrorized Detroit During The City's Greatest Sports Era"
1978:
1747:"The Secret Society That Terrorized Detroit During The City's Greatest Sports Era"
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Like the KKK, the Black Legion was largely made up of native-born, working-class,
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1918:
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Red Scare or Red Menace? American Communism and Anticommunism in the Cold War Era
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and various fraternal groups." Membership was concentrated in Michigan and Ohio.
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1617:""Terror In The City Of Champions" Explores Violence in Depression-Era Detroit"
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2164:"Lonnie J Holley gets jail for contempt in Black Legion trial. Nebraska paper"
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African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
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Individual defendants, verdicts, and sentences in Charles Poole murder case
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markedly reducing the power of the Black Legion in Detroit and Michigan.
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The Black Legion's tactics were "to lure potential recruits to a meeting—
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Through these cases, authorities learned that Mayor William Voisine of
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919:. Gradually, the new Klan, often appealing to migrants to cities as a
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888:, and two radio show episodes which were produced from 1936 to 1938.
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16:
American white supremacist terrorist organization active in the 1930s
40:
Black Legion's uniform and weapons, posed by policemen after arrests
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Wayne County Prosecutor Duncan McRae, who had been reported by the
133:
1523:"I Thought I Understood the American Right. Trump Proved Me Wrong"
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912:
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Volume 57, Number 109, 3 March 1937, accessed 16 September 2015
1638:
1636:
1045:
On May 12, 1936, Charles A. Poole, a federal organizer for the
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1971:"Black Legion: American Terrorists – FBI Investigation Files"
745:
1633:
1556:"Vigilante Fascism: The Black Legion as an American Hybrid"
1473:"Vigilante Fascism: The Black Legion as an American Hybrid"
137:
2073:"People v. Lee, 334 Mich. 217 | Casetext Search + Citator"
1412:(1965). Malcolm noted that the Legion had been active in
876:, including Charles Poole, an organizer for the federal
2263:. National Library of Australia. 25 May 1936. p. 1
2445:
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
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Right-wing militia organizations in the United States
998:
In 1931, a chapter of the Black Legion was formed in
869:
said that it had at most only a few hundred members.
1229:
967:. Their list of enemies "included all immigrants,
2096:(AP) Associated Press, "Black Legion Heads Guilty"
1032:, player-manager for the Detroit Tigers. He had a
845:in the 1920s and the 1930s. It split off from the
2361:
2338:Richard Bak, "The Dark Days of the Black Legion"
1870:Richard Bak, "The Dark Days of the Black Legion"
1324:
2321:"The Murder that Brought Down the Black Legion"
1894:"Evening Star dated September 29, 1936, page 1"
1836:"The Murder that Brought Down the Black Legion"
2215:People v. St. John, 284 MICH 24 (1938): Record
2142:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 104–105.
1968:
1271:John Bielak, an A. F. of L. organizer in the
810:
1842:, 5 August 1997, accessed 15 September 2015
1715:
1614:
1516:
1514:
1560:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1477:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1040:
817:
803:
2385:Organizations disestablished in the 1930s
2048:"Article clipped from Detroit Free Press"
1923:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 279.
1831:
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1823:
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1802:
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1706:, 29 May 2010, accessed 16 September 2015
1520:
789:Mass racial violence in the United States
1511:
2455:History of the Midwestern United States
2354:George Morris, "The Black Legion Rides"
2189:"Obituary for Isaac S. White (Aged 49)"
2135:
2089:
1916:
1815:George Morris, "The Black Legion Rides"
2375:Organizations established in the 1920s
2362:
1883:March 2009, accessed 16 September 2015
1865:
1863:
1820:
1789:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1436:(2016) details the group's activities.
658:1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County
2460:Great Depression in the United States
2400:Anti-Catholicism in the United States
1553:
1470:
1665:
1663:
1321:on July 24, 1980, at the age of 86.
979:, nontraditional Protestant faiths,
2274:negroes, Roman Catholics, and Jews.
1860:
1688:
1615:Programming, Station (2016-06-23).
13:
2000:"The Black Legion Rides", pp.18-19
1969:Rudolph Lewis (28 December 2011).
849:and grew to prominence during the
14:
2476:
2348:FBI FOIA page on the Black Legion
2314:
1660:
1346:, and it was based on this group.
784:Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
779:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
410:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer
2435:Vigilantism in the United States
1857:, Rowman & Littlefield, 2016
1354:(1937), a feature film starring
1230:Prosecutions for earlier murders
470:Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker
242:
34:
2380:1930s disestablishments in Ohio
2279:
2247:
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2156:
2129:
2105:
2065:
2040:
2015:
2004:
1993:
1962:
1937:
1910:
1886:
1845:
1764:
1739:
1434:Terror in the City of Champions
623:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
613:Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895
333:Expulsions of African Americans
207:Murders of as many as 50 people
2168:Lincoln Nebraska State Journal
1709:
1644:"Declared Organization Doomed"
1608:
1594:
1547:
1521:Perlstein, Rick (2017-04-11).
1464:
1409:The Autobiography of Malcolm X
1314:of Australia on May 25, 1936.
1018:
29:Black Legion (Terrorist Group)
1:
2420:History of racism in Michigan
1458:
1325:Representation in other media
1197:7.5 to 15 years imprisonment
1047:Works Progress Administration
891:
878:Works Progress Administration
648:Springfield race riot of 1908
67:
2370:1920s establishments in Ohio
1175:10 to 20 years imprisonment
688:Washington race riot of 1919
7:
2405:Anti-Catholic organizations
2136:Stanton, Tom (2016-06-01).
1917:Stanton, Tom (2016-06-01).
1448:The Tabletop strategy game
1208:3 to 10 years imprisonment
1186:5 to 15 years imprisonment
837:terrorist organization and
575:James Harvey and Joe Jordan
10:
2481:
2410:Ku Klux Klan organizations
2395:American fascist movements
1716:detroitnews (1997-08-05).
1671:"Black Legion convictions"
1656:. 31 May 1936. p. 10.
1445:(2017) features the group.
907:inspired a revival of the
250:1906 Atlanta race massacre
18:
2415:History of racism in Ohio
2260:The Sydney Morning Herald
2230:"Oliver Stecker murdered"
2117:digital.library.wayne.edu
1572:10.1017/S0010417500010550
1489:10.1017/S0010417500010550
1311:The Sydney Morning Herald
1240:Putnam Township, Michigan
853:. According to historian
683:Chicago race riot of 1919
211:
203:
191:
143:
128:
117:
109:
99:
74:
63:
53:
45:
33:
28:
2465:Ku Klux Klan in Michigan
2291:The Escanaba Daily Press
1951:. 1960-06-01. p. 19
1898:www.newzpaperarchive.com
1677:. 1937-05-12. p. 10
1675:The Escanaba Daily Press
1554:Amann, Peter H. (1983).
1471:Amann, Peter H. (1983).
1432:'s 2016 nonfiction book
1375:True Detective Mysteries
1364:National Board of Review
1285:Oakland County, Michigan
1273:Hudson Motor Car Company
896:In 1915, the release of
843:Midwestern United States
841:which was active in the
643:Atlanta Massacre of 1906
2450:Highland Park, Michigan
2425:Former gangs in Detroit
2293:. 1938-12-24. p. 1
2255:"SUMMARY. OVERSEA NEWS"
2236:. 1938-02-26. p. 1
2195:. 1936-12-21. p. 3
2170:. 1936-06-23. p. 1
2054:. 1938-01-04. p. 1
1975:ChickenBones: A Journal
1419:In 1998, the TV series
1092:"Colonel" Harvey Davis
1041:Murder of Charles Poole
1000:Highland Park, Michigan
756:Back to Africa movement
303:Anti-miscegenation laws
193:Political position
2342:Hour Detroit Magazine,
2011:Michigan death records
1881:Hour Detroit Magazine,
953:Southern United States
726:Anti-lynching movement
663:1917 Chester race riot
653:Johnson–Jeffries riots
520:Laura and L. D. Nelson
49:William Jacob Sheperd
1205:Second degree murder
1194:Second degree murder
1183:Second degree murder
1172:Second degree murder
903:The Birth of a Nation
618:Phoenix election riot
603:Rock Springs massacre
260:Historical background
1299:criminal syndicalism
1161:First degree murder
1150:First degree murder
1139:First degree murder
1128:First degree murder
1117:First degree murder
1106:First degree murder
1095:First degree murder
1084:First degree murder
668:East St. Louis riots
638:Evansville race riot
633:Robert Charles riots
19:For other uses, see
2350:, FBI, 23 June 2006
2218:. 1938. p. 22.
2029:. 16 September 2016
1981:on 16 February 2005
1753:. 16 September 2016
1704:New York Daily News
1454:features the group.
1422:History's Mysteries
1004:Arthur F. Lupp, Sr.
731:Exodusters movement
698:Tulsa race massacre
592:Massacres and riots
178:Anti-trade unionism
129:Active regions
2326:2018-06-17 at the
2100:Cornell Daily Sun,
2052:Detroit Free Press
1949:Detroit Free Press
1875:2015-09-29 at the
1649:The New York Times
1527:The New York Times
1360:domestic terrorist
1251:Arthur F. Lupp Sr.
1220:G. Mennen Williams
1164:Life imprisonment
1153:Life imprisonment
1142:Life imprisonment
1131:Life imprisonment
1120:Life imprisonment
1109:Life imprisonment
1098:Life imprisonment
1087:Life imprisonment
945:internal migration
736:Atlanta Compromise
608:Thibodaux massacre
598:Opelousas massacre
372:Indiana White Caps
343:Lynching postcards
288:Compromise of 1877
266:Reconstruction era
76:Dates of operation
2149:978-1-4930-1818-5
1930:978-1-4930-1818-5
1414:Lansing, Michigan
1212:
1211:
1034:nervous breakdown
985:farm cooperatives
949:African Americans
835:white supremacist
827:
826:
708:Rosewood massacre
271:Voter suppression
234:Nadir of American
219:
218:
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2298:
2283:
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2234:The Times Herald
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2008:
2002:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1977:. Archived from
1966:
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1956:
1941:
1935:
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1908:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1890:
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1724:. Archived from
1722:Michigan History
1713:
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1697:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1667:
1658:
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1654:Associated Press
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1518:
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1468:
1451:Warhammer 40,000
1406:collaborated on
1335:Legion of Terror
1277:Monroe, Michigan
1258:Ecorse, Michigan
1224:George W. Romney
1202:John S. Vincent
1169:Thomas R. Craig
1125:Paul R. Edwards
1067:
1066:
1008:Great Depression
960:Protestant white
874:Associated Press
867:John Earl Haynes
851:Great Depression
819:
812:
805:
741:Niagara Movement
545:Anthony Crawford
535:Jesse Washington
475:John Henry James
465:Stephen Williams
450:Ephraim Grizzard
445:People's Grocery
361:Vigilante groups
276:Disfranchisement
248:Violence in the
246:
221:
220:
168:Anti-Catholicism
158:Anti-immigration
95:
93:
87:
85:
77:
69:
38:
26:
25:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2430:Political masks
2360:
2359:
2334:, 5 August 1997
2328:Wayback Machine
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2187:
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2066:
2057:
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1998:
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1984:
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1887:
1877:Wayback Machine
1868:
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1834:
1821:
1813:
1790:
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1772:"We are legion"
1770:
1769:
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1756:
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1552:
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1512:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1381:The radio show
1356:Humphrey Bogart
1338:(1936) starred
1327:
1247:community paper
1232:
1191:Albert Stevens
1158:Lowell Rushing
1147:John Bannerman
1065:
1043:
1030:Mickey Cochrane
1021:
941:Southern Europe
921:fraternal order
894:
886:Humphrey Bogart
823:
794:
793:
769:
761:
760:
751:Great Migration
721:
713:
712:
703:Perry race riot
673:Elaine massacre
593:
585:
584:
400:Andrew Richards
395:
387:
386:
323:
315:
314:
310:Convict leasing
261:
253:
252:
235:
187:
183:White supremacy
91:
89:
83:
81:
75:
58:Virgil Effinger
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2478:
2468:
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1778:. 8 June 2016
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1621:WDET 101.9 FM
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1604:. p. 20.
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560:George Taylor
558:
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541:
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536:
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531:
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515:Walker family
513:
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510:William Burns
508:
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455:Alfred Blount
453:
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405:Michael Green
403:
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293:Jim Crow laws
291:
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204:Major actions
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113:United States
112:
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79:
73:
66:
62:
59:
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
32:
27:
22:
2341:
2332:Detroit News
2331:
2306:
2295:. Retrieved
2290:
2281:
2272:
2267:25 September
2265:. Retrieved
2258:
2249:
2238:. Retrieved
2233:
2224:
2214:
2208:
2197:. Retrieved
2192:
2183:
2172:. Retrieved
2167:
2158:
2138:
2131:
2120:. Retrieved
2116:
2107:
2099:
2091:
2080:. Retrieved
2077:casetext.com
2076:
2067:
2056:. Retrieved
2051:
2042:
2031:. Retrieved
2027:www.wbur.org
2026:
2017:
2006:
1995:
1983:. Retrieved
1979:the original
1974:
1964:
1953:. Retrieved
1948:
1939:
1919:
1912:
1901:. Retrieved
1897:
1888:
1880:
1853:
1847:
1840:Detroit News
1839:
1780:. Retrieved
1775:
1766:
1755:. Retrieved
1751:www.wbur.org
1750:
1741:
1730:. Retrieved
1726:the original
1721:
1711:
1703:
1679:. Retrieved
1674:
1647:
1624:. Retrieved
1620:
1610:
1601:
1596:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1538:. Retrieved
1526:
1480:
1476:
1466:
1449:
1440:
1433:
1420:
1407:
1394:
1389:Orson Welles
1382:
1373:
1368:Black Legion
1367:
1351:Black Legion
1349:
1333:
1328:
1316:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1292:
1289:
1282:
1263:
1255:
1244:
1237:
1233:
1217:
1213:
1114:Urban Lipps
1081:Dayton Dean
1053:
1051:
1044:
1022:
997:
989:
981:labor unions
957:
933:Indianapolis
909:Ku Klux Klan
901:
895:
871:
847:Ku Klux Klan
831:Black Legion
830:
828:
540:Newberry Six
525:King Johnson
500:Watkinsville
377:Ku Klux Klan
367:Black Legion
366:
355:Whitecapping
350:Sundown town
173:Antisemitism
118:Headquarters
104:Ku Klux Klan
21:Black Legion
1985:14 February
1430:Tom Stanton
1344:Bruce Cabot
1019:Recruitment
882:Americanism
570:1920 Duluth
550:Ell Persons
490:David Wyatt
485:George Ward
420:Amos Miller
415:Eliza Woods
298:Segregation
153:Americanism
2364:Categories
2344:March 2009
2297:2023-12-12
2240:2023-11-17
2199:2023-11-17
2174:2023-11-17
2122:2023-07-30
2082:2023-07-30
2058:2023-07-30
2033:2023-07-30
1955:2023-07-30
1903:2023-07-30
1782:2021-04-04
1776:City Pulse
1757:2018-12-05
1732:2021-03-10
1681:2023-12-14
1626:2024-02-26
1566:(3): 491.
1540:2017-04-12
1483:(3): 493.
1459:References
1404:Alex Haley
1384:The Shadow
1012:Protestant
943:, and the
892:Background
839:hate group
678:Red Summer
580:Joe Pullen
530:John Evans
505:Ed Johnson
435:Jim Taylor
382:Red Shirts
132:Primarily
124:, Michigan
100:Split from
64:Foundation
1588:143477268
1535:0362-4331
1505:143477268
1442:Damnation
1400:Malcolm X
1340:Ward Bond
1076:Sentence
992:vigilante
969:Catholics
951:from the
929:Cleveland
911:(KKK) in
900:'s film,
720:Reactions
628:Pana riot
394:Lynchings
338:Lynchings
322:Practices
283:Redeemers
198:Far-right
2324:Archived
1873:Archived
1295:Maryland
1073:Verdict
1070:Accused
480:Sam Hose
226:a series
224:Part of
145:Ideology
134:Michigan
1428:Author
1387:, with
1319:Indiana
965:Detroit
937:Eastern
925:Detroit
917:Georgia
913:Atlanta
863:Detroit
440:Joe Coe
215:Defunct
122:Detroit
110:Country
90: (
82: (
46:Founder
2287:"Lupp"
2146:
1927:
1586:
1580:178625
1578:
1533:
1503:
1497:178625
1495:
1366:named
1025:kidnap
977:blacks
857:, the
833:was a
228:on the
212:Status
54:Leader
1584:S2CID
1576:JSTOR
1501:S2CID
1493:JSTOR
1002:, by
746:NAACP
88:–1937
2269:2013
2144:ISBN
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