Franz Boas - Knowledge

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measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe. Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races. Boas's primary interest—in symbolic and material culture and in language—was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change. Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno-national groups. Boas found that average measures of the cranial size of immigrants were significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States. Moreover, he discovered that average measures of the cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival. Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time. This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable. Boas observed:

1855:—has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas's work "has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology". In 2003 anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims and that Sparks's and Jantz's data actually support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. 1555:

discredited by Franz Boas through the application of the scientific method. Opposed to the narrow or vertically arranged studies which Maurice Fishberg conducted which completely ignored the Jewish ethnicity ie culture, religion, and even family in the case of adoptions Franz Boas looked at all of those factors as well as across multiple generations and in multiple geographic locations to determine there to be no discernable genetic difference between Jews and non-Jews. This combined with the growth of what Max J. Kholer called Hitlerism or later Nazism in Germany resulted in a national summit where Franz Boas who had legally and scientifically been determined to be the factually correct opinion on the genetics of the Jewish people presided as guest of honor as Maurice Fishberg along with Ellsworth Huntington discredited their prior works before The Judaens and the Jewish Academy of Sciences on March 4, 1934 to emphatically state that there is no genetic difference between Jew and non-Jew nor and superior race. Later this discussion was distributed by Congregation B'nai B'rith in Cincinnati, Ohio.

2237:. Boas began by remarking that "If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one". He then went on, however, to argue against this view. To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies, Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span. Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments. Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, that occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia (evidence now suggests that chickens were first domesticated in Asia; the original domestication of 2285:

ours ... Our intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call "our free institutions." Modern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often corrupt, bureaucracy. That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishes is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even taking root in the Far East. It is a quite different question, however, in how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with democratic institutions ... To claim as we often do, that our solution is the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of Americanism. I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the benefactions of our regime.

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they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and perform services as spies. They merely accept the code of morality to which modern society still conforms. Not so the scientist. The very essence of his life is the service of truth. We all know scientists who in private life do not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would not consciously falsify the results of their researches. It is bad enough if we have to put up with these because they reveal a lack of strength of character that is liable to distort the results of their work. A person, however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist.

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in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety. Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability was required to make anthropology scientific. Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research. Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context-dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific. His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (e.g., the

1799:(1911), integrated his theories concerning the history and development of cultures and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years. In this study, he established that in any given population, biology, language, material, and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another. In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables. He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces. He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior. 1650:, who lived between the two clusters. The Kwakiutl seemed to have a mix of features. Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's father's name and crest. His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married. Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line. At first, Boas—like Morgan before him—suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups. In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors. 1773:

explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing. Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy. He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of the anthropological society. In order to approach literate and non-literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance of studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts. Thus, in his 1904 article, "The History of Anthropology", Boas wrote that

1083:'s arrival in the Americas. Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits. Boas directed a team of about one hundred assistants, mandated to create anthropology and ethnology exhibits on the Indians of North America and South America that were living at the time Christopher Columbus arrived in America while searching for India. Putnam intended the World's Columbian Exposition to be a celebration of Columbus' voyage. Putnam argued that showing late nineteenth century Inuit and First Nations (then called Eskimo and Indians) "in their natural conditions of life" would provide a contrast and celebrate the four centuries of Western accomplishments since 1493. 1654:

to function or level of technological development. Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artifacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution. Boas, however, felt that the form an artifact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used. Arguing that "hough like causes have like effects like effects have not like causes", Boas realized that even artifacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons. Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized along contextual lines would reveal like causes.

856:... he also had to defend six minor theses", and Boas likely completed a minor in geography, which would explain why Fischer was one of Boas's degree examiners. Because of this close relationship between Fischer and Boas, some biographers have gone so far as to incorrectly state that Boas "followed" Fischer to Kiel, and that Boas received a PhD in geography with Fischer as his doctoral advisor. For his part, Boas self-identified as a geographer by the time he completed his doctorate, prompting his sister, Toni, to write in 1883, "After long years of infidelity, my brother was re-conquered by geography, the first love of his boyhood." 2409:) and their parents explained what Germans viewed as racial inferiority was not due to racial heredity. This "... provoked polemic invective against the latter from Fischer. "The views of Mr. Boas are in part quite ingenious, but in the field of heredity Mr. Boas is by no means competent" even though "a great number of research projects at the KWI-A which had picked up on Boas's studies about immigrants in New York had confirmed his findings—including the study by Walter Dornfeldt about Eastern European Jews in Berlin. Fischer resorted to polemic simply because he had no arguments to counter the Boasians' critique." 1153:

society, he explained that "... they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information". These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: "... we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group". His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum,

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comparison. For example, his 1903 essay, "Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum", provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of empirical data. After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design. Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society (

1684: 1996: 706:, which holds that cultures cannot be objectively ranked as higher or lower, or better or more correct, but that all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture, and judge it according to their own culturally acquired norms. For Boas, the object of anthropology was to understand the way in which culture conditioned people to understand and interact with the world in different ways and to do this it was necessary to gain an understanding of the language and cultural practices of the people studied. By uniting the disciplines of 927:

expedition. Boas was nonetheless forced to depend on various Inuit groups for everything from directions and food to shelter and companionship. It was a difficult year filled with tremendous hardships that included frequent bouts of disease, mistrust, pestilence, and danger. Boas successfully searched for areas not yet surveyed and found unique ethnographic objects, but the long winter and the lonely treks across perilous terrain forced him to search his soul to find a direction for his life as a scientist and a citizen.

1149:, a five-year-long field-study of the nations of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia. This was the first comprehensive anthropological survey of the north circumpolar region, and Boas and his students made many sound and film recordings during this trip. These included a wide range of cultural recordings, including music with written song texts and translations. The music recordings produced during this study became a model for later studies in ethnomusicology. 2091: 1454: 1916:

objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena. He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays. There, he pointed out that two things (artifacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may, in fact, be quite different. In this article, he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may, in fact, be the same.

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in contrast to the claims by racial anthropologists of the day that held head shape to be a stable racial trait. Boas also worked to demonstrate that differences in human behavior are not primarily determined by innate biological dispositions but are largely the result of cultural differences acquired through social learning. In this way, Boas introduced culture as the primary concept for describing differences in behavior between human groups, and as the central analytical concept of anthropology.

1940:.) People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word. The issue, then, is not "that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality" (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds "are classified according to their similarity" (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category). A comparable visual example would involve words for colors. The English word 1053:'s interference in his research, yet in 1889 he was appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology at Clark University. In the early 1890s, he went on a series of expeditions which were referred to as the Morris K. Jesup Expedition. The primary goal of these expeditions was to illuminate Asiatic-American relations. In 1892 Boas, along with another member of the Clark faculty, resigned in protest of the alleged infringement by Hall on academic freedom. 2166:

be formed from thorough research and that even once you had a theory it should be treated as a "work in progress" unless it could be proved beyond doubt. This rigid scientific methodology was eventually accepted as one of the major tenets of folklore scholarship, and Boas's methods remain in use even today. Boas also nurtured many budding folklorists during his time as a professor, and some of his students are counted among the most notable minds in folklore scholarship.

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Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas's letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies (a charge that was especially insulting, given that his concerns about this very issue were what had prompted Boas to write his letter in the first place). This resolution was passed on to the

2229:, which his research had indicated is not biological in origin, but rather social. Boas is credited as the first scientist to publish the idea that all people—including white and African Americans—are equal. He often emphasized his abhorrence of racism, and used his work to show that there was no scientific basis for such a bias. An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to 699:

that culture developed historically through the interactions of groups of people and the diffusion of ideas and that consequently there was no process towards continuously "higher" cultural forms. This insight led Boas to reject the "stage"-based organization of ethnological museums, instead preferring to order items on display based on the affinity and proximity of the cultural groups in question.

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misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture. As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods and a reflection of Westerners' beliefs about their own cultural superiority. This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas's

42: 1759:. This approach defines as its object the human species as a totality. This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general). 799: 2280:

and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations. For this reason, one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to be unendurable." He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others.

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public anthropology. The visitors were not there to be educated. By 1916, Boas had come to recognize with a certain resignation that "the number of people in our country who are willing and able to enter into the modes of thought of other nations is altogether too small ... The American who is cognizant only of his own standpoint sets himself up as arbiter of the world."

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one generation to the next. As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories. As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity.

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that have brought about the observed differentiation and to investigate the sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious forms of human life. In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past.

1973:. Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word. It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound. 1863:

cranial index due to immigration (in Hebrews) is much smaller than the maximum ethnic difference, between Sicilians and Bohemians. It shows that long-headed parents produce long headed offspring and vice versa. To make the argument that children of immigrants converge onto an "American type" required Boas to use the two groups that changed the most."

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neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south. Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into an English word. Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms. For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word

852:, rekindled Boas's interest in geography and ultimately had more influence on him than did Karsten, and thus some biographers view Boas as more of a geographer than a physicist at this stage. In addition to the major in physics, Adams, citing Kroeber, states that "n accordance with German tradition at the time 2270:

University would put him at odds with a different prominent Black figure, Booker T. Washington. Du Bois and Washington had different views on the means of uplifting Black Americans. By supporting Du Bois, Boas lost Washington's support and any chance of funding from his college, Carnegie Mellon University.

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with a full understanding of the fetters imposed upon us by tradition; and the fight against all forms of power policy of states or private organizations. This means a devotion to principles of true democracy. I object to the teaching of slogans intended to befog the mind, of whatever kind they may be.

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which was published under the headline, "Why German-Americans Blame America". Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism. "In my youth, I had been taught in school

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Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to find—not only here and there—expression as antipathy to the Jewish type. In France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the feeling

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Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as "science" and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work. Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained

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once described culture as a thing of "shreds and patches". Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns. But

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Boas also contributed greatly to the foundation of linguistics as a science in the United States. He published many descriptive studies of Native American languages, wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, and laid out a research program for studying the relations between language

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The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one overarching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions

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Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and

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to describe these two divergent approaches. He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science. Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the

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village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context. Inuit were there with 12-foot-long whips made of sealskin, wearing sealskin clothing and showing how adept they were in sealskin kayaks. His experience with the Exposition provided the first of a series of shocks to Franz Boas's faith in

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as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States. Possibly he received additional motivation for this decision from his romance with Marie Krackowizer, whom he married in the same year. With a family underway and under financial

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But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism. Instead, he argued for the "psychic unity of mankind", a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles. Variations

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models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of

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In his dissertation research, Boas's methodology included investigating how different intensities of light created different colors when interacting with different types of water; however, he encountered difficulty in being able to objectively perceive slight differences in the color of water, and as

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Among Boas's main contributions to anthropological thought was his rejection of the then-popular evolutionary approaches to the study of culture, which saw all societies progressing through a set of hierarchic technological and cultural stages, with Western European culture at the summit. Boas argued

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is a biological concept and that human behavior is best understood through the typology of biological characteristics. In a series of groundbreaking studies of skeletal anatomy, he showed that cranial shape and size was highly malleable depending on environmental factors such as health and nutrition,

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Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology. Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas's commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism. Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas's commitment to field research involving extended

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When Boas's letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about "the Prussian control of anthropology in this country" and the need to end Boas's "Hun regime". Reaction of Holmes and his allies was influenced by anti-German and probably also by anti-Jewish sentiment. The Anthropological

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Despite Boas's caveat about the intractability of white prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against white myths of racial purity and racial superiority and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism. At the time, Boas had no idea that speaking at Atlanta

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If therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent. You may say that

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This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study—the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human—implied that anthropologists themselves could be

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as "clan", he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word. Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from

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These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history. For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies

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Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas's students quickly diverged from his own research agenda. Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the

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should not look to whites for approval or encouragement because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power. "Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness. Do not look for the impossible,

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In order to further professionalize folklore, Boas introduced the strict scientific methods which he learned in college to the discipline. Boas championed the use of exhaustive research, fieldwork, and strict scientific guidelines in folklore scholarship. Boas believed that a true theory could only

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became widely known only after 1900. Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution. Boas's biometric studies led him to question the use of this method and kind of data. In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas

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The historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by any other science. It is the biological history of mankind in all its varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the ethnology

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Boas's rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display. At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification. The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according

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noted, however, Boas's main project was to distinguish between biological and cultural heredity, and to focus on the cultural processes that he believed had the greatest influence over social life. In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to

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This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism. It also emphasizes culture as a context ("surroundings"), and the importance of history. These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which

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Ethnological phenomena are the result of the physical and psychical character of men, and of its development under the influence of the surroundings ... 'Surroundings' are the physical conditions of the country, and the sociological phenomena, i.e., the relation of man to man. Furthermore, the

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Franz Boas traveled north to gather ethnographic material for the Exposition. Boas had intended public science in creating exhibitions for the Exposition where visitors to the Midway could learn about other cultures. Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakwaka'wakw aboriginals from British Columbia to come

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While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three-month trip to British Columbia via New York. In January 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal

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A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life consists in compromises with his conscience, a businessman whose aim is personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law—such may be excused if

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Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the "Negro race", and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force. For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation,

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you go to work with bright hopes and that you will not be discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever had attained.

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There are two things to which I am devoted: absolute academic and spiritual freedom, and the subordination of the state to the interests of the individual; expressed in other forms, the furthering of conditions in which the individual can develop to the best of his ability—as far as it is possible

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creation of "catch-words" allowed for categorization of these parts, and the ability to analyze them in relation to other similar tales. Boas also fought to prove that not all cultures progressed along the same path, and that non-European cultures, in particular, were not primitive, but different.

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as a discipline. At first glance, it might seem that his only concern was for the discipline of anthropology—after all, he fought for most of his life to keep folklore as a part of anthropology. Yet Boas was motivated by his desire to see both anthropology and folklore become more professional and

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The head form, which has always been one of the most stable and permanent characteristics of human races, undergoes far-reaching changes due to the transfer of European races to American soil. The East European Hebrew, who has a round head, becomes more long-headed; the South Italian, who in Italy

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brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change. His most important research in this field was his study of changes in the body from among children of immigrants in New York. Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial

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I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the

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We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics of a man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and in different social classes. It is our task to inquire into the causes

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The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Geography", in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms. Boas

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Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment. In Germany, the Enlightenment was

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Boas attempted to organize the research gathered from the Jessup Expedition into contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines. He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a

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physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant. After World War I, Boas created the Emergency Society for German and Austrian Science. This organization was originally

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and which are the causes of far-reaching changes". Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that "the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn, his own activities influence the society in which he lives and may bring about

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of different sounds. Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive the difference, or might there be another reason? He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit—the

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have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas, in fact, was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought. In 1888, he declared that "the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution". Since Boas's times,

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were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my hometown, devoted to science. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma. My father had retained an

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had ever worked closely with Boas. "The invention of Freyre included his self-invention. For example, he too presented himself as if he had been a follower of Boas ever since his student days." See Peter Burke, Maria Lucia G. Pallares-Burke: "Gilberto Freyre: social theory in the tropics", Peter

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Boas was known for passionately defending what he believed to be right. During his lifetime (and often through his work), Boas combated racism, berated anthropologists and folklorists who used their work as a cover for espionage, worked to protect German and Austrian scientists who fled the Nazi

2061:

Boas argued that in order to understand "what is"—in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols)—one had to examine them in their local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over

1842:

claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children. They argued that their results contradicted Boas's original

1391:

emphasized the centrality of "understanding" to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of a historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of a historical actor. For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: "A single action or event is

921:

I often ask myself what advantages our 'good society' possesses over that of the 'savages' and find, the more I see of their customs, that we have no right to look down upon them ... We have no right to blame them for their forms and superstitions which may seem ridiculous to us. We 'highly

5243: 2073:

focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas's attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable. Thus, Boas's student

1862:

two groups of immigrants (Sicilians and Hebrews) which had varied most towards the same mean, and discarded other groups which had varied in the opposite direction. He commented, "Using the recent reanalysis by Gravlee et al. (2003), we can observe in Figure 2 that the maximum difference in the

2114:

In a programmatic essay in 1920, "The Methods of Ethnology", Boas argued that instead of "the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe", anthropology needs to document "the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of

1875:

physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution. In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory. Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics;

926:

Boas went on to explain in the same entry that "all service, therefore, which a man can perform for humanity must serve to promote truth." Before his departure, his father had insisted he be accompanied by one of the family's servants, Wilhelm Weike who cooked for him and kept a journal of the

900:

Boas took up geography as a way to explore his growing interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world. At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation. Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining

2169:

Boas was passionate about the collection of folklore and believed that the similarity of folktales amongst different folk groups was due to dissemination. Boas strove to prove this theory, and his efforts produced a method for breaking a folktale into parts and then analyzing these parts. His

2136:

Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship. In the late 1890s, Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies

2128:

to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies. In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies. This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and

1976:

Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural. In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to

1712:(another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership. McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes. 1695:

in 1896, and promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899. However, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments. When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one

1540:

Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as

2289:

Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways. Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other

2123:

Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way. Nineteenth-century historians had been applying the

2082:

During Boas's lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies, which are stable and homogeneous. Boas's empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this

1915:

Boas had heard similar phonetic shifts during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest. Nevertheless, he argued that "alternating sounds" is not at all a feature of Native American languages—indeed, he argued, they do not really exist. Rather than take alternating sounds as

1675:, remained living in the museum. Boas staged a funeral for the father of the boy and had the remains dissected and placed in the museum. Boas has been widely critiqued for his role in bringing the Inuit to New York and his disinterest in them once they had served their purpose at the museum. 1535:

remarked, "Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as 'scientifically proved', though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts". In an unpublished lecture, Boas

2428:

produced seven PhDs in anthropology. Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas's Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminent anthropology program in the country. Moreover, many of Boas's students went on to establish

2334:

established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government to prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified. Boas's rival, W. H. Holmes (who had gotten the job of Director at the

2284:

I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources of their countries, or how much opposed their ideas may be to

1554:

During Maurice Fishberg's time as a medical examiner he recorded skull and nose measurements of Jewish immigrants through which he originally asserted a genetic difference between Jews and non-Jews to describe them as another race along with Joseph Jacobs. However his theories were largely

1546:

act. Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work: "I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time."

1670:

bring one Inuk from Greenland to New York. Peary obliged and brought six Inuit to New York in 1897 who lived in the basement of the American Museum of Natural History. Four of them died from tuberculosis within a year of arriving in New York, one returned to Greenland, and a young boy,

2222:

objects of anthropological study. Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of their culture.

655:, where he remained for the rest of his career. Through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, Boas profoundly influenced the development of American anthropology. Among his many significant students were 2129:

grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine. In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often

1762:

In his 1907 essay, "Anthropology", Boas identified two basic questions for anthropologists: "Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?". Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus:

2659:

Most of Boas's students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models. Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others. For example, Boas originally defended the

916:

In the perpetual darkness of the Arctic winter, Boas reported, he and his traveling companion became lost and were forced to keep sledding for twenty-six hours through ice, soft snow, and temperatures that dropped below −46 °C. The following day, Boas penciled in his diary,

1474:

One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time. This critique is central to Boas's work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology. As historian

2355:

at Harvard (with which Morley, Lothrop, and Spinden were affiliated), voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas. As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although he remained an active member of the AAA. The AAA's censure of Boas was not rescinded until 2005.

2120:

modifications in a form". Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: "As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability ... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux ..." (see Lewis 2001b)

762:, who was to advise him throughout Boas's career. Due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests. Early in life, he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences. Boas vocally opposed and refused to convert to 7168:: the notion that peoples progress through stages (in one crude formulation, from savagery to barbarism to civilization)... 'My whole outlook', later wrote in a credo, 'is determined by the question: how can we recognize the shackles that tradition has laid upon us?' 2241:

is under debate). He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement. From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins:

7524:

Krupnik, Igor; Müller-Wille, Ludger (2010). "Franz Boas and Inuktitut Terminology for Ice and Snow: From the Emergence of the Field to the "Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax"". In Igor Krupnik; Claudio Aporta; Shari Gearheard; Gita J. Laidler; Lene Kielsen Holm (eds.).

2162:

well-respected. Boas was afraid that if folklore was allowed to become its own discipline the standards for folklore scholarship would be lowered. This, combined with the scholarships of "amateurs", would lead folklore to be completely discredited, Boas believed.

770:, a protégée of Boas, who called him "the essential protestant; he valued autonomy above all things." According to his biographer, "He was a jewish German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America." In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote: 650:

Inuit. He went on to do field work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest. In 1887 he emigrated to the United States, where he first worked as a museum curator at the Smithsonian, and in 1899 became a professor of anthropology at

1610:

During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest. His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action. His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time,

5072:

Cole, Douglas 1983 "The Value of a Person Lies in His Herzensbildung": Franz Boas's Baffin Island Letter-Diary, 1883–1884. In Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork. George W. Stocking Jr., ed. pp. 13–52. Madison: University of Wisconsin

2376:

dedicated to fostering friendly relations between American and German and Austrian scientists and for providing research funding to German scientists who had been adversely affected by the war, and to help scientists who had been interned. With the rise of

1079:, who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892, chose Boas as his first assistant at Chicago to prepare for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition or Chicago World's Fair, the 400th anniversary of 2218:) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency. More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study. 2664:(systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology. 991:

at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate over evolution with his former student,

1731:. His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic 1541:

variations, and were continued by natural selection. This idea was also brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an actual application of reasoning.

4920:

Liss, Julia E. 1995 Patterns of Strangeness: Franz Boas, Modernism, and the Origins of Anthropology. In Prehistories of the Future: The Primitivist Project and the Culture of Modernism. E. Barkan and R. Bush, eds. pp. 114–130. Stanford. CA:

1969:. Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word. In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways—it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different 2252:

and he mentions "the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, the Manchu conquest of China" as resulting in similar conditions. But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe:

1924:

aural equivalent of color-blindness. He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way. This is crucial for research in descriptive

2015:... considers every phenomenon as worthy of being studied for its own sake. Its mere existence entitles it to a full share of our attention, and the knowledge of its existence and evolution in space and time fully satisfies the student. 1396:

argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense. In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote "The Principles of Ethnological Classification", in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology:

1707:

During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association (AAA) as an umbrella organization for the emerging field. Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but

1515:

The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: the orthogeneticists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the

892:. Boas did publish six articles on psychophysics during his year of military service (1882–1883), but ultimately he decided to focus on geography, primarily so he could receive sponsorship for his planned Baffin Island expedition. 5716:, though still under the leadership of Boas.) Moore, Jerry D. (2009). "Franz Boas: Culture in Context". Visions of Culture: an Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira. pp. 33. 1880:

argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them. It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation.

2050:

fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data,

1401:

study of the present surroundings is insufficient: the history of the people, the influence of the regions through which it has passed on its migrations, and the people with whom it came into contact, must be considered

913:, which was published in 1888 in the 6th Annual Report from the Bureau of American Ethnology. Boas lived and worked closely with the Inuit on Baffin Island, and he developed an abiding interest in the way people lived. 2789: 1912:. Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated. Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic and evolutionary inferiority. 1315:

refer to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws, while the latter terms in the two oppositions refer to those phenomena that have to mean only in terms of human perception or experience.

6359:

Stocking, G. W. 1974. "The Boas plan for the study of American Indian languages," in Studies in the history of linguistics: Traditions and paradigms. Edited by D. Hymes, pp. 454–83. Bloomington: Indiana University

1440:

Science is a dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies "already formulated in everyday life" since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional

2452:) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907). Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: 1606:

It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline.

7098: 2133:), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture. (see Bunzl 2004: 438–439) 2380:, Boas assisted German scientists in fleeing the Nazi regime. Boas helped these scientists not only to escape but to secure positions once they arrived. Additionally, Boas addressed an open letter to 8097: 2320:

Boas's stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University. Previously, American anthropology was based at the

1904:

His 1889 article "On Alternating Sounds", however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology. It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by

2087:

suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, "Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art", although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications).

2324:

in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas's students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication

10838: 2398: 1782:

Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of

1528:

with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage.

2699:

residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants. Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies. In his 1963 book,

2759: 457: 10833: 5727: 10610: 3926:

Gingrich, Andre (2010). "Alliances and Avoidance: British Interactions with German-Speaking Anthropologists, 1933–1953". In James, Deborah; Plaice, Evelyn; Toren, Christina (eds.).

2812:

Boas n.d. "The relation of Darwin to anthropology", notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Published online by Herbert Lewis 2001b.

1161:. By 1900 Boas had begun to retreat from American museum anthropology as a tool of education or reform (Hinsley 1992: 361). He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again. 901:

factor, but others (notably Friedrich Ratzel) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important. In 1883, encouraged by Theobald Fischer, Boas went to

9516: 1531:

Boasians argued that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data. As Boas's student

10778: 1598:"Franz Boas posing for figure in US Natural History Museum exhibit entitled "Hamats'a coming out of secret room" 1895 or before. Courtesy of National Anthropology Archives. ( 1368:(an influence to Boas) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. In 1795, the great 8090: 3092:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. II, Pt. II. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 3037:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. V, Pt. III. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 2921:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. II, Pt. II. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 1802:

Boas also presented himself as a role model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences.

3015:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. V, Pt. II. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 1021:

in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents. This view resonated with Boas's experiences on Baffin Island and drew him towards anthropology.

3059:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. X, Pt. I. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 2993:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. V, Pt. I. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 2079:

Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445).

6866:

Briggs, Charles; Baumann, Richard (1999). "The Foundation of All Future Researches": Franz Boas. George Hunt, Native American Texts, and the Construction of Modernity".

1735:

and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with the Polish-English anthropologist

1444:

Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgments are characteristic of categorical attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicious.

1815:

past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a fair opportunity.

10562: 4995:, Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884–1885, Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 399–670 2718:

1896—Became assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History, under F. W. Putnam. This was combined with a lecturing position at Columbia University.

9744: 8083: 5442: 2957: 1962:. This is not an example of color-blindness—people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers. 2869: 1594: 3281: 3084: 3051: 3029: 3007: 2985: 2935: 2913: 1116: 833:'s law of the normal distribution of errors for his dissertation, but he ultimately had to settle for a topic chosen for him by his doctoral advisor, physicist 10578: 1981:: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture. 7039:

Epps, Patience L.; Webster, Anthony K.; Woodbury, Anthony C. (2017). "A Holistic Humanities of Speaking: Franz Boas and the Continuing Centrality of Texts".

5655: 2943:. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. The Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Vol. II, Pt. IV. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 5846:

The mind of primitive man : a course of lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute, Boston, Mass., and the National University of Mexico, 1910-1911

2456:(1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD from the University of Pennsylvania and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; 2062:

time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures.

1414:"), would guide Boas's research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students. (See Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.) 10883: 10823: 8424: 2796: 848:

and the two established a friendship, with the coursework and friendship continuing after both relocated to Kiel at the same time. Fischer, a student of

2532:(who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate), 10798: 2644:: John R. Swanton (1911, 1921–1923), Robert Lowie (1924–1933), Leslie Spier (1934–1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950–1952). Edward Sapir's student 2390:

arguing that there were no differences between Aryans and non-Aryans and the German government should not base its policies on such a false premise.

1512:

not because he rejected the notion of "evolution" per se, but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution.

8889: 5530: 2405:: "Melville J. Herskovits (one of Franz Boas's students) pointed out that the health problems and social prejudices encountered by these children ( 6564: 4566: 2225:

This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues. Boas was especially concerned with

10848: 6753:

Beardsley, Edward H (1973). "The American Scientist as Social Activist: Franz Boas, Burt G. Wilder, and the Cause of Racial Justice, 1900–1915".

6198:

Massin, Benot (1996). "From Virchow to Fisher: Physical Anthropology and "Modern Race Theories" in Wilhelmine Germany". In Stocking, G.W. (ed.).

6565:"WHY GERMAN-AMERICANS BLAME AMERICA.; They Think Their New Country, Having Sacrificed Its Own Ideals, Is Setting Up as the Arbiter of the World" 8854: 7481: 6174: 2476:(who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the anthropology program at the 1834:

has an exceedingly long head, becomes more short-headed; so that both approach a uniform type in this country, so far as the head is concerned.

1154: 10522: 8838: 6112: 6051: 2781: 1130:

in Chicago with Boas as the curator of anthropology. He worked there until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist

2011:

The essence of Boas's approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on "The Study of Geography". There he argued for an approach that

10893: 10853: 10763: 9737: 6550:

Baker, L. D. (1998). From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (1st ed.). University of California Press.

1364:

dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality. In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as

7792: 2847: 2817: 2023:

gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this

1288:, and Matti Bunzl—have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research. 10818: 4364: 2352: 1280:, believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology. Many others, however—including Boas's student 1072: 718:, the study of cultural variation of customs, and descriptive linguistics, the study of unwritten indigenous languages, Boas created the 6494:

Liss, J. E. (1998). "Diasporic Identities: The Science and Politics of Race in the Work of Franz Boas and W. E. B. Du Bois, 1894–1919".

888:, which explores the relationship between the psychological and the physical, after completing his doctorate, but he had no training in 646:. He then participated in a geographical expedition to northern Canada, where he became fascinated with the culture and language of the 10514: 9606: 8069: 6148: 6098: 2722: 2656:

was President of the American Anthropological Association and the honorary secretary of the Royal Anthropological Institute in London.

2313:, Morley and his colleagues looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and 3250:. Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection. Published for the American Folk-Lore Society by G.E. Stechert. 10803: 10538: 9706: 7363: 7266: 2825:. Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Vol. 11. Washington D.C., United States National Museum. pp. 197–213. 2027:

stance by quoting literary critic A. C. Bradley: "We watch 'what is', seeing that so it happened and must have happened".

10813: 10788: 10718: 9968: 9468: 1380:

in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas's intellectual orientation matured.

1012:, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored 10858: 10808: 9995: 9730: 5766:

Anthropology [a lecture delivered at Columbia University in the series on science, philosophy and art, December 18, 1907]

5703:

Harper, Kenn. (1986/2000) Give Me My Father's Body: The Life of Minik, the New York Eskimo. South Royalton, VT: Steerforth Press.

2469: 2348: 1459: 660: 367: 5673: 2563:

degree after studying with Boas from 1909 to 1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917;

10130: 9957: 8053:

Recordings made by Franz Boas during his field research can be found at the Archives of Traditional Music at Indiana University

7450:

Gods of the upper air : how a circle of renegade anthropologists reinvented race, sex, and gender in the twentieth century

6602: 4280:

Gesteland McShane, Becky Jo (2003). "Underhill, Ruth Murray (1883–1984)". In Bakken, Gordon Morris; Farrington, Brenda (eds.).

1838:

These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated. In 2002, the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and

6945:

Moore, Jerry D. (2004). Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists. Rowman Altamira. p. 234

10793: 10723: 10713: 9711: 7953: 7893: 7874: 7855: 7764: 7580: 7561: 7542: 7457: 7438: 7419: 7400: 7352: 6207: 6047: 5951: 5912: 5737: 5253: 4972: 4908: 4512: 4297: 4233: 4086: 3935: 3910: 3885: 3812: 3753: 3721: 3677: 3648: 3621: 3521: 3497: 3465: 3427: 1004:, and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of 5332:

Stocking, George W. Jr. 1968. Race, culture, and evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. New York: Free Press. 264

5135: 10898: 10758: 10743: 8882: 8107: 7088:

Regna Darnell. 1998. And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology. John Benjamins Publishing

6062: 2703:, Thomas Gossett wrote that "It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history." 2344: 1852: 7591: 6460: 10888: 10682: 9973: 7431:

Where Was Boas During the Renaissance in Harlem? Diffusion, Race, and the Culture Paradigm in the History of Anthropology

2007:(1897). Wooden skulls hang from below the mask, which represents one of the cannibal bird helpers of Bakbakwalinooksiwey. 1291:

This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th-century German academe, which distinguished between

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which examined the absorption, reflection, and polarization of light in water, and was awarded a PhD in physics in 1881.

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for which Boas had been passed over 26 years earlier), was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protégé of Holmes's.

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Several of Boas's students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal,

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defined the task of the historian as "merely to show as it actually was", which is a cornerstone of Boas's empiricism.

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emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom.

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History of the World's Fair: Being a Complete and Authentic Description of the Columbian Exposition From Its Inception

3256: 2351:. Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1902), meeting at the 10753: 10728: 10586: 10530: 8568: 7934: 7623: 7185: 6535: 5861: 4220:

Swidler, Nina (1989) . "Rhoda Bubendey Metraux". In Gacs, Ute; Khan, Aisha; McIntyre, Jerrie; Weinberg, Ruth (eds.).

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Boas remained active in the development and scholarship of folklore throughout his life. He became the editor of the

1715:

At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the "four-field" concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to

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a result became intrigued by this problem of perception and its influence on quantitative measurements. Boas, due to

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Norman F. Boas, 2004, p. 291 (photo of the graveyard marker of Franz and Marie Boas, Dale Cemetery, Ossining, N.Y.)

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Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology.

4177:

Cole, Sally (1995). "Women's Stories and Boasian Texts: The Ojibwa Ethnography of Ruth Landes and Maggie Wilson".

1790:

as speculative. He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on a rigorous empirical study.

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migrations. The first of many ethnographic field trips, Boas culled his notes to write his first monograph titled

10873: 10738: 10733: 9701: 8875: 8009: 6496: 6306:

Mackert, Michael (1993). "The Roots of Franz Boas' View of Linguistic Categories As a Window to the Human Mind".

5443:"Video: Science, Education, and Character: Reflections on the First Fifty Years of the Peabody Museum, 1866–1916" 5245:

The Franz Boas Papers, Volume 1: Franz Boas as Public Intellectual – Theory, Ethnography, Activism

4704:

Williams, Vernon J. Jr. 1998. Franz Boas Paradox and the African American Intelligentsia. In V.P. Franklin (ed.)

3509:

Indian Myths & Legends from the North Pacific Coast of America: A Translation of Franz Boas' 1895 Edition of

2266:

but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers."

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can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints. But there are some languages that have no word for

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While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (resulting in his book,

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Boas returned to Berlin to complete his studies. His interest in indigenous communities grew as he worked at the

691: 2855:. Report of the United States National Museum. Washington, DC: United States National Museum. pp. 197–213. 10546: 10410: 10360: 10345: 9983: 9783: 9681: 9546: 8731: 8055: 8047: 7984: 2736: 2477: 2445: 1196: 1146: 402: 6927:

That Freyre was ever Boas's student is under contention. Boas was opposed to racism, as were students such as

2296:. It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science: 627:

who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology". His work is associated with the movements known as

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Boas, Franz (June 1922). "Report on an Anthropometric Investigation of the Population of the United States".

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Franz Boas died suddenly at the Columbia University Faculty Club on December 21, 1942, in the arms of

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The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences

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Stocking, George W. Jr. 1960. "Franz Boas and the Founding of the American Anthropological Association".

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of different words? (In this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between

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Stocking, George W. Jr. (1982), "A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911",

3672:. Peabody Museum Monographs. Vol. 11. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum Press. p. 346. 1843:

findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial

1437:

The method of science is, to begin with, questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgments.

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Darnell, Regna (1973). "American Anthropology and the Development of Folklore Scholarship: 1890–1920".

4563: 3952: 2500:(who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), 1909: 1207: 7867:

Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition

6200:

Volksgeist as method and ethic: Essays on Boasian ethnography and the German anthropological tradition

5356: 1851:—a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the 1034:

stress, Boas also resorted to pilfering bones and skulls from native burial sites to sell to museums.

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Cole, Douglas. 1999/ Franz Boas: The Early Years. 1858–1906. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

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1889—Appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology. His adjunct was L. Farrand.

2421:. By that time he had become one of the most influential and respected scientists of his generation. 2273:

Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others. In 1916, Boas wrote a letter to

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This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to

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called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. Humboldt founded the

1104: 7775: 5656:"An Eskimo Boy And Injustice In Old New York; A Campaigning Writer Indicts An Explorer and a Museum" 2575:

in 1901, but proceeded to study anthropology with Boas before turning to research Native Americans;

1492:). The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in 10652: 10420: 10245: 9933: 9813: 9753: 9566: 5923:"Book Review: Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education" 4899: 3572: 3242: 2484:(1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington together with his wife 1859: 1411: 628: 216: 17: 8806: 6123: 5051: 2057:

as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as a heuristic tool while analyzing data.

1480:

cultural and historical phenomena (and indeed was a lifelong opponent of 19th-century theories of

1123:, and Fillmore also worked on the music Boas and Gilman recorded during the Columbian Exposition. 817:, studying physics, geography, and mathematics at these schools. In 1879, he hoped to transfer to 10863: 10110: 9211: 9138: 8993: 8389: 8229: 7596: 7165: 6465: 5922: 5357:""The Relation of Darwin to Anthropology": A Previously Unpublished Lecture by Franz Boas (1909)" 4438: 4325: 3989: 2579:, later Goldfrank, worked with Boas in the summers of 1920 to 1922 to conduct research among the 2576: 2493: 2368: 2326: 2321: 1905: 1871: 1783: 1740: 1580: 1505: 1365: 1185: 557: 7383: 7286: 2680:

developed theories of "culture and personality" and "national cultures", and Kroeber's student,

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Although context and history were essential elements to Boas's understanding of anthropology as

1126:

After the exposition, the ethnographic material collected formed the basis of the newly created

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Krupat, Arnold; Boas, Franz (1988). "Anthropology in the Ironic Mode: The Work of Franz Boas".

6703: 3212:

Boas, Franz (October–December 1914). "Mythology and folk-tales of the North American Indians".

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Postal, Paul M. (1964). "Boas and the Development of Phonology: Comments Based on Iroquoian".

5055: 4582:

Koelsch, William A. 2004. "Franz Boas, Geographer, and the Problem of Disciplinary Identity."

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Boas, Franz (July–September 1912). "Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants".

2802:

1936—Became "emeritus in residence" at Columbia University in 1936. Became "emeritus" in 1938.

2634: 2622:, the women's college associated with Columbia, in 1928, and who studied African American and 2418: 1103:

musicians who were appearing at the Columbian Exposition. He had previously collaborated with

829:

instead due to family reasons. At Kiel, Boas had wanted to focus on the mathematical topic of

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It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history.

4359:

Holloway, M. (1997) "The Paradoxical Legacy of Franz Boas—father of American anthropology."

2309:, who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum. While conducting research in 1433:

summed up the three principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science:

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countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to

2181:). He helped to elect Louise Pound as president of the American Folklore Society in 1925. 8: 10310: 10260: 10205: 10085: 9821: 9646: 9636: 9486: 9442: 9276: 9053: 8968: 8659: 8544: 8512: 8317: 8154: 7344: 7207:

Baker, Lee D. (1994). "The Location of Franz Boas Within the African American Struggle".

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Kroeber, A. L. (1943). "Franz Boas: The Man. American Anthropological Association".

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of British Columbia, which sparked a lifelong relationship with the First Nations of the

775: 719: 703: 652: 632: 577: 552: 542: 516: 511: 469: 336: 10355: 10090: 7307: 5997: 5797: 5564: 4938:, vol. 8. Volksgeist as Method and Ethic. G. W. Stocking Jr., ed. pp. 155–184. Madison: 4706:

African Americans and Jews in the Twentieth Century: Studies in Convergence and Conflict

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ceremony at Tsaxis, titled "The Walas'axa". Painting printed as Plate 36 in the classic

1232: 996:. Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading 738:, the son of Sophie Meyer and Feibes Uri Boas. Although his grandparents were observant 462: 10475: 10405: 10265: 10220: 10120: 9896: 9496: 9392: 9387: 9311: 9286: 9088: 9073: 9038: 8782: 8627: 8416: 8221: 8122: 7924: 7743: 7722: 7686: 7656: 7475: 7319: 7253: 7224: 7056: 7021: 6986: 6883: 6844: 6829:

McVicker, Donald (1989). "Parallels and Rivalries: Encounters Between Boas and Starr".

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Darnell, Regna (1990). "Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and the Americanist Text Tradition".

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Liss, Julia E. 1996. "German Culture and German Science in the Bildung of Franz Boas".

4202: 4133: 4051: 4043: 3362: 3327: 3229: 3200: 3196: 3143: 2649: 2615: 2306: 2275: 2230: 1995: 1876: 1787: 1709: 1638:, were organized into matrilineal clans. First Nations on the southern coast, like the 1630:

organization. First Nations groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the

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Boas, Franz (September 1927). "The Eruption of Deciduous Teeth Among Hebrew Infants".

2637:, who interacted with Boas and the Boasians during his stay in New York in the 1940s. 1696:

department, of which Boas would take charge. Boas's program at Columbia was the first

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The Cosmopolitan Imagination: Franz Boas and the Development of American Anthropology

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The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics, 1927–1945

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Lewis, Herbert S. (2013). "Boas, Franz". In McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L. (eds.).

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Lewis, Herbert S. (2013). "Boas, Franz". In McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L. (eds.).

3840: 3833:"Mesquakie (Fox) Material Culture: The William Jones and Frederick Starr Collections" 3832: 3828: 3808: 3795:

Lewis, Herbert S. (2013). "Boas, Franz". In McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L. (eds.).

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Lewis, Herbert S. (2013). "Boas, Franz". In McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L. (eds.).

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grand sort that Boas typically rejected. Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to

2627: 2533: 2433: 2406: 2305:

Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a group led by

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of anthropology which became prominent in American anthropology in the 20th century.

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Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education

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Boas, Franz. A Franz Boas reader: the shaping of American anthropology, 1883–1911.

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to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native

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Jacknis, I (2002). "The First Boasian: Alfred Kroeber and Franz Boas, 1896–1905".

6551: 5944:

Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant

5295: 4482: 4465: 4120: 4103: 3139: 2772:

1913—Became founding editor of Columbia University Contributions to Anthropology (

2359:

Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom. When the

1747:

to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of

1739:) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the 1100: 766:, but he did not identify himself as a religious Jew. This is disputed however by 572: 10480: 10435: 10325: 10295: 10170: 10155: 10095: 10032: 9928: 9722: 9671: 9586: 9342: 9321: 9271: 9251: 9191: 9158: 9113: 9108: 9068: 8953: 8790: 8755: 8373: 8341: 8301: 8277: 8261: 8253: 8059: 8027:– Objects and Photographs from Jesup North Pacific Expedition 1897–1902 (section 7734:

Lowie, Robert H. (January–March 1944). "Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore".

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Boas, Franz, "Aryans and Non-Aryans," The American Mercury, June 1934, at p. 219.

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Darnell, Regna; Smith, Joshua; Hamilton, Michelle; Hancock, Robert L. A. (2015).

5223: 5143: 4962: 4847:

How It Came to Be: Carl O. Sauer, Franz Boas and the Meanings of Anthropogography

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relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.)

1050: 869: 814: 788: 774:

The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the

680: 547: 485: 437: 397: 7996: 6073: 5862:"Franz Boas's Physical Anthropology: The Critique of Racial Formalism Revisited" 5623:"Assessing Franz Boas' ethics in his Arctic and later anthropological fieldwork" 4559: 2630:, who worked closely with Boas on the linguistics of Native American languages. 1563:

In the late 19th century anthropology in the United States was dominated by the

1453: 10425: 10385: 10335: 10320: 10300: 10250: 10215: 10200: 10180: 10165: 10037: 9978: 9831: 9422: 9377: 9201: 9133: 9003: 8814: 8723: 8576: 8536: 8448: 8440: 8285: 8178: 7315: 7220: 6928: 6755: 5805: 4911:. His student Parsons stayed behind and documented Laguna language and stories. 4289: 2681: 2673: 2661: 2623: 2611: 2595: 2587: 2560: 2545: 2116: 1898: 1635: 1430: 1353: 1277: 1120: 997: 981: 865: 837:, on the optical properties of water. Boas completed his dissertation entitled 834: 755: 686:

Boas was one of the most prominent opponents of the then-popular ideologies of

582: 562: 427: 372: 280: 270: 252: 174: 9008: 7682: 7609: 7467: 7379: 7282: 6973: 6956: 6914: 6737:"Boasian Anthropology and the Critique of American Culture". Richard Handler. 6509: 6479: 5844: 4078: 3964: 3877: 3804: 3613: 3410: 2257:

of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish political party.

2149:

to edit and publish his manuscripts about the culture of the Kwakiutl people.

795:, he was most proud of his research on the geographic distribution of plants. 10697: 10657: 10460: 10400: 10370: 10350: 10290: 10255: 10240: 10225: 10195: 10140: 10065: 9876: 9856: 9846: 9666: 9281: 9186: 9181: 9143: 9063: 9043: 9018: 8983: 8822: 8707: 8651: 8496: 8488: 8365: 8237: 8186: 7249: 6982: 6852: 6807: 6716: 6576: 6422: 6296:

Boas' view of grammatical meaning. R Jakobson – American Anthropologist, 1959

6240: 5813: 5580: 5516: 5483: 5420: 5303: 4466:"Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimilation" 4408:

Visions of Culture: an Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists

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was editor from 1945 to 1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student,

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Franz Boas was an immensely influential figure throughout the development of

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Voget, Fred W. (2008). "Boas, Franz". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston (ed.).

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A further publication by Jantz based on Gravlee et al. claims that Boas had

980:, published in 1888). In 1885, he went to work with physical anthropologist 942:. Simultaneously, he became studied the methodologies of ethnomusicologists 844:

While at Bonn, Boas had attended geography classes taught by the geographer

619:(July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German-American anthropologist and 10637: 10340: 10125: 9911: 9866: 9861: 9803: 9778: 9407: 9402: 9357: 9316: 9226: 9128: 9083: 9078: 9048: 9033: 9028: 8774: 8747: 8560: 8552: 8520: 8472: 8357: 8333: 8293: 8269: 8202: 7652: 7516: 7331: 6025: 6006: 5829: 5596: 5319: 3476: 3371: 2904: 2653: 2556: 2485: 2481: 2457: 2437: 2377: 2336: 2146: 2075: 1890: 1867: 1701: 1587:, shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution. (The Peabody Museum at 1532: 1493: 1468: 1357: 1127: 968: 958: 881: 784: 763: 668: 624: 490: 452: 442: 417: 362: 308: 10049: 8105: 7412:

And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology

6931:, etc. It seems unlikely that the "father" of the modern racist theory of 5506: 4693:

Theory Groups and the Study of Language in North America: A Social History

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in 1908, regularly wrote and published articles on folklore (often in the

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Genius at Work: How Franz Boas Created the Field of Cultural Anthropology

7821:"Franz Boas and the Founding of the American Anthropological Association" 7742:(223: Franz Boas Memorial Number). The American Folklore Society: 65–69. 7721:(223: Franz Boas Memorial Number). The American Folklore Society: 59–64. 7161: 6879: 6262:

Jakobson, Roman; Boas, Franz (1944). "Franz Boas' Approach to Language".

6225:"Veränderungen der Körperform der Nachkommen von Einwanderern in Amerika" 3709: 2537: 2517: 2453: 2372: 2047: 2024: 1925: 1908:, at the time a professor of American linguistics and archaeology at the 1724: 1720: 1627: 1623: 1618:

Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship.

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The social organization and the secret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians

5491: 5468:"Lewis Henry Morgan Today; An Appraisal of His Scientific Contributions" 5467: 5428: 5404: 4206: 4104:"Clark Wissler and the Development of Anthropology in the United States" 4047: 3396:. War Department Education Manual. Vol. 226. Washington, DC: Heath. 3266:. Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection. 2849:

The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians

2108:

The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians

2005:

The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians

1500:

process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of

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From Boas to Black Power: Racism, Liberalism, and American Anthropology

7025: 6633: 5821: 5781: 5588: 5548: 3276: 3118: 2860: 2838: 2568: 2501: 2292: 2197: 2034: 1894: 1646:, however, were organized into patrilineal groups. Boas focused on the 1425:, there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with 1328: 1199: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1138: 954:; practices he would later utilize in his own work in ethnomusicology. 889: 884:

at Heidelberg. These factors led Boas to consider pursuing research in

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developed theories of "cultural ecology" and "multilineal evolution".

2399:

Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics

1591:

was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research).

9923: 9688: 9397: 9337: 9216: 9196: 8948: 8943: 8923: 8798: 8699: 8349: 8024: 6657: 6616: 6597: 5904: 5849:. Cornell University Library. New York : Macmillan. p. 278. 5639: 5622: 4389:

The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture.

4190: 2976: 2599: 2125: 1937: 1933: 1732: 1631: 1497: 1392:

interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true."

985: 759: 715: 643: 8052: 7793:"'The Shameful Business': Leslie Spier On The Censure Of Franz Boas" 7132: 7017: 5225:

A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911

5108:"Bird's-Eye View of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893" 5107: 3741: 3507:

Boas, Franz (2002). Bouchard, Randy; Kennedy, Dorothy I. D. (eds.).

3458:

A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911

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1887—Accepted a position as Assistant Editor of Science in New York.

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Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology

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Lewis, Herbert (2008). "Franz Boas: Boon or Bane" (Review Essay)".

7644: 7571:

Lesser, Alexander (1981). "Franz Boas". In Silverman, Sydel (ed.).

7052: 6799: 6768: 6383: 6275: 5877: 5769:. The Library of Congress. New York, The Columbia University Press. 4802:

The Boasians: Founding Fathers and Mothers of American Anthropology

4500:

Anthropology & Modern Life, with an Introduction by Ruth Bunzel

3225: 3097: 3064: 3042: 3020: 2998: 2948: 2926: 2760:

International School of American Archeology and Ethnology in Mexico

2158: 2103: 2099: 2000: 1807: 1647: 1599: 1550:

Clash With Maurice Fishberg, Joseph Jacobs and Ellsworth Huntington

1344:—one "generalizing", the other "specifying". (Winkelband's student 7631:

Lewis, Herbert (2001b). "Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology".

7554:

The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion

5712:(The first American PhD in anthropology was actually granted from 5341:

Alexander Lesser, 1981 "Franz Boas" p. 25 in Sydel Silverman, ed.

5205:"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Johann Gottfried von Herder" 10612:

An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus

9945: 9940: 9906: 9881: 9798: 9372: 8928: 8480: 7713:

Lowie, Robert H. (January–March 1944). "Franz Boas (1858–1942)".

6040:

What It Means to Be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes

5729:

Cultural Awareness and Competency Development in Higher Education

4018:(2006). "Frederica de Laguna and the Pleasures of Anthropology". 2580: 2448:(1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists ( 2041: 1970: 1778:

of people without historical records; and prehistoric archeology.

1756: 1748: 1622:

had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of

747: 639: 114: 79: 7573:

Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology

4284:. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publishing. pp. 272–273. 4073:. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. pp. 84–85. 10012: 9826: 9517:

An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language

9452: 7903: 6528:

Totems and Teachers: Key Figures in the History of Anthropology

3643:. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 208. 2672:

and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and

2552: 2360: 2310: 2226: 1752: 1137:

In 1896, Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and

731: 236: 66: 5390:"Collections Search - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum" 2870:"The Decorative Art of the Indians of the North Pacific Coast" 10839:

People associated with the American Museum of Natural History

8938: 7969:

Franz Boas: Shaping Anthropology and Fostering Social Justice

7757:

Transmission Difficulties: Franz Boas and Tsimshian Mythology

7529:. Dordrecht; London: Springer Netherlands. pp. 377–400. 6654:

Zellig Harris: From American Linguistics to Socialist Zionism

5142:, vol. 8, Florence, Italy, pp. 1–25, archived from 3105:

Boas, Franz (1911). "Handbook of American Indian languages".

2883:(82) X. New York: American Museum of Natural History: 101–3. 2607: 2211: 1942: 1517: 922:

educated people' are much worse, relatively speaking ...

906: 751: 638:

Studying in Germany, Boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in

8038: 8025:

Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History

5982:"A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited" 3872:. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. p. 85. 3799:. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. p. 84. 3608:. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. p. 82. 3516:. Translated by Bertz, Dietrich. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks. 1583:

in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology,

809:

When he started his university studies, Boas first attended

754:

of any kind. An important early influence was the avuncular

41: 10498:

An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People

7236:

Baker, Lee D. (2004). "Franz Boas Out of the Ivory Tower".

6701:

Baker, Lee D. (2004). "Franz Boas out of the ivory tower".

5241: 4071:

Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia

3928:

Culture Wars: Context, Models and Anthropologists' Accounts

3870:

Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia

3797:

Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia

3704:(2018). "Foreword: The Politics of a 'Negro Folklore'". In 3606:

Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia

3556: 1508:

developed by Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, and

798: 4964:

Politics and the sciences of culture in Germany, 1840–1920

4406:

Moore, Jerry D. (2009). "Franz Boas: Culture in Context".

3903:

Park Youth in Vienna: A Contribution to Urban Anthropology

3075:

The Measurement of Differences Between Variable Quantities

2594:, who shaped the concept of "racial democracy" in Brazil; 2384:

in protest against Hitlerism. He also wrote an article in

1950:. In such cases, people might classify what we would call 1691:

Boas was appointed a lecturer in physical anthropology at

1448: 10834:

Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences

7665:— contains transcription of Boas's 1909 lecture on Darwin 6164:"The Meaning and Consequences of Morphological Variation" 5678: 3559: 3512:

Indianische Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Küste-Amerikas

2516:

in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor,

2238: 1467:, which became emblematic of the now-discredited idea of 1119:(1843-1898) in transcribing the music they recorded into 1049:, in 1888. Boas was concerned about university president 739: 5726:

Lynda, Leavitt; Sherrie, Wisdom; Kelly, Leavitt (2017).

4823: 4821: 4819: 4695:. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 47 3748:. Providence, Rhode Island: Wetters Verlag. p. 32. 750:

society. Boas's parents were liberal; they did not like

5405:"The Rise and Fall of the Bureau of American Ethnology" 5403:

Woodbury, Richard B.; Woodbury, Nathalie F. S. (1999).

3839:. 2 (30). Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History: 4. 1928:: when studying a new language, how are we to note the 10580:

The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy

4769: 4767: 2879:. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 1678: 957:

In 1886, Boas defended (with Helmholtz's support) his

864:, would later encounter difficulties also in studying 839:

Contributions to the Perception of the Color of Water,

10779:

Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States

4816: 4410:. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira. pp. 33–46. 3994:

Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia

3562: 2464:(1914) who developed the anthropology program at the 934:

in Berlin, where he was introduced to members of the

7926:

American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent

5674:"American Experience . Minik, The Lost Eskimo - PBS" 5542: 5540: 5178:

A collection of 33 public addresses by the late Boas

5163:

A collection of 33 public addresses by the late Boas

3746:

On the Third Hand: A Festschrift for David Josephson

3553: 2819:

The Houses of the Kwakiutl Indians, British Columbia

2397:, opposed the racist pseudoscience developed at the 2367:" (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but 2065:

Although other anthropologists at the time, such as

7923:Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy (1988). Dundes, Alan (ed.). 7523: 7073: 7038: 6445:

Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution

5505:Boas, Franz, United States National Museum (1897). 5157:Boas, Franz (1945), "Race and Democratic Society", 4980: 4764: 3863: 3861: 3599: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3550: 3456:Boas, Franz (1974). Stocking, George W. Jr. (ed.). 2797:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

2429:anthropology programs at other major universities. 9752: 8072:By Charles King, Columbia Magazine, Winter 2019-20 7886:Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries 6598:"Spying by American Archaeologists in World War I" 5015:Franz Boas's Baffin Island Letter-Diary, 1883–1884 3996:. Brookline, Massachusetts: Jewish Women's Archive 3957:American Indian Languages and American Linguistics 3716:. New York: Liveright Publishing. p. xxviii. 2965:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 1115:. Boas and Fletcher partnered with music educator 7364:"Boas, Foucault, and the 'Native Anthropologist'" 7267:"A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries" 5725: 5537: 5006: 4602:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs 4584:Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 4319: 4279: 2971:X. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 2790:Publications of the American Ethnological Society 2652:, was editor from 1956 to 1959. His last student 1284:, and later researchers such as Marian W. Smith, 746:values, including their assimilation into modern 710:, the study of material culture and history, and 10695: 8065:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir 7074:Andersen, Chris; O'Brien, Jean M., eds. (2016). 6691:, Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen, 2003, pp. 212–213 6521: 6519: 5892: 5402: 5181: 5057:Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist, 4414: 3858: 3590: 2633:Boas and his students were also an influence on 2440:(1908), started the anthropology program at the 1965:Boas applied these principles to his studies of 714:, the study of variation in human anatomy, with 7946:Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist 7158:. Vol. LXVII, no. 9. pp. 17–19. 6552:http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pnh2d 5549:"Museums of Ethnology and Their Classification" 5202: 3663: 3332:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3294:Journal of the American Statistical Association 2492:(1923) who started the anthropology program at 1558: 1056: 27:German-born American anthropologist (1858–1942) 7341:Franz Boas 1858–1942: An Illustrated Biography 7152:(28 May 2020). "The Defender of Differences". 7122:American Antiquarian Society Members Directory 4748:Bohannan, Paul, and Mark Glazer (eds.). 1988. 4554:Boas, Franz. 1938. An Anthropologist's Credo. 3951:Haas, Mary R. (1976). Chafe, Wallace L (ed.). 2706: 2432:Boas's first doctoral student at Columbia was 804:Beiträge zur Erkenntniss der Farbe des Wassers 758:, his mother's brother-in-law and a friend of 242:Beiträge zur Erkenntniss der Farbe des Wassers 10524:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races 9738: 8883: 8091: 7041:International Journal of American Linguistics 6865: 6516: 6372:International Journal of American Linguistics 6264:International Journal of American Linguistics 2782:International Journal of American Linguistics 6261: 6161: 5980:Sparks, Corey S.; Jantz, Richard L. (2002). 5529:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3510: 2436:(1901), who, along with fellow Boas student 2115:opinion and of mode of action that occur in 1666:, Franz Boas requested that Arctic explorer 1662:In his capacity as Assistant Curator at the 1164: 966: 10884:Presidents of the American Folklore Society 10824:Members of the American Antiquarian Society 7888:. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. 7164:. He had, more slowly, become a skeptic of 5979: 5127: 4222:Women Anthropologists: Selected Biographies 2353:Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 725: 10516:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question 9745: 9731: 9607:Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language 8897: 8890: 8876: 8098: 8084: 7480:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6789: 6743:, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jun., 1990), pp. 252–273 6454: 6452: 5096:. Philadelphia, PA: J. W. Keller & Co. 5085: 4545:p. 280. Washington: Douglas and MacIntyre. 4282:Encyclopedia of Women in the American West 4253:Elsie Clews Parsons: Inventing Modern Life 4102:Freed, Stanley A.; Freed, Ruth S. (1983). 4101: 3244:Folk-tales of Salishan and Sahaptin tribes 3177:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2614:; anthropologist, folklorist and novelist 2152: 1504:. Boas rejected the prevalent theories of 40: 10540:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century 7971:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 7948:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 7929:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 7836: 7506: 7076:Sources and Methods in Indigenous Studies 6972: 6752: 6615: 6525: 6478: 6015: 6005: 5638: 5166: 5150: 4481: 4320:Sue Carole DeVale (2001). "Boas, Franz". 4119: 4014: 3361: 3351: 3275: 3147: 2958:"A Bronze Figurine from British Columbia" 2412: 1271: 1259:Learn how and when to remove this message 813:for a semester followed by four terms at 10799:Linguistic Society of America presidents 7883: 7864: 7845: 7818: 7293: 7175: 7135:, columbia.edu. Retrieved 24 April 2021. 6828: 6202:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 122. 5546: 5187: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4309: 3987: 3930:. New York: Berghahn Books. p. 25. 3925: 3827: 3714:The Annotated African American Folktales 3049: 3027: 3005: 2983: 2937:The Thompson Indians of British Columbia 2933: 2915:The Mythology of the Bella Coola Indians 2206:regime, and openly protested Hitlerism. 2184: 2089: 1994: 1984: 1819: 1682: 1593: 1452: 1145:under Putnam. In 1897, he organized the 1029:. Alienated by growing antisemitism and 895: 797: 730:Franz Boas was born on July 9, 1858, in 7966: 7943: 7922: 7575:. New York: Columbia University Press. 7488: 7409: 7264: 7199: 7003: 6900: 6595: 6449: 6332: 6305: 6042:, University of California Press, 2003 5898: 5277: 4752:(2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 81 4663: 4435:Race: The History of an Idea in America 4432: 4334:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.03328 4248: 4219: 3483:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2728:1901—Appointed Honorary Philologist of 2701:Race: The History of an Idea in America 2551:His students at Columbia also included 2145:Before his death in 1942, he appointed 1889:and culture which his students such as 1536:characterized his debt to Darwin thus: 1449:Orthogenetic versus Darwinian evolution 14: 10849:People from the Province of Westphalia 10696: 10131:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 7630: 7589: 7570: 7393:Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858–1906 7148: 6954: 6629: 6627: 6603:Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 6369: 6197: 6147:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 6097:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5758: 5756: 5133: 5091: 4543:Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858–1906 4503:. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 1919:In short, he shifted attention to the 1429:: empiricism. In 1949, Boas's student 872:. Boas had already been interested in 9726: 8871: 8079: 7865:Stocking, George W. Jr., ed. (1996). 7790: 7773: 7733: 7712: 7668: 7551: 7428: 7361: 7294:Benedict, Ruth (1943). "Franz Boas". 7235: 7206: 6700: 6458: 5941: 5859: 5653: 5616: 5614: 5511:. Washington: Government Pr. Office. 5465: 5354: 4993:Smithsonian Institution via Gutenberg 4967:, New York: Oxford University Press, 4960: 4595: 4463: 4448: 4405: 4394: 4306: 4068: 3900: 3867: 3794: 3768: 3736: 3700: 3636: 3603: 3571: 3328:"The Tempo of Growth of Fraternities" 3264:Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 8108:American Anthropological Association 7754: 7697: 7447: 7390: 7338: 7194: 7160:was skeptical... about doctrines of 6562: 6493: 6404: 6222: 5842: 5779: 5762: 5620: 5504: 5379:Boas, 1909 lecture; see Lewis 2001b. 5172: 5156: 5012: 4986: 4496: 4420: 4391:New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. 4176: 3950: 3506: 3487: 3474: 3455: 3436: 3417: 3400: 3389: 3378: 3325: 3312: 3291: 3254: 3240: 3211: 3170: 3125: 3104: 3082: 3071: 2955: 2911: 2867: 2845: 2815: 2345:American Anthropological Association 1853:American Anthropological Association 1793:One of Boas's most important books, 1460:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature 1197:adding citations to reliable sources 1168: 876:philosophy since taking a course on 10894:20th-century German anthropologists 10854:Phonologists from the United States 10764:19th-century German anthropologists 10683:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness 7902: 6955:Laguna, Frederica de (April 1962). 6948: 6624: 5753: 5345:New York: Columbia University Press 5100: 4849:Ellensburg: Ephemera Press. p. 128. 2488:, also one of Boas's students, and 1687:Columbia University library in 1903 1679:Later career: academic anthropology 1276:Some scholars, like Boas's student 1008:in 1900 and the development of the 825:, but ended up transferring to the 24: 10819:Linguists of Uto-Aztecan languages 7797:History of Anthropology Newsletter 7706:University of California, Berkeley 7395:. University of Washington Press. 7142: 6845:10.1111/j.2151-6952.1989.tb00721.x 6638:The Invention of Primitive Society 5621:Pöhl, Friedrich (1 January 2008). 5611: 5547:Dall, Wm. H.; Boas, Franz (1887). 3905:. Vienna: LIT Verlag. p. 39. 3640:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 3197:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1911.tb56933.x 3173:"The History of the American Race" 3050:Boas, Franz; Hunt, George (1906). 3028:Boas, Franz; Hunt, George (1905). 3006:Boas, Franz; Hunt, George (1902). 2984:Boas, Franz; Hunt, George (1902). 2442:University of California, Berkeley 1664:American Museum of Natural History 1348:elaborated on this distinction in 1143:American Museum of Natural History 25: 10910: 10588:The Myth of the Twentieth Century 10508:The Outline of History of Mankind 7990: 7869:. University of Wisconsin Press. 7433:. University of Wisconsin Press. 7006:Journal of the Folklore Institute 4791:Bohannan and Glaser, 1988, p. 81. 2934:Teit, James; Boas, Franz (1900). 2512:(1925) who had begun teaching at 1113:Indigenous music of North America 1041:, Boas secured an appointment as 1037:Aside from his editorial work at 702:Boas also introduced the idea of 10804:Linguists from the United States 10556:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics 8039:Franz Boas at Minden, Westphalia 7884:Williams, Vernon J. Jr. (1996). 7846:Stocking, George W. Jr. (1968). 7819:Stocking, George W. Jr. (1960). 7736:The Journal of American Folklore 7715:The Journal of American Folklore 7126: 7115: 7091: 7082: 7067: 7032: 6997: 6939: 6921: 6894: 6859: 6822: 6783: 6746: 6731: 6694: 6681: 6672: 6663: 6643: 6589: 6556: 6544: 6487: 6443:Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay 1969 6437: 6398: 6363: 6353: 6326: 6299: 6290: 6255: 6216: 6191: 6155: 6105: 6055: 6032: 5973: 5960: 5935: 5853: 5836: 5773: 5719: 5706: 5654:Smith, Dinitia (15 March 2000). 5355:Lewis, Herbert S. (2018-05-03). 4804:. Falls Village: Hamilton Books. 4682:Bohannan and Glazer, 1988, p. 81 3742:"Ethnomusicology and the Exiles" 3546: 3287:from the original on 2019-08-11. 3086:The Kwakiutl of Vancouver Island 2745:The Journal of American Folklore 2567:, who received his doctorate in 1657: 1303:(the law - giving sciences) and 1173: 1111:in making several recordings of 606: 10814:Linguists of Salishan languages 10789:German people of Jewish descent 10719:20th-century American academics 7967:Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy (2022). 7944:Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy (2019). 7850:. University of Chicago Press. 7133:About Columbia University Press 6957:"Marian Wesley Smith 1907–1961" 6530:. Rowman Altamira. p. 16. 6180:from the original on 2010-11-30 5697: 5666: 5647: 5498: 5459: 5435: 5396: 5382: 5373: 5348: 5335: 5326: 5271: 5262: 5235: 5217: 5196: 5076: 5066: 5045: 5020: 4954: 4945: 4928: 4914: 4888: 4879: 4870: 4861: 4852: 4839: 4830: 4807: 4794: 4785: 4776: 4761:Cole, 1999, pp. 49, 51, 55, 56. 4755: 4742: 4733: 4724: 4715: 4698: 4685: 4676: 4657: 4648: 4639: 4630: 4621: 4612: 4589: 4576: 4548: 4535: 4490: 4457: 4426: 4381: 4368: 4353: 4340: 4273: 4261:. East Lansing, Michigan: H-Net 4242: 4213: 4170: 4144: 4095: 4062: 4008: 3981: 3944: 3919: 3894: 3538: 3492:. University of Chicago Press. 3460:. University of Chicago Press. 2393:Boas, and his students such as 2235:W. E. B. Du Bois 2071:Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown 1184:needs additional citations for 140: 10859:Smithsonian Institution people 10809:Linguists of Na-Dene languages 10548:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples 9754:Historical definitions of race 9547:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 8048:American Philosophical Society 7698:Liss, Julia Elizabeth (1990). 6526:Silverman, Sydel, ed. (2004). 5361:History of Anthropology Review 5203:Michael Forster (2007-09-27). 3821: 3788: 3762: 3730: 3694: 3657: 3630: 3385:(Revised ed.). Macmillan. 3315:The Journal of Dental Research 3306:10.1080/01621459.1922.10502461 3078:. New York: The Science Press. 3053:Kwakiutl Texts - Second Series 2831:10.5479/si.00963801.11-709.197 2795:1931—Elected president of the 2765:1910—Elected president of the 2737:American Philosophical Society 2478:New School for Social Research 2261:Boas's closing advice is that 1883: 1147:Jesup North Pacific Expedition 1071:, director and curator of the 13: 1: 10572:The Passing of the Great Race 9428:Principle of compositionality 7838:10.1525/aa.1960.62.1.02a00010 7759:. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks. 7622:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 7508:10.1525/aa.1949.51.2.02a00210 7180:. Stanford University Press. 5782:"The History of Anthropology" 5296:10.1525/aa.1949.51.2.02a00210 4940:University of Wisconsin Press 4483:10.1525/aa.1982.84.3.02a00020 4121:10.1525/aa.1983.85.4.02a00040 3953:"Boas, Sapir, and Bloomfield" 3583: 3162:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 3140:10.1525/aa.1912.14.3.02a00080 2751:1908—Elected a member of the 1299:(the humanities), or between 1099:to record music performed by 623:. He was a pioneer of modern 10794:Heidelberg University alumni 10724:20th-century Prussian people 10714:19th-century Prussian people 10471:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer 9577:Philosophical Investigations 8016:Works by or about Franz Boas 7590:Lewis, Herbert (June 2001). 7535:10.1007/978-90-481-8587-0_16 7452:(First ed.). New York. 7347:: Seaport Autographs Press. 7155:The New York Review of Books 6459:Lewis, Herbert (June 2001). 5970:, Random House, 2008, p. 206 5573:10.1126/science.ns-9.228.587 5061:University of Nebraska Press 4876:quoted in Cole, 1999, p. 57. 4710:University of Missouri Press 4226:University of Illinois Press 3440:Anthropology and Modern Life 3214:Journal of American Folklore 3107:Bureau of American Ethnology 2767:New York Academy of Sciences 2753:American Antiquarian Society 2730:Bureau of American Ethnology 2723:National Academy of Sciences 2332:National Academy of Sciences 2179:Journal of American Folklore 2175:Journal of American Folklore 1579:. The BAE was housed at the 1565:Bureau of American Ethnology 1559:Early career: museum studies 1469:evolution as linear progress 1109:Bureau of American Ethnology 1063:World's Columbian Exposition 1057:World's Columbian Exposition 7: 10899:Linguistics journal editors 10759:Columbia University faculty 10744:American ethnomusicologists 10186:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt 10151:Houston Stewart Chamberlain 10101:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 9418:Modality (natural language) 7908:"Franz Boas and Statistics" 7592:"The Passion of Franz Boas" 6832:Curator: The Museum Journal 6461:"The Passion of Franz Boas" 6335:Historiographia Linguistica 6308:Historiographia Linguistica 5942:Spiro, Jonathan P. (2009). 5466:Stern, Bernhard J. (1946). 5230:University of Chicago Press 5190:University of Chicago Press 5175:Race and Democratic Society 5134:Lorini, Alessandra (2003), 5013:Cole, Herbert, ed. (1983), 4750:High Points in Anthropology 4348:University of Chicago Press 3490:Race, Language, and Culture 3403:Race and Democratic Society 3270:. Smithsonian Institution. 2707:Leadership roles and honors 2598:, who carried forth Boas's 2315:German immigrants in Mexico 791:, a subject he enjoyed. In 10: 10915: 10889:20th-century American Jews 9557:Language, Truth, and Logic 9297:Theological noncognitivism 9182:Contrast theory of meaning 9177:Causal theory of reference 8908:Index of language articles 7776:"Anthropologists as Spies" 7491:"An Authoritarian Panacea" 7316:10.1126/science.97.2507.60 7221:10.1177/0308275x9401400205 6596:Browman, David L. (2011). 6563:Boas, Franz (1916-01-08). 6229:Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 5946:. Univ. of Vermont Press. 5806:10.1126/science.20.512.513 5280:"An Authoritarian Panacea" 4936:In History of Anthropology 4645:Cole, 1999, pp. 52 and 55. 4290:10.4135/9781412950626.n146 4249:Cordery, Stacy A. (1998). 3988:Saltzman, Cynthia (2009). 3744:. In Wetter, Brent (ed.). 3390:Boas, Franz, ed. (1944) . 2691: 1988: 1910:University of Pennsylvania 1872:evolutionary psychologists 1840:Richard L. Jantz 1571:, a geologist who favored 1336:two "interests" of reason 1060: 10869:University of Bonn alumni 10829:Anthropological linguists 10630: 10489: 10281:Georges Vacher de Lapouge 10058: 9956: 9812: 9769: 9760: 9697: 9642:Philosophy of information 9629: 9478: 9330: 9242:Mediated reference theory 9167: 8914: 8905: 8766: 8619: 8408: 8213: 8114: 7803:(2): 9–12. Archived from 7683:10.1080/00938150802038968 7610:10.1525/aa.2001.103.2.447 7380:10.1525/aa.2004.106.3.435 7283:10.1525/aa.2004.106.3.443 6974:10.1017/S0002731600024045 6915:10.1525/aa.2002.104.2.520 6640:p. 149. London: Routledge 6510:10.1525/can.1998.13.2.127 6480:10.1525/aa.2001.103.2.447 5899:Jackson, John P. (2005). 5732:. IGI Global. p. 5. 5092:Truman, Benjamin (1893). 4923:Stanford University Press 4691:Murray, Stephen O. 1993. 4433:Gossett, Thomas (1997) . 4079:10.4135/9781452276311.n29 3965:10.1515/9783110867695-007 3878:10.4135/9781452276311.n29 3805:10.4135/9781452276311.n29 3614:10.4135/9781452276311.n29 3422:. New York: Dover Books. 3382:The Mind of Primitive Man 3326:Boas, Franz (July 1935). 2774:Columbia University Press 2687: 2349:National Research Council 2110:, written by Boas (1897). 1804:The Mind of Primitive Man 1796:The Mind of Primitive Man 1520:with whom Boas worked at 1165:Late 19th century debates 1105:Alice Cunningham Fletcher 932:Royal Ethnological Museum 787:on, Boas was educated in 605: 600: 596: 525: 504: 478: 345: 324: 314: 304: 299: 258: 248: 235: 209: 204: 200: 183: 150: 124: 110: 87: 48: 39: 32: 10754:Clark University faculty 10729:American anthropologists 10653:History of anthropometry 10421:Charles Gabriel Seligman 10246:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman 9934:Sinodonty and Sundadonty 9567:Two Dogmas of Empiricism 7489:Kroeber, Alfred (1949). 7414:. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 7339:Boas, Norman F. (2004). 7250:10.1177/1463499604040846 7209:Critique of Anthropology 6717:10.1177/1463499604040846 5409:Journal of the Southwest 4845:Speth, William W. 1999. 4800:Adams, William Y. 2016. 4596:Lowie, Robert H (1947). 3531: 2889:10.1126/science.4.82.101 2806: 1423:Geschichtswissenschaften 1412:historical particularism 1305:Geschichtswissenschaften 726:Early life and education 629:historical particularism 217:University of Heidelberg 10111:Daniel Garrison Brinton 9368:Use–mention distinction 9212:Direct reference theory 8390:Alfred Irving Hallowell 8230:Marshall Howard Saville 7825:American Anthropologist 7671:Reviews in Anthropology 7597:American Anthropologist 7495:American Anthropologist 7410:Darnell, Regna (1998). 7368:American Anthropologist 7271:American Anthropologist 7176:Anderson, Mark (2019). 6903:American Anthropologist 6466:American Anthropologist 6411:American Anthropologist 6407:"On Alternating Sounds" 6347:10.1075/hl.17.1-2.11dar 6320:10.1075/hl.20.2-3.05mac 5860:Allen, John S. (1989). 5343:From Totems to Teachers 5284:American Anthropologist 5278:Kroeber, A. L. (1949). 5268:Boas and Stocking 1989. 5248:. U of Nebraska Press. 4867:Koelsch, 2004, pp. 1, 4 4598:"Franz Boas, 1858–1942" 4470:American Anthropologist 4439:Oxford University Press 4376:American Anthropologist 4326:Oxford University Press 4156:Encyclopædia Britannica 4108:American Anthropologist 3670:Anthropology at Harvard 3128:American Anthropologist 2758:1910—Helped create the 2642:American Anthropologist 2494:Northwestern University 2424:Between 1901 and 1911, 2369:Freudian psychoanalysis 2327:American Anthropologist 2322:Smithsonian Institution 2233:, at the invitation of 2153:Franz Boas and folklore 1906:Daniel Garrison Brinton 1806:ends with an appeal to 1741:participant observation 1581:Smithsonian Institution 1366:Johann Gottfried Herder 1095:Boas collaborated with 821:to study physics under 742:, his parents embraced 558:Alfred Irving Hallowell 10874:Jewish anthropologists 10739:20th-century linguists 10734:American anti-fascists 10456:Thomas Griffith Taylor 10211:Reginald Ruggles Gates 9302:Theory of descriptions 9237:Linguistic determinism 8899:Philosophy of language 8310:John Montgomery Cooper 8195:William Curtis Farabee 8033:Collections Highlights 7448:King, Charles (2019). 7391:Cole, Douglas (1999). 7238:Anthropological Theory 7078:. New York: Routledge. 6704:Anthropological Theory 6660:, Apr 15, 2011, p. 196 6007:10.1073/pnas.222389599 5968:Sin in the Second City 5192:, Chicago, p. 354 5161:(1 ed.), New York 4858:Adams, 2016, pp. 3, 39 4387:Harris, Marvin. 1968. 3901:Mayer, Danila (2011). 3837:Fieldiana Anthropology 3706:Gates, Henry Louis Jr. 3702:Gates, Henry Louis Jr. 3511: 3405:. New York: Augustin. 2742:1908—Became editor of 2470:Alexander Goldenweiser 2413:Students and influence 2395:Melville J. Herskovits 2363:in Germany denounced " 2303: 2287: 2259: 2249: 2203: 2111: 2017: 2008: 1836: 1817: 1780: 1770: 1688: 1603: 1543: 1471: 1403: 1340:had identified in the 1307:(history). Generally, 1272:Science versus history 967: 924: 806: 781: 720:four-field subdivision 661:Alexander Goldenweiser 383:Melville J. Herskovits 368:Alexander Goldenweiser 358:A. F. Chamberlain 130:Marie Krackowizer Boas 76:North Rhine-Westphalia 10596:Annihilation of Caste 10500:in Different Climates 10451:William Graham Sumner 10431:Samuel Stanhope Smith 10376:James Cowles Prichard 10008:Racial discrimination 9413:Mental representation 9348:Linguistic relativity 9232:Inquisitive semantics 8807:Virginia R. Domínguez 8692:Nancy Oestreich Lurie 8668:William C. Sturtevant 8585:Anthony F. C. Wallace 8246:George Grant MacCurdy 7912:Annals of Scholarship 7791:Price, David (2001). 7774:Price, David (2000). 7556:. London: Routledge. 7527:SIKU: Knowing Our Ice 7362:Bunzl, Matti (2004). 7265:Bashkow, Ira (2004). 7150:Appiah, Kwame Anthony 6687:Hans-Walter Schmuhl, 6497:Cultural Anthropology 6171:Understandingrace.org 5472:Science & Society 5113:World Digital Library 5052:Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt 4961:Smith, W. D. (1991), 4951:Harris, 1968, p. 264. 4827:Williams, 1998, p. 57 4739:Harris, 1968, p. 265. 4618:Harris, 1968, p. 253. 4497:Boas, Franz (1962) . 4464:Glick, L. B. (1982). 4152:"A. Irving Hallowell" 4032:10.1353/arc.2011.0092 3769:Niiya, Brian (2015). 3488:Boas, Franz (1982) . 3437:Boas, Franz (1962) . 3418:Boas, Franz (1955) . 3379:Boas, Franz (1938) . 3353:10.1073/pnas.21.7.413 2618:, who graduated from 2466:University of Chicago 2298: 2282: 2254: 2244: 2188: 2185:Scientist as activist 2098:illustrates the 1894 2093: 2013: 1998: 1985:Cultural anthropology 1831: 1826:physical anthropology 1820:Physical anthropology 1812: 1775: 1765: 1743:method of fieldwork. 1729:cultural anthropology 1717:physical anthropology 1686: 1597: 1538: 1457:An illustration from 1456: 1419:Geisteswissenschaften 1398: 1342:Critique of Judgement 1297:Geisteswissenschaften 1117:John Comfort Fillmore 1087:and reside in a mock 1002:The Origin of Species 919: 896:Post-graduate studies 823:Hermann von Helmholtz 811:Heidelberg University 802:Boas's dissertation: 801: 772: 712:physical anthropology 378:Herman Karl Haeberlin 10879:Jewish anti-fascists 10769:German anti-fascists 10749:American folklorists 10648:Great chain of being 10366:Ludwig Hermann Plate 10331:Samuel George Morton 10146:Samuel A. Cartwright 9996:in the United States 9597:Naming and Necessity 9507:De Arte Combinatoria 9306:Definite description 9267:Semantic externalism 8593:Joseph B. Casagrande 8163:Roland Burrage Dixon 8147:William Henry Holmes 8131:Frederic Ward Putnam 7755:Maud, Ralph (2000). 7633:Current Anthropology 7552:Kuper, Adam (1988). 7429:Evans, Brad (2006). 7103:search.amphilsoc.org 7099:"APS Member History" 6880:10.1353/aq.1999.0036 6405:Boas, Franz (1889). 6223:Boas, Franz (1913). 5866:Current Anthropology 5843:Boas, Franz (1911). 5780:Boas, Franz (1904). 5763:Boas, Franz (1908). 5627:Études/Inuit/Studies 5173:Boas, Franz (1969), 4989:"The Central Eskimo" 4987:Boas, Franz (1888), 4895:Marmon Silko, Leslie 4885:Murray, 1993, p. 47. 4782:Harris, 1968, p. 265 4730:Lowie, 1947, p. 303. 4627:Koelsch, 2004, p. 1. 4437:. New York, Oxford: 4228:. pp. 265–266. 4224:. Urbana, Illinois: 4016:McClellan, Catharine 3481:Kwakiutl Ethnography 3475:Boas, Franz (1966). 3401:Boas, Franz (1945). 3393:General Anthropology 3255:Boas, Franz (1917). 3241:Boas, Franz (1917). 3171:Boas, Franz (1912). 3083:Boas, Franz (1909). 3072:Boas, Franz (1906). 2956:Boas, Franz (1901). 2912:Boas, Franz (1898). 2868:Boas, Franz (1897). 2846:Boas, Franz (1895). 2816:Boas, Franz (1889). 2735:1903—Elected to the 2721:1900—Elected to the 2694:Boasian anthropology 2606:, who worked on the 2387:The American Mercury 2347: (AAA) and the 2196:letter from Boas to 2085:William Henry Holmes 2067:Bronisław Malinowski 2044:as fluid and dynamic 2019:When Boas's student 1991:Boasian anthropology 1737:Bronisław Malinowski 1698:Doctor of Philosophy 1490:Edward Burnett Tylor 1378:University of Berlin 1374:Wilhelm von Humboldt 1313:Gesetzwissenschaften 1301:Gesetzwissenschaften 1193:improve this article 1157:, and its director, 1132:William Henry Holmes 1097:Benjamin Ives Gilman 1081:Christopher Columbus 1069:Frederic Ward Putnam 948:Erich von Hornbostel 642:while also studying 319:Boasian anthropology 10774:German ethnologists 10604:The Races of Europe 10532:The Races of Europe 10311:Dominick McCausland 10261:Thomas Henry Huxley 10206:Stanley Marion Garn 10086:Robert Bennett Bean 9814:Historical concepts 9647:Philosophical logic 9637:Analytic philosophy 9443:Sense and reference 9322:Verification theory 9277:Situation semantics 8660:Conrad M. Arensberg 8545:Frederica de Laguna 8513:Morris Edward Opler 8318:Elsie Clews Parsons 8155:Jesse Walter Fewkes 8006:Works by Franz Boas 7997:Works by Franz Boas 7308:1943Sci....97...60B 7166:social evolutionism 6070:lance.qualquant.net 5998:2002PNAS...9914636S 5992:(23): 14636–14639. 5927:History Cooperative 5798:1904Sci....20..513B 5565:1887Sci.....9..587D 5447:peabody.harvard.edu 4836:Koelsch, 2004, p. 5 4773:Koelsch, 2004, p. 4 4654:Cole, 1999, p. 298. 4636:Koelsch, 2004, p. 1 4255:, by Desley Deacon" 4020:Arctic Anthropology 3775:Densho Encyclopedia 3771:"E. Adamson Hoebel" 3664:Browman, David L.; 3344:1935PNAS...21..413B 3189:1912NYASA..21..177B 2635:Claude Lévi-Strauss 2604:Frederica de Laguna 2573:Columbia University 2490:Melville Herskovits 2474:Elsie Clews Parsons 2426:Columbia University 2419:Claude Lévi-Strauss 2401:under its director 2382:Paul von Hindenburg 2055:Cultural relativism 1979:cultural relativism 1693:Columbia University 1484:, such as those of 1465:Thomas Henry Huxley 1427:Naturwissenschaften 1309:Naturwissenschaften 1295:(the sciences) and 1293:Naturwissenschaften 1045:in anthropology at 704:cultural relativism 653:Columbia University 633:cultural relativism 578:Elsie Clews Parsons 553:Pliny Earle Goddard 543:Frederica de Laguna 517:four-field approach 512:Cultural relativism 470:Ruth Sawtell Wallis 337:Columbia University 315:School or tradition 205:Academic background 10844:People from Minden 10784:German folklorists 10476:Alexander Winchell 10406:Henric Sanielevici 10266:Calvin Ira Kephart 10236:Hans F. K. Günther 10221:Arthur de Gobineau 10121:Alice Mossie Brues 10018:Racial stereotypes 9497:Port-Royal Grammar 9393:Family resemblance 9312:Theory of language 9287:Supposition theory 8783:Elizabeth Brumfiel 8628:Walter Goldschmidt 8425:Wendell C. Bennett 8417:William W. Howells 8123:William John McGee 8106:Presidents of the 8058:2017-11-14 at the 8029:Collections Online 7162:racial superiority 6961:American Antiquity 6868:American Quarterly 6794:(19/20): 105–118. 6740:American Quarterly 6669:Lewis 2001:458–459 6569:The New York Times 6162:Richard L. Jantz. 6120:www.anthro.fsu.edu 5929:. 18 October 2020. 5660:The New York Times 4903:, p. 254. Arcade. 4813:Adams, 2016, p. 39 4721:Cole, 1999, p. 53. 4569:2014-07-27 at the 4541:Douglas Cole 1999 4322:Grove Music Online 3990:"Ruth Leah Bunzel" 3829:VanStone, James W. 2650:Walter Goldschmidt 2616:Zora Neale Hurston 2496:. He also trained 2472:(1910), who, with 2444:. He also trained 2407:Rhineland Bastards 2307:Sylvanus G. Morley 2276:The New York Times 2231:Atlanta University 2112: 2009: 1877:Mendelian genetics 1788:cultural evolution 1710:William John McGee 1689: 1620:Lewis Henry Morgan 1613:cultural evolution 1604: 1589:Harvard University 1577:cultural evolution 1573:Lewis Henry Morgan 1569:John Wesley Powell 1496:—a determinate or 1482:cultural evolution 1472: 1410:would later call " 1352:; Boas's students 1325:Wilhelm Windelband 1077:Harvard University 1006:Mendelian genetics 978:The Central Eskimo 911:The Central Eskimo 827:University of Kiel 807: 776:revolution of 1848 677:Zora Neale Hurston 657:A. L. Kroeber 588:Leah Rachel Yoffie 533:Leonard Bloomfield 496:Zora Neale Hurston 408:A. L. Kroeber 227:University of Kiel 222:University of Bonn 71:Kingdom of Prussia 10691: 10690: 10620:The Race Question 10466:John H. Van Evrie 10391:William Z. Ripley 10361:Charles Pickering 10306:Felix von Luschan 10276:Robert E. Kuttner 10176:Charles Davenport 10045:Whiteness studies 9771:Color terminology 9763:Scientific racism 9720: 9719: 9222:Dynamic semantics 8865: 8864: 8676:M. Margaret Clark 8644:Francis L. K. Hsu 8505:Sherwood Washburn 8465:E. Adamson Hoebel 8044:Franz Boas Papers 8001:Project Gutenberg 7955:978-1-4962-1554-3 7895:978-0-8131-1963-2 7876:978-0-299-14554-5 7857:978-0-226-77494-7 7766:978-0-88922-430-8 7582:978-0-231-05087-6 7563:978-0-415-00903-4 7544:978-90-481-8586-3 7459:978-0-385-54219-7 7440:978-0-299-21920-8 7421:978-1-55619-623-2 7402:978-1-55054-746-7 7354:978-0-9672626-2-8 6936:Lang, 2008, p. 19 6209:978-0-299-14554-5 6048:978-0-520-24064-3 5953:978-1-58465-715-6 5914:978-0-8147-4271-6 5739:978-1-5225-2146-4 5255:978-0-8032-6984-2 4974:978-0-19-536227-5 4909:978-1-55970-005-4 4514:978-0-486-25245-2 4299:978-1-4129-5062-6 4235:978-0-252-06084-7 4088:978-1-5063-1461-7 3937:978-1-84545-811-9 3912:978-3-643-50253-7 3887:978-1-5063-1461-7 3814:978-1-5063-1461-7 3755:978-0-692-66692-0 3723:978-0-87140-753-5 3679:978-0-87365-913-0 3666:Williams, Stephen 3650:978-0-684-31559-1 3623:978-1-5063-1461-7 3523:978-0-88922-553-4 3499:978-0-226-06241-9 3467:978-0-226-06243-3 3429:978-0-486-20025-5 2779:1917—Founded the 2628:Ella Cara Deloria 2559:, who earned his 2534:E. Adamson Hoebel 2434:Alfred L. Kroeber 2263:African Americans 2227:racial inequality 2117:primitive society 2003:mask from Boas's 1700:(PhD) program in 1502:natural selection 1385:Leopold von Ranke 1327:coined the terms 1269: 1268: 1261: 1243: 940:Pacific Northwest 819:Berlin University 688:scientific racism 621:ethnomusicologist 614: 613: 393:E. Adamson Hoebel 346:Doctoral students 276:Heymann Steinthal 193:Sophie Meyer Boas 91:December 21, 1942 16:(Redirected from 10906: 10499: 10446:Lothrop Stoddard 10441:Morris Steggerda 10416:Ilse Schwidetzky 10411:Heinrich Schmidt 10396:Alfred Rosenberg 10356:Isaac La Peyrère 10161:Carleton S. Coon 10136:Charles Caldwell 10091:François Bernier 9974:in Latin America 9747: 9740: 9733: 9724: 9723: 9682:Formal semantics 9630:Related articles 9622: 9612: 9602: 9592: 9582: 9572: 9562: 9552: 9542: 9532: 9522: 9512: 9502: 9492: 9262:Relevance theory 9257:Phallogocentrism 8892: 8885: 8878: 8869: 8868: 8858: 8850: 8842: 8834: 8831:Alisse Waterston 8826: 8818: 8810: 8802: 8794: 8786: 8778: 8759: 8751: 8743: 8740:Yolanda T. Moses 8735: 8727: 8719: 8716:Jane E. Buikstra 8711: 8703: 8695: 8687: 8679: 8671: 8663: 8655: 8647: 8639: 8636:Richard N. Adams 8631: 8612: 8609:Ernestine Friedl 8604: 8601:Edward H. Spicer 8596: 8588: 8580: 8572: 8569:George M. Foster 8564: 8556: 8548: 8540: 8532: 8529:Alexander Spoehr 8524: 8516: 8508: 8500: 8492: 8484: 8476: 8468: 8460: 8452: 8444: 8436: 8428: 8420: 8401: 8393: 8385: 8382:Harry L. Shapiro 8377: 8369: 8361: 8353: 8345: 8337: 8329: 8326:Alfred V. 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Barsky 6647: 6641: 6631: 6622: 6621: 6619: 6617:10.5334/bha.2123 6593: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6583: 6560: 6554: 6548: 6542: 6541: 6523: 6514: 6513: 6491: 6485: 6484: 6482: 6456: 6447: 6441: 6435: 6434: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6367: 6361: 6357: 6351: 6350: 6341:(1–2): 129–144. 6330: 6324: 6323: 6314:(2–3): 331–351. 6303: 6297: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6259: 6253: 6252: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6185: 6179: 6168: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6146: 6138: 6136: 6134: 6129:on 21 April 2004 6128: 6122:. Archived from 6117: 6109: 6103: 6102: 6096: 6088: 6086: 6084: 6079:on 25 March 2005 6078: 6072:. Archived from 6067: 6059: 6053: 6038:Marks, Jonathan 6036: 6030: 6029: 6019: 6009: 5977: 5971: 5964: 5958: 5957: 5939: 5933: 5930: 5918: 5896: 5890: 5889: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5792:(512): 513–524. 5777: 5771: 5770: 5760: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5723: 5717: 5714:Clark University 5710: 5704: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5682:. Archived from 5670: 5664: 5663: 5651: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5640:10.7202/038214ar 5618: 5609: 5608: 5559:(228): 587–589. 5544: 5535: 5534: 5528: 5520: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5439: 5433: 5432: 5400: 5394: 5393: 5386: 5380: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5368: 5367: 5352: 5346: 5339: 5333: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5275: 5269: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5239: 5233: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5200: 5194: 5193: 5185: 5179: 5177: 5170: 5164: 5162: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5122: 5121: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5089: 5083: 5080: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5032:geni_family_tree 5028:"Franz Uri Boas" 5024: 5018: 5017: 5010: 5004: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4943: 4932: 4926: 4918: 4912: 4892: 4886: 4883: 4877: 4874: 4868: 4865: 4859: 4856: 4850: 4843: 4837: 4834: 4828: 4825: 4814: 4811: 4805: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4774: 4771: 4762: 4759: 4753: 4746: 4740: 4737: 4731: 4728: 4722: 4719: 4713: 4702: 4696: 4689: 4683: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4661: 4655: 4652: 4646: 4643: 4637: 4634: 4628: 4625: 4619: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4593: 4587: 4580: 4574: 4552: 4546: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4529: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4461: 4455: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4403: 4392: 4385: 4379: 4372: 4366: 4361:Natural History. 4357: 4351: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4317: 4304: 4303: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4191:10.2307/25605788 4174: 4168: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4123: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3948: 3942: 3941: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3865: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3738:Titon, Jeff Todd 3734: 3728: 3727: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3601: 3577: 3575: 3573:[ˈboːas] 3569: 3568: 3565: 3564: 3561: 3558: 3555: 3552: 3542: 3527: 3514: 3503: 3484: 3471: 3452: 3443:. W. W. Norton. 3433: 3414: 3397: 3386: 3375: 3365: 3355: 3322: 3309: 3300:(138): 181–209. 3288: 3286: 3279: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3237: 3220:(106): 374–410. 3208: 3167: 3161: 3153: 3151: 3122: 3101: 3091: 3079: 3068: 3058: 3046: 3036: 3024: 3014: 3002: 2992: 2980: 2962: 2952: 2942: 2930: 2920: 2908: 2874: 2864: 2854: 2842: 2824: 2788:1917—Edited the 2646:John Alden Mason 2522:Alexander Lesser 2201: 1784:social evolution 1626:organization to 1506:social evolution 1372:and philosopher 1346:Heinrich Rickert 1286:Herbert S. Lewis 1282:Alexander Lesser 1264: 1257: 1253: 1250: 1244: 1242: 1201: 1177: 1169: 1047:Clark University 1010:modern synthesis 972: 965:, and was named 855: 846:Theobald Fischer 690:, the idea that 610: 479:Notable students 466: 413:Alexander Lesser 332:Clark University 249:Doctoral advisor 144: 142: 94: 62: 60: 44: 30: 29: 21: 10914: 10913: 10909: 10908: 10907: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10694: 10693: 10692: 10687: 10626: 10564:Castes in India 10485: 10481:Ludwig Woltmann 10436:Herbert Spencer 10326:Lewis H. Morgan 10296:Cesare Lombroso 10171:Jan Czekanowski 10156:Sonia Mary Cole 10096:Renato Biasutti 10054: 10033:Nazism and race 9952: 9929:Proto-Mongoloid 9808: 9765: 9756: 9751: 9721: 9716: 9693: 9672:School of Names 9625: 9620: 9610: 9600: 9590: 9587:Of Grammatology 9580: 9570: 9560: 9550: 9540: 9530: 9520: 9510: 9500: 9490: 9474: 9326: 9272:Semantic holism 9252:Non-cognitivism 9192:Conventionalism 9163: 8910: 8901: 8896: 8866: 8861: 8853: 8845: 8837: 8829: 8821: 8813: 8805: 8797: 8791:Alan H. Goodman 8789: 8781: 8773: 8762: 8756:Louise Lamphere 8754: 8746: 8738: 8730: 8722: 8714: 8706: 8698: 8690: 8682: 8674: 8666: 8658: 8650: 8642: 8634: 8626: 8615: 8607: 8599: 8591: 8583: 8575: 8567: 8559: 8551: 8543: 8535: 8527: 8519: 8511: 8503: 8495: 8487: 8479: 8471: 8463: 8455: 8447: 8439: 8431: 8423: 8415: 8404: 8396: 8388: 8380: 8374:Clyde Kluckhohn 8372: 8364: 8356: 8348: 8342:Robert Redfield 8340: 8332: 8324: 8316: 8308: 8302:Diamond Jenness 8300: 8292: 8284: 8278:Herbert Spinden 8276: 8268: 8262:Fay-Cooper Cole 8260: 8254:John R. Swanton 8252: 8244: 8236: 8228: 8220: 8209: 8201: 8193: 8185: 8177: 8169: 8161: 8153: 8145: 8137: 8129: 8121: 8110: 8104: 8060:Wayback Machine 7993: 7979: 7956: 7937: 7896: 7877: 7858: 7810: 7808: 7767: 7615: 7614: 7583: 7564: 7545: 7473: 7472: 7460: 7441: 7422: 7403: 7355: 7302:(2507): 60–62. 7188: 7171: 7145: 7143:Further reading 7140: 7139: 7131: 7127: 7120: 7116: 7107: 7105: 7097: 7096: 7092: 7087: 7083: 7072: 7068: 7037: 7033: 7018:10.2307/3813878 7002: 6998: 6953: 6949: 6944: 6940: 6933:Lusotropicalism 6926: 6922: 6899: 6895: 6864: 6860: 6827: 6823: 6788: 6784: 6751: 6747: 6736: 6732: 6699: 6695: 6686: 6682: 6677: 6673: 6668: 6664: 6648: 6644: 6632: 6625: 6594: 6590: 6581: 6579: 6561: 6557: 6549: 6545: 6538: 6524: 6517: 6492: 6488: 6457: 6450: 6442: 6438: 6403: 6399: 6368: 6364: 6358: 6354: 6331: 6327: 6304: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6260: 6256: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6196: 6192: 6183: 6181: 6177: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6140: 6139: 6132: 6130: 6126: 6115: 6113:"Archived copy" 6111: 6110: 6106: 6090: 6089: 6082: 6080: 6076: 6065: 6063:"Archived copy" 6061: 6060: 6056: 6037: 6033: 5978: 5974: 5966:Abbott, Karen, 5965: 5961: 5954: 5940: 5936: 5921: 5915: 5897: 5893: 5858: 5854: 5841: 5837: 5778: 5774: 5761: 5754: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5724: 5720: 5711: 5707: 5702: 5698: 5689: 5687: 5672: 5671: 5667: 5652: 5648: 5619: 5612: 5545: 5538: 5522: 5521: 5503: 5499: 5464: 5460: 5451: 5449: 5441: 5440: 5436: 5401: 5397: 5388: 5387: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5365: 5363: 5353: 5349: 5340: 5336: 5331: 5327: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5256: 5240: 5236: 5222: 5218: 5209: 5207: 5201: 5197: 5186: 5182: 5171: 5167: 5155: 5151: 5132: 5128: 5119: 5117: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5090: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5071: 5067: 5063:2019 pp.182-183 5050: 5046: 5037: 5035: 5026: 5025: 5021: 5011: 5007: 4998: 4996: 4985: 4981: 4975: 4959: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4933: 4929: 4919: 4915: 4893: 4889: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4844: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4777: 4772: 4765: 4760: 4756: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4725: 4720: 4716: 4712:. 54–86. p. 57. 4703: 4699: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4662: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4635: 4631: 4626: 4622: 4617: 4613: 4608:(303–322): 303. 4594: 4590: 4581: 4577: 4571:Wayback Machine 4553: 4549: 4540: 4536: 4527: 4525: 4515: 4495: 4491: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4449: 4441:. p. 418. 4431: 4427: 4419: 4415: 4404: 4395: 4386: 4382: 4373: 4369: 4358: 4354: 4345: 4341: 4318: 4307: 4300: 4278: 4274: 4264: 4262: 4247: 4243: 4236: 4218: 4214: 4175: 4171: 4161: 4159: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4067: 4063: 4013: 4009: 3999: 3997: 3986: 3982: 3975: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3866: 3859: 3849: 3847: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3793: 3789: 3779: 3777: 3767: 3763: 3756: 3735: 3731: 3724: 3699: 3695: 3680: 3662: 3658: 3651: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3602: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3580: 3549: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3524: 3500: 3468: 3430: 3284: 3259: 3257:"Kutenai Tales" 3247: 3155: 3154: 3089: 3056: 3034: 3012: 2990: 2960: 2940: 2918: 2872: 2852: 2822: 2809: 2709: 2696: 2690: 2620:Barnard College 2592:Gilberto Freyre 2590:in New Mexico; 2555:anthropologist 2514:Barnard College 2510:Gladys Reichard 2498:John R. Swanton 2462:Fay-Cooper Cole 2415: 2202: 2195: 2187: 2155: 2096:Wilhelm Kuhnert 1993: 1987: 1967:Inuit languages 1886: 1868:sociobiologists 1824:Boas's work in 1822: 1681: 1668:Robert E. Peary 1660: 1561: 1552: 1510:Herbert Spencer 1486:Lewis H. Morgan 1477:George Stocking 1451: 1389:Wilhelm Dilthey 1274: 1265: 1254: 1248: 1245: 1202: 1200: 1190: 1178: 1167: 1067:Anthropologist 1065: 1059: 1051:G. Stanley Hall 898: 866:tonal languages 853: 815:Bonn University 789:natural history 728: 681:Gilberto Freyre 592: 548:Gilberto Freyre 521: 500: 486:Fay-Cooper Cole 474: 460: 438:Gladys Reichard 398:Melville Jacobs 341: 295: 231: 196: 179: 146: 143: 1887) 138: 134: 131: 117: 106: 96: 92: 83: 73: 64: 58: 56: 55: 54: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10912: 10902: 10901: 10896: 10891: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10866: 10864:String figures 10861: 10856: 10851: 10846: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10826: 10821: 10816: 10811: 10806: 10801: 10796: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10736: 10731: 10726: 10721: 10716: 10711: 10706: 10689: 10688: 10686: 10685: 10680: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10660: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10634: 10632: 10628: 10627: 10625: 10624: 10616: 10608: 10600: 10592: 10584: 10576: 10568: 10560: 10552: 10544: 10536: 10534:(Ripley, 1899) 10528: 10520: 10512: 10504: 10493: 10491: 10487: 10486: 10484: 10483: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10458: 10453: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10428: 10426:Giuseppe Sergi 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10386:Gustaf Retzius 10383: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10338: 10336:Josiah C. Nott 10333: 10328: 10323: 10321:Ashley Montagu 10318: 10313: 10308: 10303: 10301:Bertil Lundman 10298: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10253: 10251:Earnest Hooton 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10218: 10216:George Gliddon 10213: 10208: 10203: 10201:Francis Galton 10198: 10193: 10191:Anténor Firmin 10188: 10183: 10181:Joseph Deniker 10178: 10173: 10168: 10166:Georges Cuvier 10163: 10158: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10128: 10123: 10118: 10113: 10108: 10103: 10098: 10093: 10088: 10083: 10078: 10073: 10068: 10062: 10060: 10056: 10055: 10053: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10041: 10040: 10038:Racial hygiene 10035: 10030: 10025: 10020: 10015: 10005: 10000: 9999: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9987: 9986: 9981: 9971: 9962: 9960: 9954: 9953: 9951: 9950: 9949: 9948: 9938: 9937: 9936: 9931: 9921: 9916: 9915: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9829: 9824: 9818: 9816: 9810: 9809: 9807: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9781: 9775: 9773: 9767: 9766: 9761: 9758: 9757: 9750: 9749: 9742: 9735: 9727: 9718: 9717: 9715: 9714: 9709: 9704: 9698: 9695: 9694: 9692: 9691: 9686: 9685: 9684: 9674: 9669: 9664: 9659: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9633: 9631: 9627: 9626: 9624: 9623: 9613: 9603: 9593: 9583: 9573: 9563: 9553: 9543: 9533: 9523: 9513: 9503: 9493: 9482: 9480: 9476: 9475: 9473: 9472: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9423:Presupposition 9420: 9415: 9410: 9405: 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9345: 9340: 9334: 9332: 9328: 9327: 9325: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9309: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9284: 9279: 9274: 9269: 9264: 9259: 9254: 9249: 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9204: 9202:Deconstruction 9199: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9179: 9173: 9171: 9165: 9164: 9162: 9161: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9106: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8920: 8918: 8912: 8911: 8906: 8903: 8902: 8895: 8894: 8887: 8880: 8872: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8859: 8851: 8843: 8835: 8827: 8819: 8815:Leith Mullings 8811: 8803: 8795: 8787: 8779: 8770: 8768: 8764: 8763: 8761: 8760: 8752: 8744: 8736: 8728: 8724:Annette Weiner 8720: 8712: 8704: 8696: 8688: 8680: 8672: 8664: 8656: 8648: 8640: 8632: 8623: 8621: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8613: 8605: 8597: 8589: 8581: 8577:Charles Wagley 8573: 8565: 8557: 8549: 8541: 8537:John P. Gillin 8533: 8525: 8517: 8509: 8501: 8493: 8485: 8477: 8469: 8461: 8453: 8449:George Murdock 8445: 8441:John Otis Brew 8437: 8429: 8421: 8412: 8410: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8402: 8398:Ralph L. Beals 8394: 8386: 8378: 8370: 8362: 8354: 8346: 8338: 8330: 8322: 8314: 8306: 8298: 8290: 8286:Nels C. Nelson 8282: 8274: 8266: 8258: 8250: 8242: 8234: 8226: 8217: 8215: 8211: 8210: 8208: 8207: 8199: 8191: 8183: 8179:Alfred Kroeber 8175: 8167: 8159: 8151: 8143: 8135: 8127: 8118: 8116: 8112: 8111: 8103: 8102: 8095: 8088: 8080: 8074: 8073: 8067: 8062: 8050: 8041: 8036: 8022: 8013: 8003: 7992: 7991:External links 7989: 7988: 7987: 7978:978-1496216915 7977: 7964: 7954: 7941: 7935: 7920: 7900: 7894: 7881: 7875: 7862: 7856: 7843: 7816: 7788: 7771: 7765: 7752: 7731: 7710: 7704:(PhD thesis). 7695: 7666: 7645:10.1086/320474 7639:(3): 381–406. 7628: 7604:(2): 447–467. 7587: 7581: 7568: 7562: 7549: 7543: 7521: 7501:(2): 318–320. 7486: 7458: 7445: 7439: 7426: 7420: 7407: 7401: 7388: 7386:on 2013-01-05. 7374:(3): 435–442. 7359: 7353: 7336: 7291: 7289:on 2013-01-05. 7277:(3): 443–458. 7262: 7233: 7215:(2): 199–217. 7204: 7203: 7202: 7200:Zumwalt (2019) 7197: 7192: 7186: 7144: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7125: 7114: 7090: 7081: 7066: 7053:10.1086/689547 7031: 7012:(1–2): 23–39. 6996: 6967:(4): 567–570. 6947: 6938: 6929:Ashley Montagu 6920: 6909:(2): 520–532. 6893: 6858: 6839:(3): 212–228. 6821: 6800:10.2307/466181 6782: 6769:10.1086/351043 6745: 6730: 6693: 6680: 6671: 6662: 6642: 6623: 6588: 6555: 6543: 6536: 6515: 6504:(2): 127–166. 6486: 6473:(2): 447–467. 6448: 6436: 6397: 6384:10.1086/464784 6378:(3): 269–280. 6362: 6352: 6325: 6298: 6289: 6276:10.1086/463841 6270:(4): 188–195. 6254: 6215: 6208: 6190: 6154: 6104: 6054: 6031: 5972: 5959: 5952: 5934: 5932: 5931: 5913: 5891: 5878:10.1086/203716 5852: 5835: 5772: 5752: 5738: 5718: 5705: 5696: 5665: 5646: 5610: 5536: 5497: 5478:(2): 172–176. 5458: 5434: 5415:(3): 283–296. 5395: 5381: 5372: 5347: 5334: 5325: 5290:(2): 318–320. 5270: 5261: 5254: 5234: 5232:, 1989, p. 11. 5216: 5195: 5180: 5165: 5159:J. J. Augustin 5149: 5126: 5099: 5084: 5075: 5065: 5044: 5019: 5005: 4979: 4973: 4953: 4944: 4927: 4913: 4887: 4878: 4869: 4860: 4851: 4838: 4829: 4815: 4806: 4793: 4784: 4775: 4763: 4754: 4741: 4732: 4723: 4714: 4697: 4684: 4675: 4656: 4647: 4638: 4629: 4620: 4611: 4588: 4575: 4547: 4534: 4513: 4489: 4476:(3): 545–565. 4456: 4447: 4425: 4413: 4393: 4380: 4367: 4363:November 1997. 4352: 4350:, 1989. p. 308 4339: 4305: 4298: 4272: 4241: 4234: 4212: 4179:Anthropologica 4169: 4143: 4114:(4): 800–825. 4094: 4087: 4061: 4007: 3980: 3973: 3943: 3936: 3918: 3911: 3893: 3886: 3857: 3820: 3813: 3787: 3761: 3754: 3729: 3722: 3693: 3678: 3656: 3649: 3629: 3622: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3578: 3536: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3529: 3528: 3522: 3504: 3498: 3485: 3472: 3466: 3453: 3434: 3428: 3415: 3398: 3387: 3376: 3338:(7): 413–418. 3323: 3310: 3289: 3252: 3238: 3226:10.2307/534740 3209: 3183:(1): 177–183. 3168: 3134:(3): 530–562. 3123: 3102: 3080: 3069: 3047: 3031:Kwakiutl Texts 3025: 3009:Kwakiutl Texts 3003: 2987:Kwakiutl Texts 2981: 2953: 2931: 2909: 2865: 2843: 2813: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2803: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2777: 2770: 2763: 2756: 2749: 2740: 2733: 2726: 2719: 2716: 2713: 2708: 2705: 2692:Main article: 2689: 2686: 2682:Julian Steward 2674:psychoanalysis 2662:cephalic index 2626:folklore, and 2624:Afro-Caribbean 2596:Viola Garfield 2588:Pueblo Indians 2561:Master of Arts 2546:Ashley Montagu 2450:the Fox nation 2414: 2411: 2365:Jewish Science 2193: 2186: 2183: 2154: 2151: 2124:techniques of 2094:A painting by 2059: 2058: 2052: 2045: 2038: 1989:Main article: 1986: 1983: 1899:Alfred Kroeber 1885: 1882: 1866:Although some 1849:Jonathan Marks 1821: 1818: 1680: 1677: 1659: 1656: 1567:, directed by 1560: 1557: 1551: 1548: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1445: 1442: 1438: 1431:Alfred Kroeber 1354:Alfred Kroeber 1278:Alfred Kroeber 1273: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1181: 1179: 1172: 1166: 1163: 1121:music notation 1073:Peabody Museum 1061:Main article: 1058: 1055: 998:Charles Darwin 982:Rudolf Virchow 973:in geography. 897: 894: 835:Gustav Karsten 756:Abraham Jacobi 727: 724: 617:Franz Uri Boas 612: 611: 603: 602: 598: 597: 594: 593: 591: 590: 585: 583:Ruth Underhill 580: 575: 570: 565: 563:Otto Klineberg 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 529: 527: 523: 522: 520: 519: 514: 508: 506: 502: 501: 499: 498: 493: 488: 482: 480: 476: 475: 473: 472: 467: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 428:Ashley Montagu 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 373:Irving Goldman 370: 365: 360: 355: 349: 347: 343: 342: 340: 339: 334: 328: 326: 322: 321: 316: 312: 311: 306: 302: 301: 297: 296: 294: 293: 288: 283: 281:Rudolf Virchow 278: 273: 271:Moritz Lazarus 268: 262: 260: 256: 255: 253:Gustav Karsten 250: 246: 245: 239: 233: 232: 230: 229: 224: 219: 213: 211: 207: 206: 202: 201: 198: 197: 195: 194: 191: 187: 185: 181: 180: 178: 177: 172: 169: 166: 163: 158: 154: 152: 148: 147: 136: 132: 129: 128: 126: 122: 121: 112: 108: 107: 97: 95:(aged 84) 89: 85: 84: 65: 53:Franz Uri Boas 52: 50: 46: 45: 37: 36: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10911: 10900: 10897: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10865: 10862: 10860: 10857: 10855: 10852: 10850: 10847: 10845: 10842: 10840: 10837: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10810: 10807: 10805: 10802: 10800: 10797: 10795: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10732: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10707: 10705: 10702: 10701: 10699: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10659: 10658:Miscegenation 10656: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10635: 10633: 10629: 10623: 10621: 10617: 10615: 10613: 10609: 10607: 10605: 10601: 10599: 10597: 10593: 10591: 10589: 10585: 10583: 10581: 10577: 10575: 10573: 10569: 10567: 10565: 10561: 10559: 10557: 10553: 10551: 10549: 10545: 10543: 10541: 10537: 10535: 10533: 10529: 10527: 10525: 10521: 10519: 10517: 10513: 10511: 10509: 10505: 10503: 10501: 10495: 10494: 10492: 10488: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10461:Paul Topinard 10459: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10401:Benjamin Rush 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10371:Alfred Ploetz 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10351:Oscar Peschel 10349: 10347: 10346:Roger Pearson 10344: 10342: 10339: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10324: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10316:John Mitchell 10314: 10312: 10309: 10307: 10304: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10291:Carl Linnaeus 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10256:Julian Huxley 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10241:Ernst Haeckel 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10226:Madison Grant 10224: 10222: 10219: 10217: 10214: 10212: 10209: 10207: 10204: 10202: 10199: 10197: 10196:Eugen Fischer 10194: 10192: 10189: 10187: 10184: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10172: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10159: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10141:Petrus Camper 10139: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10127: 10124: 10122: 10119: 10117: 10114: 10112: 10109: 10107: 10104: 10102: 10099: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089: 10087: 10084: 10082: 10079: 10077: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10066:Louis Agassiz 10064: 10063: 10061: 10057: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10024: 10021: 10019: 10016: 10014: 10011: 10010: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9976: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9966: 9964: 9963: 9961: 9959: 9955: 9947: 9944: 9943: 9942: 9939: 9935: 9932: 9930: 9927: 9926: 9925: 9922: 9920: 9917: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9897:Mediterranean 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9834: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9819: 9817: 9815: 9811: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9776: 9774: 9772: 9768: 9764: 9759: 9755: 9748: 9743: 9741: 9736: 9734: 9729: 9728: 9725: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9699: 9696: 9690: 9687: 9683: 9680: 9679: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9667:Scholasticism 9665: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9632: 9628: 9619: 9618: 9614: 9609: 9608: 9604: 9599: 9598: 9594: 9589: 9588: 9584: 9579: 9578: 9574: 9569: 9568: 9564: 9559: 9558: 9554: 9549: 9548: 9544: 9538: 9534: 9529: 9528: 9524: 9519: 9518: 9514: 9509: 9508: 9504: 9499: 9498: 9494: 9489: 9488: 9484: 9483: 9481: 9477: 9471: 9470: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9409: 9406: 9404: 9401: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9391: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9335: 9333: 9329: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9307: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9282:Structuralism 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9207:Descriptivism 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9187:Contrastivism 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9174: 9172: 9170: 9166: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8921: 8919: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8904: 8900: 8893: 8888: 8886: 8881: 8879: 8874: 8873: 8870: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8823:Monica Heller 8820: 8816: 8812: 8808: 8804: 8800: 8796: 8792: 8788: 8784: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8771: 8769: 8765: 8757: 8753: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8732:James Peacock 8729: 8725: 8721: 8717: 8713: 8709: 8708:Roy Rappaport 8705: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8652:Paul Bohannan 8649: 8645: 8641: 8637: 8633: 8629: 8625: 8624: 8622: 8618: 8610: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8586: 8582: 8578: 8574: 8570: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8550: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8530: 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8497:Gordon Willey 8494: 8490: 8489:Margaret Mead 8486: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8407: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8366:Ruth Benedict 8363: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8327: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8238:Alfred Tozzer 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8222:Aleš Hrdlička 8219: 8218: 8216: 8212: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8188: 8187:Clark Wissler 8184: 8180: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8140: 8136: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8119: 8117: 8113: 8109: 8101: 8096: 8094: 8089: 8087: 8082: 8081: 8078: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8057: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8034: 8030: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8017: 8014: 8011: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7998: 7995: 7994: 7986: 7985:Online review 7980: 7974: 7970: 7965: 7963: 7962:online review 7957: 7951: 7947: 7942: 7938: 7936:0-253-31738-X 7932: 7928: 7927: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7909: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7891: 7887: 7882: 7878: 7872: 7868: 7863: 7859: 7853: 7849: 7844: 7839: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7817: 7807:on 2017-11-11 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7772: 7768: 7762: 7758: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7716: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7702: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7629: 7625: 7619: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7584: 7578: 7574: 7569: 7565: 7559: 7555: 7550: 7546: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7487: 7483: 7477: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7455: 7451: 7446: 7442: 7436: 7432: 7427: 7423: 7417: 7413: 7408: 7404: 7398: 7394: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7360: 7356: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7337: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7321: 7317: 7313: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7189: 7187:9781503607286 7183: 7179: 7174: 7173: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7156: 7151: 7147: 7146: 7134: 7129: 7123: 7118: 7104: 7100: 7094: 7085: 7077: 7070: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7000: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6951: 6942: 6934: 6930: 6924: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6862: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6833: 6825: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6786: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6757: 6749: 6742: 6741: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6705: 6697: 6690: 6684: 6675: 6666: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6646: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6628: 6618: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6604: 6599: 6592: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6559: 6553: 6547: 6539: 6537:9780759104600 6533: 6529: 6522: 6520: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6498: 6490: 6481: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6467: 6462: 6455: 6453: 6446: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6401: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6366: 6356: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6329: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6302: 6293: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6258: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6219: 6211: 6205: 6201: 6194: 6176: 6172: 6165: 6158: 6150: 6144: 6125: 6121: 6114: 6108: 6100: 6094: 6075: 6071: 6064: 6058: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6035: 6027: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5976: 5969: 5963: 5955: 5949: 5945: 5938: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5919: 5916: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5895: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5856: 5848: 5847: 5839: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5768: 5767: 5759: 5757: 5741: 5735: 5731: 5730: 5722: 5715: 5709: 5700: 5686:on 2017-01-10 5685: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5661: 5657: 5650: 5641: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5617: 5615: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5543: 5541: 5532: 5526: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5509: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5462: 5448: 5444: 5438: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5399: 5391: 5385: 5376: 5362: 5358: 5351: 5344: 5338: 5329: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5274: 5265: 5257: 5251: 5247: 5246: 5238: 5231: 5227: 5226: 5220: 5206: 5199: 5191: 5184: 5176: 5169: 5160: 5153: 5146:on 2016-01-27 5145: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5103: 5095: 5088: 5079: 5069: 5062: 5059: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5034:. 9 July 1858 5033: 5029: 5023: 5016: 5009: 4994: 4990: 4983: 4976: 4970: 4966: 4965: 4957: 4948: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4882: 4873: 4864: 4855: 4848: 4842: 4833: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4810: 4803: 4797: 4788: 4779: 4770: 4768: 4758: 4751: 4745: 4736: 4727: 4718: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4694: 4688: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4651: 4642: 4633: 4624: 4615: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4585: 4579: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4561: 4558:147:201–204. 4557: 4551: 4544: 4538: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4501: 4493: 4484: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4460: 4451: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4422: 4417: 4409: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4390: 4384: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4362: 4356: 4349: 4343: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4301: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4260: 4256: 4254: 4245: 4237: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4173: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4011: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3976: 3974:9783110867695 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3939: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3914: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3862: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3824: 3816: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3757: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3733: 3725: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3660: 3652: 3646: 3642: 3641: 3633: 3625: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3589: 3574: 3567: 3541: 3537: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3495: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3477:Codere, Helen 3473: 3469: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3441: 3435: 3431: 3425: 3421: 3420:Primitive Art 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3388: 3384: 3383: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3253: 3246: 3245: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3159: 3150: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3087: 3081: 3077: 3076: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3054: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3032: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3011: 3010: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2988: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2939: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2917: 2916: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2851: 2850: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2820: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2801: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2784: 2783: 2778: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2720: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2710: 2704: 2702: 2695: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2678:Ruth Benedict 2675: 2671: 2670:Sigmund Freud 2665: 2663: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2577:Esther Schiff 2574: 2570: 2566: 2565:Clark Wissler 2562: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2542:George Herzog 2539: 2535: 2531: 2530:Gene Weltfish 2527: 2526:Margaret Mead 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2506:Ruth Benedict 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2446:William Jones 2443: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2403:Eugen Fischer 2400: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2294: 2286: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2271: 2267: 2264: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2217: 2216:Baffin Island 2213: 2207: 2199: 2192: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2150: 2148: 2143: 2140: 2134: 2132: 2127: 2121: 2118: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2086: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2021:Ruth Benedict 2016: 2012: 2006: 2002: 1999:Drawing of a 1997: 1992: 1982: 1980: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1930:pronunciation 1927: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1881: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1861: 1860:cherry picked 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1835: 1830: 1827: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1727:, as well as 1726: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1711: 1705: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1685: 1676: 1674: 1673:Minik Wallace 1669: 1665: 1658:Minik Wallace 1655: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1614: 1608: 1601: 1596: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1585:Otis T. Mason 1582: 1578: 1575:'s theory of 1574: 1570: 1566: 1556: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1522:Baffin Island 1519: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1455: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1408:Marvin Harris 1402: 1397: 1393: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1263: 1260: 1252: 1241: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1210: – 1209: 1205: 1204:Find sources: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1187: 1182:This section 1180: 1176: 1171: 1170: 1162: 1160: 1159:Hermon Bumpus 1156: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101:Kwakwakaʼwakw 1098: 1093: 1090: 1089:Kwakwaka'wakw 1084: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1064: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1032: 1028: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 994:Ernst Haeckel 990: 989:Adolf Bastian 987: 983: 979: 974: 971: 970: 964: 960: 955: 953: 952:George Herzog 949: 945: 941: 937: 936:Nuxalk Nation 933: 928: 923: 918: 914: 912: 908: 904: 903:Baffin Island 893: 891: 887: 886:psychophysics 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 862:tone deafness 857: 851: 847: 842: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 805: 800: 796: 794: 790: 786: 780: 777: 771: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 744:Enlightenment 741: 737: 733: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 700: 696: 693: 689: 684: 682: 678: 674: 673:Margaret Mead 670: 666: 665:Ruth Benedict 662: 658: 654: 649: 648:Baffin Island 645: 641: 636: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 609: 604: 599: 595: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 573:Rhoda Métraux 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 530: 528: 524: 518: 515: 513: 510: 509: 507: 505:Notable ideas 503: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 483: 481: 477: 471: 468: 464: 459: 458:Günter Wagner 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 423:Margaret Mead 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 403:William Jones 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 388:George Herzog 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 353:Ruth Benedict 351: 350: 348: 344: 338: 335: 333: 330: 329: 327: 323: 320: 317: 313: 310: 307: 303: 300:Academic work 298: 292: 291:Wilhelm Wundt 289: 287: 286:Theodor Waitz 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 266:Adolf Bastian 264: 263: 261: 257: 254: 251: 247: 243: 240: 238: 234: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 214: 212: 208: 203: 199: 192: 189: 188: 186: 182: 176: 173: 170: 167: 164: 162: 159: 156: 155: 153: 149: 127: 123: 120: 119:United States 116: 113: 109: 104: 100: 99:New York City 90: 86: 81: 77: 72: 68: 51: 47: 43: 38: 31: 19: 10638:Ethnogenesis 10619: 10611: 10606:(Coon, 1939) 10603: 10595: 10587: 10579: 10571: 10563: 10555: 10547: 10539: 10531: 10523: 10515: 10507: 10497: 10490:Publications 10341:Karl Pearson 10231:John Grattan 10126:Halfdan Bryn 10105: 9991:in Singapore 9958:Sociological 9615: 9605: 9595: 9585: 9575: 9565: 9555: 9545: 9525: 9515: 9505: 9495: 9485: 9467: 9408:Metalanguage 9403:Logical form 9358:Truth-bearer 9317:Unilalianism 9227:Expressivism 9054:Wittgenstein 9023: 8999:von Humboldt 8916:Philosophers 8855:Ramona Perez 8775:Don Brenneis 8767:2001–Present 8748:Jane H. Hill 8561:Cora Du Bois 8553:Irving Rouse 8521:Leslie White 8473:Harry Hoijer 8358:Ralph Linton 8334:Leslie Spier 8294:Edward Sapir 8270:Robert Lowie 8203:Walter Hough 8138: 8032: 8028: 7968: 7945: 7925: 7915: 7911: 7885: 7866: 7847: 7828: 7824: 7809:. Retrieved 7805:the original 7800: 7796: 7786:(16): 24–27. 7783: 7779: 7756: 7739: 7735: 7718: 7714: 7700: 7674: 7670: 7636: 7632: 7618:cite journal 7601: 7595: 7572: 7553: 7526: 7498: 7494: 7449: 7430: 7411: 7392: 7384:the original 7371: 7367: 7340: 7299: 7295: 7287:the original 7274: 7270: 7244:(1): 29–51. 7241: 7237: 7212: 7208: 7177: 7159: 7153: 7128: 7117: 7106:. Retrieved 7102: 7093: 7084: 7075: 7069: 7047:(1): 41–78. 7044: 7040: 7034: 7009: 7005: 6999: 6964: 6960: 6950: 6941: 6923: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6871: 6867: 6861: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6791: 6785: 6760: 6754: 6748: 6738: 6733: 6711:(1): 29–51. 6708: 6702: 6696: 6688: 6683: 6674: 6665: 6653: 6645: 6637: 6610:(2): 10–17. 6607: 6601: 6591: 6580:. 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Retrieved 3774: 3764: 3745: 3732: 3713: 3710:Tatar, Maria 3696: 3669: 3659: 3638: 3632: 3605: 3540: 3508: 3489: 3480: 3457: 3439: 3419: 3402: 3392: 3381: 3335: 3331: 3318: 3314: 3297: 3293: 3267: 3263: 3243: 3217: 3213: 3180: 3176: 3158:cite journal 3131: 3127: 3110: 3106: 3085: 3074: 3052: 3030: 3008: 2986: 2968: 2964: 2936: 2914: 2880: 2876: 2848: 2818: 2780: 2743: 2700: 2697: 2666: 2658: 2654:Marian Smith 2641: 2639: 2632: 2557:Manuel Gamio 2550: 2528:(1929), and 2486:Erna Gunther 2482:Leslie Spier 2458:Edward Sapir 2438:Robert Lowie 2431: 2423: 2416: 2392: 2385: 2378:Nazi Germany 2358: 2341: 2337:Field Museum 2330:). When the 2325: 2319: 2304: 2299: 2291: 2288: 2283: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2224: 2220: 2208: 2204: 2189: 2178: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2156: 2147:Helen Codere 2144: 2138: 2135: 2122: 2113: 2107: 2081: 2076:Robert Lowie 2064: 2060: 2048:Ethnographic 2040:A notion of 2029: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2004: 1975: 1964: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1941: 1920: 1918: 1914: 1903: 1891:Edward Sapir 1887: 1865: 1857: 1837: 1832: 1823: 1813: 1803: 1801: 1794: 1792: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1766: 1761: 1745: 1714: 1706: 1704:in America. 1702:anthropology 1690: 1661: 1652: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1562: 1553: 1544: 1539: 1533:Robert Lowie 1530: 1514: 1498:teleological 1494:orthogenesis 1473: 1458: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1382: 1362: 1358:Edward Sapir 1349: 1341: 1323:philosopher 1318: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1275: 1255: 1246: 1236: 1229: 1222: 1215: 1208:"Franz Boas" 1203: 1191:Please help 1186:verification 1183: 1155:Morris Jesup 1151: 1136: 1128:Field Museum 1125: 1094: 1085: 1066: 1042: 1038: 1036: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1001: 977: 975: 969:Privatdozent 962: 959:habilitation 956: 929: 925: 920: 915: 910: 899: 882:Kuno Fischer 858: 843: 838: 808: 803: 785:kindergarten 782: 773: 764:Christianity 729: 701: 697: 685: 669:Edward Sapir 637: 625:anthropology 616: 615: 491:Erna Gunther 453:Leslie Spier 443:Edward Sapir 418:Robert Lowie 363:Manuel Gamio 325:Institutions 309:Anthropology 244: (1881) 241: 93:(1942-12-21) 63:July 9, 1858 10709:1942 deaths 10704:1858 births 10678:Pre-Adamite 10668:Multiracial 10271:Robert Knox 10081:John Beddoe 10028:Master race 9984:in Colombia 9872:East Baltic 9652:Linguistics 9617:Limited Inc 9537:On Denoting 9363:Proposition 9014:de Saussure 8979:Ibn Khaldun 8849:(2019–2021) 8847:Akhil Gupta 8841:(2017–2019) 8839:Alex Barker 8833:(2015–2017) 8825:(2013–2015) 8817:(2011–2013) 8809:(2009–2011) 8801:(2007–2009) 8793:(2005–2007) 8785:(2003–2005) 8777:(2001–2003) 8758:(1999–2001) 8750:(1997–1999) 8742:(1995–1997) 8734:(1993–1995) 8726:(1991–1993) 8718:(1989–1991) 8710:(1988–1989) 8702:(1986–1987) 8694:(1984–1985) 8264:(1933–1934) 8240:(1929–1930) 8232:(1927–1928) 8224:(1925–1926) 8205:(1923–1924) 8197:(1921–1922) 8189:(1919–1920) 8181:(1917–1918) 8173:(1915–1916) 8171:F. W. Hodge 8165:(1913–1914) 8157:(1911–1912) 8149:(1909–1910) 8141:(1907–1908) 8133:(1905–1906) 8125:(1902–1904) 7831:(1): 1–17. 7195:King (2019) 6874:: 479–528. 6792:Social Text 6235:(1): 1–22. 4900:Storyteller 4251:"Review of 4185:(1): 6, 8. 3544:Pronounced 3277:10088/15526 3119:10088/15507 2861:10088/29967 2839:10088/13090 2544:(1938),and 2538:Jules Henry 2518:Ruth Bunzel 2460:(1909) and 2454:Frank Speck 2373:Einsteinian 2131:George Hunt 2025:idiographic 1926:linguistics 1884:Linguistics 1847:. However, 1725:archaeology 1721:linguistics 1628:patrilineal 1624:matrilineal 1333:idiographic 1031:nationalism 986:ethnologist 963:Baffin Land 944:Carl Stumpf 850:Carl Ritter 768:Ruth Bunzel 708:archaeology 568:Ruth Landes 538:Ruth Bunzel 461: [ 448:Frank Speck 111:Citizenship 10698:Categories 10673:Polygenism 10663:Monogenism 10381:Otto Reche 10286:Fritz Lenz 10116:Paul Broca 10106:Franz Boas 10076:Erwin Baur 10071:John Baker 9965:By region 9822:Australoid 9712:Discussion 9707:Task Force 9657:Pragmatics 9448:Speech act 9378:Categories 9292:Symbiosism 9247:Nominalism 9159:Watzlawick 9039:Bloomfield 8959:Chrysippus 8684:Dell Hymes 8457:Emil Haury 8433:Fred Eggan 8139:Franz Boas 8010:Faded Page 7918:: 269–296. 7811:2006-05-21 7780:The Nation 7468:1109765676 7345:Mystic, CT 7108:2021-01-27 6634:Adam Kuper 6582:2022-07-03 6184:2017-03-04 6133:17 January 6083:17 January 5745:3 February 5690:2017-08-28 5452:2022-07-24 5366:2022-07-04 5210:2016-05-20 5120:2013-07-17 5038:2019-02-25 4999:13 January 4672:(5–26): 5. 4586:40(1):1–22 4556:The Nation 4528:2019-07-19 3584:References 3570:; German: 3411:1049491147 2569:psychology 2502:Paul Radin 2361:Nazi Party 2293:The Nation 2198:John Dewey 2035:Empiricism 1954:as either 1921:perception 1901:followed. 1895:Paul Rivet 1845:morphology 1524:, and the 1463:(1863) by 1441:prejudice. 1329:nomothetic 1249:April 2020 1219:newspapers 1139:Somatology 1014:Lamarckian 890:psychology 878:aesthetics 831:C.F. Gauss 736:Westphalia 526:Influenced 433:Paul Radin 305:Discipline 259:Influences 190:Meier Boas 59:1858-07-09 34:Franz Boas 10050:Négritude 9979:in Brazil 9924:Mongoloid 9832:Caucasoid 9689:Semiotics 9677:Semantics 9527:Alciphron 9463:Statement 9398:Intension 9338:Ambiguity 9217:Dramatism 9197:Cratylism 8949:Eubulides 8944:Aristotle 8924:Confucius 8799:Setha Low 8700:June Helm 8620:1976–2001 8409:1951–1975 8350:Neil Judd 8214:1925–1950 8115:1902–1924 8031:, option 7691:145679059 7476:cite book 7258:143573265 7229:143976125 7061:152181161 6991:245677793 6983:0002-7316 6888:144803374 6853:2151-6952 6808:0164-2472 6777:144156844 6763:: 50–66. 6725:143573265 6658:MIT Press 6577:0362-4331 6423:0002-7294 6392:145771488 6284:144088089 6241:0044-2666 6050:p. xviii 5905:NYU Press 5886:144974459 5814:0036-8075 5581:0036-8075 5525:cite book 5517:254418370 5484:0036-8237 5421:0894-8410 5304:0002-7294 4421:King 2019 4378:62: 1–17. 4199:0003-5459 4130:1548-1433 4056:162017501 4040:0066-6939 4026:(2): 29. 3959:: 59–69. 3845:0071-4739 3688:1931-8812 3449:23278195M 3205:144256357 2977:2246/1543 2725:in April. 2600:Tsimshian 2200:, 11/6/39 2126:philology 1938:phonetics 1934:phonemics 1733:philology 1632:Tsimshian 1319:In 1884, 1017:debates. 793:gymnasium 760:Karl Marx 716:ethnology 644:geography 601:Signature 210:Education 175:Franziska 10643:Eugenics 10023:Colorism 9969:in India 9877:Ethiopid 9857:Atlantid 9847:Armenoid 9702:Category 9662:Rhetoric 9487:Cratylus 9458:Sentence 9433:Property 9353:Language 9331:Concepts 9169:Theories 9134:Strawson 9119:Davidson 9109:Hintikka 9104:Anscombe 9049:Vygotsky 9004:Mauthner 8974:Averroes 8964:Zhuangzi 8954:Diodorus 8934:Cratylus 8857:(2021– ) 8056:Archived 8012:(Canada) 7906:(1988). 7661:23943679 7653:14992220 7517:18153430 7332:17799306 6652:. 2011. 6249:23031137 6175:Archived 6143:cite web 6093:cite web 6026:12374854 5830:17797024 5605:46250503 5597:17779724 5492:40399752 5429:40170100 5320:18153430 4897:(1981). 4567:Archived 4207:25605788 4048:40316665 3831:(1998). 3740:(2016). 3712:(eds.). 3668:(2013). 3372:16587991 3282:Archived 2905:17747165 2897:2246/539 2610:and the 2548:(1938). 2540:(1935), 2536:(1934), 2524:(1929), 2520:(1929), 2508:(1923), 2504:(1911), 2194:— 2159:folklore 2104:Kwakiutl 2100:potlatch 2001:Kwakiutl 1971:dialects 1808:humanism 1648:Kwakiutl 1642:and the 1602:culture) 1600:Kwakiutl 1370:linguist 961:thesis, 868:such as 151:Children 103:New York 74:(now in 18:Boasians 10631:Related 10059:Writers 10003:Passing 9946:Negrito 9941:Negroid 9912:Turanid 9907:Semites 9882:Hamites 9867:Dinaric 9862:Caspian 9469:more... 9373:Concept 9114:Dummett 9089:Gadamer 9084:Chomsky 9069:Derrida 9059:Russell 9044:Bergson 9029:Tillich 8989:Leibniz 8929:Gorgias 8481:Sol Tax 8046:at the 8018:at the 7904:Xie, Yu 7324:1670558 7304:Bibcode 7296:Science 7026:3813878 6636:, 1988 5994:Bibcode 5822:1631123 5794:Bibcode 5786:Science 5589:1762958 5561:Bibcode 5553:Science 5140:Cromohs 4666:Memoirs 4265:May 20, 4259:H-Women 4162:May 20, 4000:May 20, 3850:May 20, 3780:May 20, 3479:(ed.). 3363:1076617 3340:Bibcode 3185:Bibcode 3098:2246/15 3065:2246/22 3043:2246/23 3021:2246/23 2999:2246/23 2949:2246/13 2927:2246/31 2877:Science 2612:Tlingit 2581:Cochiti 2553:Mexican 2042:culture 1757:Germany 1749:England 1636:Tlingit 1526:Germans 1321:Kantian 1233:scholar 1141:of the 1107:at the 1039:Science 1027:Science 874:Kantian 640:physics 184:Parents 168:Gertrud 145: 137: 133: 115:Germany 80:Germany 10622:(1950) 10614:(1943) 10598:(1936) 10590:(1930) 10582:(1920) 10574:(1916) 10566:(1916) 10558:(1911) 10550:(1907) 10542:(1899) 10526:(1855) 10518:(1849) 10510:(1785) 10502:(1744) 10013:Racism 9902:Nordic 9892:Iranid 9842:Arabid 9837:Alpine 9827:Capoid 9784:Bronze 9621:(1988) 9611:(1982) 9601:(1980) 9591:(1967) 9581:(1953) 9571:(1951) 9561:(1936) 9551:(1921) 9541:(1905) 9531:(1732) 9521:(1668) 9511:(1666) 9501:(1660) 9491:(n.d.) 9453:Symbol 9154:Searle 9144:Putnam 9094:Kripke 9079:Austin 9064:Carnap 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