1795:(1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (
1080:
1085:
550:
1231:, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is a symmetric molecule with no stereo centers. The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. The "D-" and "L-" prefixes should not be confused with "d-" or "l-", which indicate the direction that the sugar
1022:
6564:
1438:
640:. Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates, ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this. For example, carbohydrates often display chemical groups such as:
1818:) raise blood glucose rapidly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), raise blood sugar slowly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into "available carbohydrates", which are absorbed in the
1673:
2020:
40:
2715:, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of
1646:
1688:
crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of digestible carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods as these foods have more fiber, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit. Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of
1248:
1687:
for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and
2027:
Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose). Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is
1928:
scientific statement said that "when calorie intake is held constant body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet." In the long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on
2028:
extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree
Wollemia nobilis in Rome, the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China, and straws from rice in California.
4754:
The
British Dietetic Association (BDA) today revealed its much-anticipated annual list of celebrity diets to avoid in 2018. The line-up this year includes Raw Vegan, Alkaline, Pioppi and Ketogenic diets as well as Katie Price's Nutritional
1591:(two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose.
4963:
1068:, literally a "carbon hydrate". Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes.
4797:
Venditti A, Frezza C, Vincenti F, Brodella A, Sciubba F, Montesano C, et al. (February 2019). "A syn-ent-labdadiene derivative with a rare spiro-β-lactone function from the male cones of
Wollemia nobilis".
4593:
Meng Y, Bai H, Wang S, Li Z, Wang Q, Chen L (September 2017). "Efficacy of low carbohydrate diet for type 2 diabetes mellitus management: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials".
532:
in humans, even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it did (i.e., as if it were a digestible and absorbable carbohydrate such as a sugar). In the strict sense,
1695:
Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other
1285:, becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called
3041:
3240:
2790:), thereby pushing the reaction forward irreversibly. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present.
1768:
jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). A 2017
829:
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type. They may be classified according to their
404:
and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal
1745:, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called
4689:
Seckold R, Fisher E, de Bock M, King BR, Smart CE (March 2019). "The ups and downs of low-carbohydrate diets in the management of Type 1 diabetes: a review of clinical outcomes".
516:, the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This includes chemical compounds such as
4519:
4990:
1863:
concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on
2766:. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. A 2 ATP investment is required in the early steps of glycolysis to phosphorylate Glucose to
4775:
3720:
797:) in a large variety of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example,
5532:
3376:
1814:
In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g.,
1788:
1924:
Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An
3866:
4479:"Effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in overweight and obese adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
4070:
4741:
3056:
1844:
call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from a balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from
4191:
3415:
2643:
The carbohydrate value is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber".
3224:
1106:
OH group bound to carbon 5: they either have identical absolute configurations (R,R or S,S) (α), or opposite absolute configurations (R,S or S,R) (β).
5027:
2687:) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species:
1516:, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one
4430:"Effects of low-carbohydrate diets v. low-fat diets on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials"
438:. Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating
2831:
1258:
The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a
1976:
recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.
1329:. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often
5248:
4667:
1725:
are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize
4353:
Taken together, these findings indicate that calorie intake, not macronutrient composition, determines long-term weight loss maintenance.
1783:
often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term
1769:
4049:
3975:
478:, the term "carbohydrate" has many synonyms, like "sugar" (in the broad sense), "saccharide", "ose", "glucide", "hydrate of carbon" or "
3836:
428:, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey is often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes.
5720:
1417:, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during
5067:
4478:
3810:
3519:
744:) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not considered to be monosaccharides (e.g., formaldehyde CH
497:
and in many informal contexts, the term "carbohydrate" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate
5828:
5023:
4982:
4074:
1838:
2743:
Catabolism is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy. There are two major
3698:
3638:
2880:
concerned specifically with the generation of natural and unnatural carbohydrate structures. This can include the synthesis of
1772:
concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease.
1281:
During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the
285:
4917:
4346:
4043:
3552:
3505:
3446:
3234:
3198:
505:, and desserts). This informality is sometimes confusing since it confounds chemical structure and digestibility in humans.
4767:
4083:
3731:
3328:
5112:
3939:
3470:
5056:
4256:
3660:
3360:
5081:
5052:
3614:
3589:
3558:
3370:
3322:
1713:
will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the
3951:
3907:
3852:
3822:
3409:
1831:
1761:
362:
5062:
3758:"A high-protein, high-fat, carbohydrate-free diet reduces energy intake, hepatic lipogenesis, and adiposity in rats"
3798:
3605:
Pigman W, Anet EF (1972). "Chapter 4: Mutarotations and
Actions of Acids and Bases". In Pigman W, Horton D (eds.).
3052:
1549:
How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose.
5243:
3799:
Dietary
Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids
1232:
833:, and may be divided initially into three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
513:
4737:
1937:
in a diet. The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood
5320:
4892:
Balan V, Bals B, Chundawat SP, Marshall D, Dale BE (2009). "Lignocellulosic
Biomass Pretreatment Using AFEX".
3580:
Pigman W, Horton D (1972). "Chapter 1: Stereochemistry of the
Monosaccharides". In Pigman W, Horton D (eds.).
736:. However, some biological substances commonly called "monosaccharides" do not conform to this formula (e.g.,
5646:
3997:
Jenkins DJ, Jenkins AL, Wolever TM, Thompson LH, Rao AV (February 1986). "Simple and complex carbohydrates".
3399:
1973:
267:
of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix
195:), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates (e.g.,
17:
4150:
1305:
OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the
1102:
of glucose. Note the position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on the anomeric carbon relative to the CH
5713:
5016:
2798:
Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of the main
2008:
1510:. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable.
1429:, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight.
588:
during the
Neolithic agricultural revolution. The term "carbohydrate" was first proposed by German chemist
1909:, fruits, and vegetables. A "meta-analysis, of moderate quality," included as adverse effects of the diet
1610:
Oligosaccharides are saccharide polymers composed of three to ten units of monosaccharides, connected via
5821:
5073:
Carbohydrates and
Glycosylation – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology
2762:
In glycolysis, oligo- and polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called
358:
5153:
4849:
Lei Y, Shi SP, Song YL, Bi D, Tu PF (May 2014). "Triterpene saponins from the roots of Ilex asprella".
2932:
2826:
2811:
179:, H has a covalent bond with C but not with O). However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise
1056:
to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general
5517:
5439:
5194:
3844:
2787:
2783:
1765:
1635:
1378:
1200:
434:, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble
4371:
1618:. They are usually linked to lipids or amino acids glycosic linkage with oxygen or nitrogen to form
5888:
5537:
5258:
5199:
5105:
3840:
3803:
2922:
830:
561:
4288:
Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ, Zeltser LM, Drewnowski A, Ravussin E, Redman LM, Leibel RL (August 2017).
4218:"Low-carbohydrate diets for overweight and obesity: a systematic review of the systematic reviews"
1964:, but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with
1112:
Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its
490:". Some of these terms, especially "carbohydrate" and "sugar", are also used with other meanings.
6381:
5706:
5631:
5380:
5375:
5361:
5336:
5085:
4100:
Seidelmann SB, Claggett B, Cheng S, Henglin M, Shah A, Steffen LM, et al. (September 2018).
3865:
Kelly SA, Hartley L, Loveman E, Colquitt JL, Jones HM, Al-Khudairy L, et al. (August 2017).
2652:
1942:
509:
463:
264:
4035:
Carbohydrates in Grain Legume Seeds: Improving
Nutritional Quality and Agronomic Characteristics
1211:, of which four of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 2=16 possible
6588:
6567:
6375:
5814:
5666:
5600:
5486:
5481:
5186:
4633:
2917:
2907:
2873:
2868:
2816:
2716:
1950:
589:
354:
278:
215:
3469:. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper – 66. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
1444:, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides:
1270:
ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called
6369:
5671:
5636:
5592:
5356:
5215:
4631:
4033:
3967:
3190:
3183:
2912:
2851:
2846:
2806:
1988:
1946:
1888:
1753:
1650:
1631:
1188:
1121:
1041:
768:
475:
412:, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from
394:
1871:
is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The
1325:
being the most important in nature as it is the product of photosynthesis in plants) and in
6508:
5760:
5610:
5315:
5291:
5253:
4897:
4807:
3090:
2821:
2779:
2775:
2708:
1968:. There is limited evidence to support routine use of low-carbohydrate dieting in managing
1875:
is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on
1483:
1236:
814:
580:
The history of the discovery regarding carbohydrates dates back around 10,000 years ago in
501:(such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy,
5063:
IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature
1941:
levels, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage", is not supported by
8:
5555:
5174:
5098:
4896:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 581. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. 61–77.
4151:"Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses"
4102:"Dietary carbohydrate intake and mortality: a prospective cohort study and meta-analysis"
2856:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2720:
2711:. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of
1949:, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of
1930:
1294:
596:, a form of carbohydrate storage in animal livers, was discovered by French physiologist
4901:
4811:
4546:"Overweight and diabetes prevention: is a low-carbohydrate-high-fat diet recommendable?"
3094:
6593:
5780:
5770:
5678:
5351:
5296:
5283:
4874:
4831:
4714:
4570:
4545:
4511:
4459:
4410:
4359:
4314:
4289:
4248:
4183:
4126:
4101:
4010:
3894:
3867:"Whole grain cereals for the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease"
3807:
3493:
3288:
3263:
3158:
3133:
3114:
1479:
1195:
with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of
1045:
59:
4170:
4117:
1346:
420:), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in
373:
is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important
329:
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve as an
5550:
5346:
5190:
5148:
5143:
5072:
4923:
4913:
4866:
4823:
4706:
4659:
4611:
4575:
4503:
4451:
4402:
4342:
4319:
4240:
4175:
4131:
4039:
4014:
3947:
3899:
3848:
3818:
3779:
3610:
3585:
3548:
3511:
3501:
3442:
3405:
3366:
3318:
3293:
3230:
3194:
3181:
Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD (1993).
3163:
3106:
2877:
2756:
2744:
1925:
1402:
653:
537:" is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in human food.
138:
5090:
4878:
4835:
4819:
4718:
4515:
4463:
4414:
4252:
4187:
3690:
3630:
1893:
Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of
1394:
1079:
5961:
5573:
4905:
4858:
4815:
4698:
4649:
4603:
4565:
4557:
4493:
4441:
4394:
4309:
4301:
4232:
4165:
4121:
4113:
4006:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3769:
3283:
3275:
3264:"The role of short chain fatty acids in appetite regulation and energy homeostasis"
3153:
3145:
3118:
3098:
2987:
2966:
2897:
2885:
2841:
2799:
2004:
1965:
1705:
1495:
1228:
1084:
1057:
721:
581:
443:
260:
73:
4607:
4078:
1156:, and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example,
6410:
6356:
6336:
6227:
5527:
5409:
4337:
Butryn ML, Clark VL, Coletta MC (2012). Akabas SR, Lederman SA, Moore BJ (eds.).
4087:
3943:
3814:
3312:
2971:
2948:
2889:
2712:
2519:
1969:
1961:
1823:
1819:
1808:
1662:
1611:
1605:
1583:-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include
1576:
1557:
1525:
1282:
929:
794:
657:
455:
439:
252:
4909:
4149:
Reynolds A, Mann J, Cummings J, Winter N, Mete E, Te Morenga L (February 2019).
3936:
3462:
6397:
6194:
5951:
5928:
5908:
5729:
5604:
5522:
5512:
5461:
5449:
5422:
4385:
Hall KD (March 2017). "A review of the carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity".
4217:
3668:
3216:
3017:
2937:
2881:
2728:
2692:
2684:
1980:
1902:
1856:
1849:
1804:
1796:
1722:
1696:
1491:
1330:
1239:. This usage of "d-" and "l-" is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry.
1216:
1184:
1016:
960:
861:
790:
733:
672:
637:
597:
390:
256:
244:
4632:
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee (January 2019).
4561:
4446:
4429:
3500:(3rd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
3149:
1879:
levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.
6582:
6503:
6420:
6308:
6199:
5750:
5740:
5476:
5163:
4476:
3012:
2893:
2046:
1934:
1894:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1746:
1737:. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists.
1734:
1639:
1475:
1410:
1096:
994:
525:
479:
435:
382:
378:
180:
168:
4498:
3774:
3757:
3542:
1278:
forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.
1247:
6387:
6268:
6250:
5898:
5456:
5426:
5231:
5203:
4927:
4870:
4862:
4827:
4710:
4663:
4615:
4579:
4507:
4477:
Gjuladin-Hellon T, Davies IG, Penson P, Amiri Baghbadorani R (March 2019).
4455:
4406:
4323:
4244:
4179:
4135:
3903:
3783:
3515:
3297:
3167:
3110:
2977:
2836:
2658:
2491:
2433:
2231:
1957:
1918:
1827:
1800:
1700:
1623:
1615:
1463:
1457:
1398:
1390:
1326:
1267:
1212:
1002:
938:
902:
885:
629:
494:
386:
374:
248:
207:
196:
47:
4398:
4305:
4018:
6545:
6533:
6405:
6316:
6064:
6059:
5999:
5806:
5582:
5444:
3134:"Photons to illuminate the universe of sugar diversity through bioarrays"
2974:– A process where glucose can be synthesized by non-carbohydrate sources.
2884:
residues or structures containing more than one monosaccharide, known as
1996:
1906:
1845:
1757:
1358:
1293:, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (
1220:
1192:
1169:
975:
798:
737:
665:
529:
521:
517:
370:
200:
188:
184:
118:
31:
3691:"Calculation of the Energy Content of Foods – Energy Conversion Factors"
3279:
1956:
Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional
1219:, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are
1021:
636:
O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for
549:
6321:
6263:
6258:
6131:
6084:
5683:
5405:
5326:
5307:
5239:
5182:
5125:
5121:
2992:
2961:
2752:
2748:
2666:
2574:
2547:
2032:
Sugar content of selected common plant foods (in grams per 100 g)
1756:
recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of
1710:
1619:
1588:
1437:
1318:
1259:
1177:
1161:
1053:
783:
764:
671:
Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called
459:
451:
417:
315:
311:
5077:
4941:
4702:
4654:
4236:
1052:
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be
6479:
6475:
6430:
6344:
6326:
6293:
6278:
6099:
6022:
5984:
5765:
5578:
5385:
5129:
3002:
2662:
2315:
1910:
1882:
1780:
1726:
1717:
operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see:
1683:
Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per
1627:
1568:
1532:-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things:
1426:
1418:
1382:
1342:
1263:
990:
952:
948:
906:
870:
689:
is three or more. A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH)
609:
585:
431:
413:
401:
291:
240:
224:
51:
3102:
1474:. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a
1044:
furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the
524:, which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes
6496:
6457:
6442:
6415:
6364:
6298:
6171:
6166:
6151:
6136:
6052:
6047:
5867:
5862:
3007:
2982:
2673:
2000:
1984:
1914:
1815:
1738:
1544:
1540:
1521:
1487:
1449:
1414:
1374:
1370:
1334:
1275:
1271:
1173:
1125:
1113:
1037:
986:
922:
918:
874:
818:
779:
772:
749:
729:
710:
702:
593:
483:
350:
338:
303:
126:
27:
Organic compound that consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
6538:
6518:
6486:
6461:
6451:
6447:
6425:
6288:
6283:
6273:
6183:
6146:
6141:
6119:
6104:
6094:
6011:
5989:
5973:
5790:
5785:
5698:
5641:
5626:
4428:
Mansoor N, Vinknes KJ, Veierød MB, Retterstøl K (February 2016).
4290:"Obesity Pathogenesis: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement"
2997:
2680:
2118:
1938:
1876:
1868:
1742:
1718:
1689:
1584:
1572:
1564:
1517:
1513:
1471:
1467:
1445:
1441:
1406:
1386:
1322:
1251:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1025:
971:
898:
894:
890:
866:
725:
649:
323:
307:
274:
55:
43:
3081:
Flitsch SL, Ulijn RV (January 2003). "Sugars tied to the spot".
2011:
named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018".
1945:. Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects
1672:
263:) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. While the
6528:
6523:
6513:
6490:
6467:
6435:
6222:
6217:
6161:
6124:
6109:
6089:
6076:
6037:
6032:
6027:
5940:
5893:
5883:
5857:
5852:
5755:
4427:
4287:
2942:
2903:
Common reactions for glycosidic bond formation are as follows:
2724:
2696:
2688:
2405:
2146:
1898:
1730:
1676:
1366:
1350:
1338:
1286:
1224:
1196:
1165:
1153:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1117:
1099:
998:
966:
913:
878:
810:
806:
776:
741:
714:
706:
661:
645:
498:
487:
447:
346:
342:
334:
330:
319:
236:
192:
130:
122:
4796:
4099:
3262:
Byrne CS, Chambers ES, Morrison DJ, Frost G (September 2015).
1995:
diet as a means of weight loss, but with risks of undesirable
1341:
is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate,
341:) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and
6114:
5917:
5795:
5775:
3996:
3609:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 165–194.
3229:(3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 184.
3180:
2732:
2704:
2700:
2695:
storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of
2606:
2462:
2259:
2203:
2174:
2090:
1422:
1203:, the aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H
1187:(-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are
855:
534:
425:
421:
409:
405:
232:
4216:
Churuangsuk C, Kherouf M, Combet E, Lean M (December 2018).
4215:
3132:
Carroll GT, Wang D, Turro NJ, Koberstein JT (January 2008).
2019:
1560:
of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond.
789:
Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called
782:
group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a
82:
3864:
3226:
The Effect of Dietary Fiber on Fecal Weight and Composition
2670:
2376:
2343:
2287:
1684:
717:
442:. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include
299:
269:
134:
106:
97:
88:
5053:
Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations
4891:
4148:
3584:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 1–67.
3261:
3131:
2691:
synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by
1333:. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is
1092:
39:
4983:"Energetics of Cellular Respiration (Glucose Metabolism)"
3755:
3049:
The European Polysaccharide Network of Excellence (EPNOE)
1992:
1789:
U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs
1362:
1354:
802:
502:
366:
259:. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower
243:. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups:
4688:
3540:
3189:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp.
1867:
levels. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food
1466:, the simplest kind of polysaccharide. Examples include
3974:. Harvard School of Public Health. September 18, 2012.
1594:
1369:
is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart.
528:
which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute
5323:(amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate)
4786:– via Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.
3436:
1645:
1199:
may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. Using
628:. Following this definition, some chemists considered
345:
in arthropods and fungi). The 5-carbon monosaccharide
5120:
3756:
Pichon L, Huneau JF, Fromentin G, Tomé D (May 2006).
1301:
OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH
1140:. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called
79:
76:
3607:
The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A
3582:
The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A
3463:"Chapter 1 – The role of carbohydrates in nutrition"
1071:
365:) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as
109:
103:
100:
85:
3358:
2928:While some common protection methods are as below:
1822:and "unavailable carbohydrates", which pass to the
1337:, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants,
94:
91:
50:found in animal milk. It consists of a molecule of
4740:. British Dietetic Association. December 7, 2017.
4336:
3397:
3362:A Textbook of Botany for Colleges and Universities
3182:
1999:, such as low energy levels and increased hunger,
1897:– afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in
1883:Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction
1749:. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.
1575:molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The
4339:Behavioral approaches to the treatment of obesity
1254:can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.
6580:
4934:
3547:. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall.
1983:– is established as a medical diet for treating
1242:
5017:"Compolition of foods raw, processed, prepared"
2703:. Plant components are consumed by animals and
1979:An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the
767:form of a monosaccharide often coexists with a
3491:
1409:occurs in human metabolism, especially in the
1317:Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for
5822:
5714:
5106:
4592:
3541:Campbell NA, Williamson B, Heyden RJ (2006).
608:Formerly the name "carbohydrate" was used in
302:'), and is used for almost all sugars (e.g.,
137:ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the
4848:
3962:
3960:
3858:
3579:
3437:Matthews CE, Van Holde KE, Ahern KG (1999).
3349:USDA National Nutrient Database, 2015, p. 13
3213:USDA National Nutrient Database, 2015, p. 14
3080:
4732:
4730:
4728:
3874:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
2832:Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation
1991:during the early 21st century, it became a
1703:but glucose is often metabolized first. In
720:that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone
273:, which was originally taken from the word
5836:
5829:
5815:
5721:
5707:
5113:
5099:
4974:
4957:
4955:
4738:"Top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018"
4636:Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2019
3931:Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998),
3834:Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003).
3604:
1312:
133:(O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen
4653:
4569:
4497:
4445:
4313:
4169:
4125:
3957:
3893:
3773:
3359:Coulter JM, Barnes CR, Cowles HC (1930).
3287:
3157:
2793:
2657:Carbohydrate metabolism is the series of
1536:Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose
4725:
3401:Tietz fundamentals of clinical chemistry
3398:Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, Tietz NW (2000).
3222:
3042:"Etymology of main polysaccharide names"
3035:
3033:
2669:and interconversion of carbohydrates in
2018:
1671:
1644:
1462:Two joined monosaccharides are called a
1436:
1246:
1124:handedness. If the carbonyl group is an
1020:
38:
5024:United States Department of Agriculture
4961:
4952:
4596:Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4262:from the original on September 23, 2019
3990:
3352:
1679:products: rich sources of carbohydrates
1321:, being used both as an energy source (
1060:of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H
1040:group and the blue atoms highlight the
14:
6581:
4670:from the original on December 18, 2018
4627:
4625:
4543:
4537:
4387:European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
4341:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 259.
4031:
3796:Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005).
3598:
3494:"Structural Basis of Glycan Diversity"
3473:from the original on December 22, 2015
3310:
3039:
1028:is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H
231: 'sugar'), a group that includes
5810:
5702:
5094:
5033:from the original on October 31, 2016
4993:from the original on January 25, 2018
4980:
4778:from the original on January 30, 2017
4142:
4080:Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010
3641:from the original on October 31, 2014
3561:from the original on November 2, 2014
3391:
3030:
2896:are very important, and the usage of
2862:
2719:. Organisms capable of anaerobic and
1842:Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010
5223:Electron acceptors other than oxygen
4586:
4384:
4378:
4274:
4209:
4197:from the original on August 11, 2021
4093:
1760:from whole-grain carbohydrates. The
1595:Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides
544:
5082:Consortium for Functional Glycomics
4682:
4622:
4470:
4421:
4330:
4052:from the original on April 24, 2022
3441:(3rd ed.). Benjamin Cummings.
3379:from the original on April 17, 2022
3317:(2nd ed.). London: Heinemann.
2679:The most important carbohydrate is
1793:Dietary Goals for the United States
1599:
1490:atom from one monosaccharide and a
1349:of plants and many forms of algae.
1345:, is a structural component of the
612:for any compound with the formula C
24:
5728:
5009:
4744:from the original on July 31, 2020
4011:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1986.tb07585.x
3418:from the original on June 24, 2016
3331:from the original on July 27, 2020
3243:from the original on April 2, 2019
2727:(aerobic) to release energy, with
1656:
1587:(two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and
1010:
813:is composed of repeating units of
724:. Examples of monosaccharides are
713:groups added, usually one on each
450:, which feed some bacteria in the
25:
6605:
5046:
3701:from the original on May 24, 2010
3522:from the original on May 19, 2020
1775:
1762:Food and Agriculture Organization
1567:, a disaccharide composed of one
1072:Classification of monosaccharides
167:), which does not mean the H has
163:may or may not be different from
6563:
6562:
4525:from the original on May 6, 2020
4434:The British Journal of Nutrition
3978:from the original on May 7, 2013
3933:Carbohydrates in human nutrition
3467:Carbohydrates in human nutrition
3268:International Journal of Obesity
2802:that involve carbohydrates are:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
1498:of unmodified disaccharides is C
1432:
1083:
1078:
837:The major dietary carbohydrates
548:
72:
5244:Substrate-level phosphorylation
4885:
4842:
4820:10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.11.012
4790:
4768:"Carbohydrates and Blood Sugar"
4760:
4064:
4025:
3925:
3828:
3790:
3749:
3713:
3683:
3653:
3623:
3573:
3534:
3485:
3455:
3430:
1848:sources and the rest are from
1539:Their ring types: glucose is a
660:and deoxy modifications (e.g.,
514:USDA National Nutrient Database
5781:"Minerals" (Chemical elements)
5080:, a collaboration between the
3886:10.1002/14651858.CD005051.pub3
3492:Bertozzi CR, Rabuka D (2017).
3343:
3304:
3255:
3207:
3174:
3125:
3074:
2661:processes responsible for the
2636:
1729:or other polysaccharides like
1172:(a five-carbon aldehyde), and
1036:. The red atoms highlight the
469:
13:
1:
5647:Reverse cholesterol transport
4608:10.1016/j.diabres.2017.07.006
4550:European Journal of Nutrition
4171:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31809-9
4118:10.1016/s2468-2667(18)30135-x
3721:"Carbohydrate reference list"
3023:
2738:
2646:
1974:American Diabetes Association
1634:, do not. They have roles in
1486:, resulting in the loss of a
1243:Ring-straight chain isomerism
1144:, those with four are called
1132:; if the carbonyl group is a
821:-containing form of glucose.
400:Carbohydrates are central to
349:is an important component of
5299:(protein→peptide→amino acid)
5078:Functional Glycomics Gateway
4851:Chemistry & Biodiversity
3314:Introduction to Biochemistry
2009:British Dietetic Association
1826:, where they are subject to
1667:
1385:, a component of milk sugar
603:
7:
4981:Mehta S (October 9, 2013).
4910:10.1007/978-1-60761-214-8_5
3813:September 12, 2006, at the
2955:
2892:and selective reactions of
1960:in preventing the onset of
1832:gastrointestinal microbiota
1183:Each carbon atom bearing a
1128:, the monosaccharide is an
1120:atoms it contains, and its
824:
805:, is a modified version of
462:by these bacteria to yield
377:that play key roles in the
210:, where it is a synonym of
206:The term is most common in
10:
6610:
5684:Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)
5154:Primary nutritional groups
4634:"5. Lifestyle Management:
3498:Essentials of Glycobiology
2933:Carbohydrate acetalisation
2866:
2812:Carbohydrate acetalisation
2650:
2638:
2014:
1886:
1803:) and complex if they are
1770:Cochrane Systematic Review
1660:
1603:
1556:suffix indicates that the
1455:
1136:, the monosaccharide is a
1014:
983:Non-starch polysaccharides
955:, fructo-oligosaccharides
844:(degree of polymerization)
584:during the cultivation of
540:
284:
29:
6558:
6396:
6353:
6335:
6307:
6249:
6242:
6210:
6182:
6075:
6010:
5972:
5939:
5916:
5907:
5876:
5845:
5736:
5659:
5619:
5591:
5572:
5546:
5518:Anoxygenic photosynthesis
5508:
5501:
5472:
5440:Pentose phosphate pathway
5435:
5418:
5401:
5394:
5374:
5335:
5306:
5282:
5273:
5230:
5214:
5195:Oxidative phosphorylation
5173:
5162:
5136:
4987:Biochemistry Notes, Notes
4562:10.1007/s00394-018-1636-y
4447:10.1017/S0007114515004699
4106:The Lancet. Public Health
3942:January 15, 2007, at the
3845:World Health Organization
3150:10.1007/s10719-007-9052-1
2888:. Selective formation of
2600:
2370:
2084:
1766:World Health Organization
1379:pentose phosphate pathway
1297:) of the ring from the CH
1164:(a six-carbon aldehyde),
959:
928:
854:
786:with a new C–O–C bridge.
740:and deoxy-sugars such as
171:with O (for example with
5889:Cyclohexane conformation
5538:Entner-Doudoroff pathway
5200:electron transport chain
5187:Pyruvate decarboxylation
4086:August 20, 2014, at the
3804:National Academies Press
3802:. Washington, D.C.: The
3762:The Journal of Nutrition
3185:Human Biology and Health
2923:Crich beta-mannosylation
2784:Fructose 1,6-biphosphate
1626:, though some, like the
831:degree of polymerization
675:with general formula (CH
30:Not to be confused with
6382:Isomaltooligosaccharide
5632:Sphingolipid metabolism
5533:DeLey-Doudoroff pathway
5381:carbohydrate catabolism
5376:Carbohydrate metabolism
5362:Purine nucleotide cycle
5086:Nature Publishing Group
4962:Maughan R (June 2013).
3544:Biology: Exploring Life
2723:metabolize glucose and
2707:, and used as fuel for
2653:Carbohydrate metabolism
1313:Use in living organisms
1180:(a six-carbon ketone).
510:nutritional information
464:short-chain fatty acids
265:scientific nomenclature
6376:Galactooligosaccharide
5601:Fatty acid degradation
5321:Amino acid degradation
5068:Carbohydrates detailed
4968:www.onesearch.cuny.edu
4863:10.1002/cbdv.201300155
4544:Brouns F (June 2018).
3138:Glycoconjugate Journal
2918:Koenigs-Knorr reaction
2908:Chemical glycosylation
2874:Carbohydrate synthesis
2869:Carbohydrate synthesis
2827:Koenigs–Knorr reaction
2817:Carbohydrate digestion
2794:Carbohydrate chemistry
2024:
1951:cardiovascular disease
1787:was first used in the
1680:
1653:
1632:fructooligosaccharides
1453:
1255:
1201:Le Bel-van't Hoff rule
1049:
945:Other oligosaccharides
935:Malto-oligosaccharides
590:Carl Schmidt (chemist)
63:
6370:Fructooligosaccharide
5761:Essential fatty acids
5637:Eicosanoid metabolism
5593:Fatty acid metabolism
5357:Pyrimidine metabolism
5216:Anaerobic respiration
4499:10.1093/nutrit/nuy049
4488:(Systematic review).
4399:10.1038/ejcn.2016.260
4306:10.1210/er.2017-00111
4227:(Systematic review).
3913:on September 28, 2018
3775:10.1093/jn/136.5.1256
3047:. In Navard P (ed.).
2913:Fischer glycosidation
2852:Ferrier rearrangement
2847:Tipson-Cohen reaction
2807:Amadori rearrangement
2022:
1989:celebrity endorsement
1947:cardiovascular health
1889:Low-carbohydrate diet
1754:Institute of Medicine
1675:
1651:fructooligosaccharide
1648:
1440:
1413:of certain proteins.
1250:
1229:1, 3-dihydroxyacetone
1116:group, the number of
1024:
476:scientific literature
42:
5611:Fatty acid synthesis
5316:Amino acid synthesis
4772:The Nutrition Source
4648:(Suppl 1): S46–S60.
4038:. CABI. p. 79.
3972:The Nutrition Source
3223:Cummings JH (2001).
2822:Cyanohydrin reaction
2776:Fructose 6-Phosphate
2764:glycoside hydrolases
2709:cellular respiration
1785:complex carbohydrate
1494:from the other. The
1484:dehydration reaction
1395:plant cell membranes
1048:, this is a D sugar.
978:, modified starches
815:N-acetyl glucosamine
5175:Aerobic respiration
4902:2009biof.book...61B
4812:2019PChem.158...91V
3728:www.diabetes.org.uk
3280:10.1038/ijo.2015.84
3095:2003Natur.421..219F
3062:on February 9, 2018
2890:glycosidic linkages
2857:Ferrier II reaction
2768:Glucose 6-Phosphate
2721:aerobic respiration
2033:
1933:, not the ratio of
1931:calorie restriction
1857:glycemic index (GI)
1709:, for example, the
1612:glycosidic linkages
838:
58:bonded by beta-1-4
5679:Ethanol metabolism
5627:Steroid metabolism
5352:Nucleotide salvage
5284:Protein metabolism
5026:. September 2015.
4942:"FoodData Central"
4774:. August 5, 2013.
4164:(10170): 434–445.
4032:Hedley CL (2001).
3671:on October 3, 2017
3311:Fearon WF (1949).
2876:is a sub-field of
2863:Chemical Synthesis
2747:of monosaccharide
2745:metabolic pathways
2683:, a simple sugar (
2031:
2025:
1681:
1654:
1543:and fructose is a
1480:glycosidic linkage
1454:
1361:is a component of
1353:is a component of
1256:
1148:, five are called
1050:
1046:Fischer projection
836:
654:glycosaminoglycans
592:in 1844. In 1856,
560:. You can help by
508:Often in lists of
183:definition (e.g.,
64:
60:glycosidic linkage
54:and a molecule of
6576:
6575:
6554:
6553:
6238:
6237:
5804:
5803:
5696:
5695:
5692:
5691:
5655:
5654:
5568:
5567:
5564:
5563:
5551:Xylose metabolism
5497:
5496:
5370:
5369:
5347:Purine metabolism
5292:Protein synthesis
5269:
5268:
5191:Citric acid cycle
5149:Metabolic network
5144:Metabolic pathway
4919:978-1-60761-213-1
4703:10.1111/dme.13845
4691:Diabetic Medicine
4655:10.2337/dc19-S005
4486:Nutrition Reviews
4348:978-0-470-65588-7
4294:Endocrine Reviews
4237:10.1111/obr.12744
4231:(12): 1700–1718.
4108:(Meta-analysis).
4045:978-0-85199-944-9
3999:Nutrition Reviews
3737:on March 14, 2016
3554:978-0-13-250882-7
3507:978-1-621821-32-8
3448:978-0-8053-3066-3
3404:. W.B. Saunders.
3236:978-0-8493-2387-4
3200:978-0-13-981176-0
3089:(6920): 219–220.
3040:Avenas P (2012).
2898:protecting groups
2878:organic chemistry
2800:organic reactions
2757:citric acid cycle
2634:
2633:
2080:total sugars (%)
2044:total, including
1943:clinical evidence
1926:Endocrine Society
1649:The structure of
1571:molecule and one
1520:molecule and one
1215:. In the case of
1042:asymmetric center
1008:
1007:
801:, a component of
578:
577:
139:empirical formula
16:(Redirected from
6601:
6566:
6565:
6357:oligosaccharides
6337:Tetrasaccharides
6247:
6246:
5962:Dihydroxyacetone
5914:
5913:
5831:
5824:
5817:
5808:
5807:
5723:
5716:
5709:
5700:
5699:
5667:Metal metabolism
5589:
5588:
5574:Lipid metabolism
5506:
5505:
5399:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5304:
5303:
5280:
5279:
5206:
5171:
5170:
5115:
5108:
5101:
5092:
5091:
5042:
5040:
5038:
5032:
5021:
5003:
5002:
5000:
4998:
4978:
4972:
4971:
4964:"Surgery Oxford"
4959:
4950:
4949:
4946:fdc.nal.usda.gov
4938:
4932:
4931:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4846:
4840:
4839:
4794:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4783:
4764:
4758:
4757:
4751:
4749:
4734:
4723:
4722:
4686:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4657:
4629:
4620:
4619:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4573:
4556:(4): 1301–1312.
4541:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4530:
4524:
4501:
4483:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4449:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4369:
4365:
4363:
4355:
4334:
4328:
4327:
4317:
4285:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4267:
4261:
4222:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4196:
4173:
4155:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4129:
4112:(9): e419–e428.
4097:
4091:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4029:
4023:
4022:
3994:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3983:
3964:
3955:
3929:
3923:
3922:
3920:
3918:
3912:
3906:. Archived from
3897:
3871:
3862:
3856:
3832:
3826:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3777:
3768:(5): 1256–1260.
3753:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3736:
3730:. Archived from
3725:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3687:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3667:. Archived from
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3365:. BiblioBazaar.
3356:
3350:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3291:
3274:(9): 1331–1338.
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3220:
3214:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3188:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3161:
3129:
3123:
3122:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3061:
3055:. Archived from
3046:
3037:
2988:Glycoinformatics
2967:Carbohydrate NMR
2886:oligosaccharides
2842:Wohl degradation
2642:
2034:
2030:
2007:discomfort. The
2005:gastrointestinal
1966:glycemic control
1809:oligosaccharides
1706:Escherichia coli
1636:cell recognition
1600:Oligosaccharides
1087:
1082:
1058:chemical formula
930:Oligosaccharides
839:
835:
795:oligosaccharides
769:closed ring form
722:functional group
701:–H, that is, an
582:Papua New Guinea
573:
570:
552:
545:
444:resistant starch
295:
288:
261:molecular weight
253:oligosaccharides
228:
178:
158:
116:
115:
112:
111:
108:
105:
102:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
84:
81:
78:
21:
6609:
6608:
6604:
6603:
6602:
6600:
6599:
6598:
6579:
6578:
6577:
6572:
6550:
6411:Oat beta-glucan
6398:Polysaccharides
6392:
6355:
6349:
6331:
6303:
6234:
6228:Neuraminic acid
6206:
6178:
6071:
6006:
5968:
5935:
5909:Monosaccharides
5903:
5872:
5841:
5835:
5805:
5800:
5732:
5727:
5697:
5688:
5672:Iron metabolism
5651:
5615:
5576:
5560:
5542:
5528:Carbon fixation
5493:
5468:
5431:
5414:
5410:Gluconeogenesis
5383:
5378:
5366:
5338:
5331:
5302:
5275:
5265:
5226:
5210:
5198:
5165:
5158:
5132:
5119:
5049:
5036:
5034:
5030:
5019:
5015:
5012:
5010:Further reading
5007:
5006:
4996:
4994:
4979:
4975:
4960:
4953:
4940:
4939:
4935:
4920:
4890:
4886:
4847:
4843:
4795:
4791:
4781:
4779:
4766:
4765:
4761:
4747:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4726:
4687:
4683:
4673:
4671:
4630:
4623:
4591:
4587:
4542:
4538:
4528:
4526:
4522:
4481:
4475:
4471:
4426:
4422:
4383:
4379:
4367:
4366:
4357:
4356:
4349:
4335:
4331:
4286:
4275:
4265:
4263:
4259:
4225:Obesity Reviews
4220:
4214:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4194:
4153:
4147:
4143:
4098:
4094:
4088:Wayback Machine
4069:
4065:
4055:
4053:
4046:
4030:
4026:
3995:
3991:
3981:
3979:
3968:"Carbohydrates"
3966:
3965:
3958:
3944:Wayback Machine
3930:
3926:
3916:
3914:
3910:
3880:(8): CD005051.
3869:
3863:
3859:
3833:
3829:
3815:Wayback Machine
3795:
3791:
3754:
3750:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3723:
3719:
3718:
3714:
3704:
3702:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3672:
3659:
3658:
3654:
3644:
3642:
3635:Merriam-Webster
3629:
3628:
3624:
3617:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3578:
3574:
3564:
3562:
3555:
3539:
3535:
3525:
3523:
3508:
3490:
3486:
3476:
3474:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3435:
3431:
3421:
3419:
3412:
3396:
3392:
3382:
3380:
3373:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3334:
3332:
3325:
3309:
3305:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3244:
3237:
3221:
3217:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3179:
3175:
3130:
3126:
3103:10.1038/421219a
3079:
3075:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3053:Springer-Verlag
3044:
3038:
3031:
3026:
2972:Gluconeogenesis
2958:
2949:p-Methoxybenzyl
2894:hydroxyl groups
2871:
2865:
2796:
2741:
2735:as byproducts.
2655:
2649:
2079:
2077:
2072:
2070:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2045:
2043:
2038:
2023:Glucose tablets
2017:
1970:type 1 diabetes
1962:type 2 diabetes
1891:
1885:
1824:large intestine
1820:small intestine
1805:polysaccharides
1797:monosaccharides
1778:
1723:Polysaccharides
1697:monosaccharides
1670:
1665:
1663:Polysaccharides
1659:
1657:Polysaccharides
1630:series and the
1608:
1606:Oligosaccharide
1602:
1597:
1579:for lactose is
1577:systematic name
1558:anomeric carbon
1526:systematic name
1509:
1505:
1501:
1460:
1435:
1421:, and found in
1331:polysaccharides
1315:
1304:
1300:
1283:anomeric carbon
1245:
1237:polarized light
1217:glyceraldehydes
1210:
1206:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1074:
1067:
1063:
1035:
1031:
1019:
1013:
1011:Monosaccharides
961:Polysaccharides
862:Monosaccharides
843:
827:
791:polysaccharides
759:
755:
747:
734:glyceraldehydes
700:
694:
684:
678:
673:monosaccharides
658:carboxylic acid
644:-acetyl (e.g.,
635:
627:
621:
617:
606:
574:
568:
565:
558:needs expansion
543:
482:compounds with
472:
456:large intestine
440:bowel movements
326:(milk sugar)).
306:(fruit sugar),
257:polysaccharides
245:monosaccharides
176:
172:
157:
151:
147:
141:
75:
71:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6607:
6597:
6596:
6591:
6574:
6573:
6571:
6570:
6559:
6556:
6555:
6552:
6551:
6549:
6548:
6543:
6542:
6541:
6536:
6526:
6521:
6516:
6511:
6509:Levan beta 2→6
6506:
6501:
6500:
6499:
6483:
6472:
6471:
6470:
6454:
6445:
6440:
6439:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6402:
6400:
6394:
6393:
6391:
6390:
6385:
6379:
6373:
6367:
6361:
6359:
6351:
6350:
6348:
6347:
6341:
6339:
6333:
6332:
6330:
6329:
6324:
6319:
6313:
6311:
6309:Trisaccharides
6305:
6304:
6302:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6255:
6253:
6244:
6240:
6239:
6236:
6235:
6233:
6232:
6231:
6230:
6220:
6214:
6212:
6208:
6207:
6205:
6204:
6203:
6202:
6197:
6195:Mannoheptulose
6188:
6186:
6180:
6179:
6177:
6176:
6175:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6156:
6155:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6129:
6128:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6081:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6070:
6069:
6068:
6067:
6057:
6056:
6055:
6050:
6042:
6041:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6016:
6014:
6008:
6007:
6005:
6004:
6003:
6002:
5994:
5993:
5992:
5987:
5978:
5976:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5966:
5965:
5964:
5956:
5955:
5954:
5952:Glyceraldehyde
5945:
5943:
5937:
5936:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5931:
5929:Glycolaldehyde
5922:
5920:
5911:
5905:
5904:
5902:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5880:
5878:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5849:
5847:
5843:
5842:
5834:
5833:
5826:
5819:
5811:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5753:
5748:
5743:
5737:
5734:
5733:
5730:Food chemistry
5726:
5725:
5718:
5711:
5703:
5694:
5693:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5663:
5661:
5657:
5656:
5653:
5652:
5650:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5623:
5621:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5613:
5608:
5605:Beta oxidation
5597:
5595:
5586:
5570:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5562:
5561:
5559:
5558:
5553:
5547:
5544:
5543:
5541:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5523:Chemosynthesis
5520:
5515:
5513:Photosynthesis
5509:
5503:
5499:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5491:
5490:
5489:
5484:
5473:
5470:
5469:
5467:
5466:
5465:
5464:
5462:Leloir pathway
5454:
5453:
5452:
5450:Polyol pathway
5442:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5429:
5423:Glycogenolysis
5419:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5412:
5402:
5396:
5389:
5372:
5371:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5343:
5341:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5329:
5324:
5318:
5312:
5310:
5301:
5300:
5294:
5288:
5286:
5277:
5271:
5270:
5267:
5266:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5236:
5234:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5224:
5220:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5209:
5208:
5179:
5177:
5168:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5140:
5138:
5134:
5133:
5118:
5117:
5110:
5103:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5048:
5047:External links
5045:
5044:
5043:
5011:
5008:
5005:
5004:
4973:
4951:
4933:
4918:
4884:
4857:(5): 767–775.
4841:
4800:Phytochemistry
4789:
4759:
4724:
4697:(3): 326–334.
4681:
4621:
4585:
4536:
4492:(3): 161–180.
4469:
4440:(3): 466–479.
4420:
4393:(3): 323–326.
4377:
4347:
4329:
4300:(4): 267–296.
4273:
4208:
4141:
4092:
4063:
4044:
4024:
3989:
3956:
3924:
3857:
3827:
3789:
3748:
3712:
3682:
3652:
3622:
3616:978-0323138338
3615:
3597:
3591:978-0323138338
3590:
3572:
3553:
3533:
3506:
3484:
3454:
3447:
3429:
3410:
3390:
3372:978-1113909954
3371:
3351:
3342:
3324:978-1483225395
3323:
3303:
3254:
3235:
3215:
3206:
3199:
3173:
3124:
3073:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3018:Saccharic acid
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2938:Trimethylsilyl
2935:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2900:is extensive.
2882:monosaccharide
2867:Main article:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2795:
2792:
2740:
2737:
2729:carbon dioxide
2693:photosynthesis
2685:monosaccharide
2651:Main article:
2648:
2645:
2632:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2078:proportion of
2074:
2067:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2042:Carbohydrate,
2040:
2016:
2013:
2003:, nausea, and
1981:ketogenic diet
1935:macronutrients
1887:Main article:
1884:
1881:
1777:
1776:Classification
1774:
1758:dietary energy
1669:
1666:
1661:Main article:
1658:
1655:
1604:Main article:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1562:
1561:
1550:
1547:
1537:
1524:molecule. The
1507:
1503:
1499:
1492:hydroxyl group
1456:Main article:
1434:
1431:
1389:, is found in
1314:
1311:
1302:
1298:
1244:
1241:
1208:
1204:
1193:stereo centers
1191:, making them
1185:hydroxyl group
1103:
1089:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1033:
1029:
1017:Monosaccharide
1015:Main article:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1005:
984:
980:
979:
969:
964:
957:
956:
946:
942:
941:
936:
933:
926:
925:
916:
910:
909:
888:
882:
881:
864:
859:
852:
851:
848:
845:
826:
823:
757:
753:
745:
696:
690:
680:
676:
638:glycolaldehyde
633:
623:
619:
613:
605:
602:
598:Claude Bernard
576:
575:
555:
553:
542:
539:
512:, such as the
471:
468:
391:blood clotting
369:. The related
181:stoichiometric
174:
169:covalent bonds
153:
149:
143:
121:consisting of
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6606:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6589:Carbohydrates
6587:
6586:
6584:
6569:
6561:
6560:
6557:
6547:
6544:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6531:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6504:Hemicellulose
6502:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6482:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6464:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6453:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6408:
6407:
6404:
6403:
6401:
6399:
6395:
6389:
6386:
6383:
6380:
6377:
6374:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6362:
6360:
6358:
6352:
6346:
6343:
6342:
6340:
6338:
6334:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6318:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6310:
6306:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6256:
6254:
6252:
6251:Disaccharides
6248:
6245:
6241:
6229:
6226:
6225:
6224:
6221:
6219:
6216:
6215:
6213:
6209:
6201:
6200:Sedoheptulose
6198:
6196:
6193:
6192:
6191:Ketoheptoses
6190:
6189:
6187:
6185:
6181:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6158:Deoxy sugars
6157:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6134:
6133:
6130:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6083:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6074:
6066:
6063:
6062:
6061:
6058:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6044:Ketopentoses
6043:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6020:
6019:Aldopentoses
6018:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6009:
6001:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5982:
5981:Aldotetroses
5980:
5979:
5977:
5975:
5971:
5963:
5960:
5959:
5957:
5953:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5942:
5938:
5930:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5923:
5921:
5919:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5906:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5881:
5879:
5875:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5839:carbohydrates
5832:
5827:
5825:
5820:
5818:
5813:
5812:
5809:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5771:Fortification
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5746:Carbohydrates
5744:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5735:
5731:
5724:
5719:
5717:
5712:
5710:
5705:
5704:
5701:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5673:
5670:
5669:
5668:
5665:
5664:
5662:
5658:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5624:
5622:
5618:
5612:
5609:
5606:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5590:
5587:
5584:
5580:
5575:
5571:
5557:
5556:Radiotrophism
5554:
5552:
5549:
5548:
5545:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5510:
5507:
5504:
5500:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5478:
5477:Glycosylation
5475:
5474:
5471:
5463:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5447:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5421:
5420:
5417:
5411:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5400:
5397:
5393:
5390:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5373:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5344:
5342:
5340:
5334:
5328:
5325:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5313:
5311:
5309:
5305:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5281:
5278:
5272:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5246:
5245:
5241:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5233:
5229:
5222:
5221:
5219:
5217:
5213:
5205:
5201:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5161:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5116:
5111:
5109:
5104:
5102:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5058:
5054:
5051:
5050:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5014:
5013:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4977:
4969:
4965:
4958:
4956:
4947:
4943:
4937:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4888:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4845:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4793:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4763:
4756:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4685:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4642:Diabetes Care
4639:
4637:
4628:
4626:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4589:
4581:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4540:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4480:
4473:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4424:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4381:
4373:
4361:
4354:
4350:
4344:
4340:
4333:
4325:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4219:
4212:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4145:
4137:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4096:
4089:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4067:
4051:
4047:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3993:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3961:
3953:
3952:92-5-104114-8
3949:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3928:
3917:September 27,
3909:
3905:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3861:
3854:
3853:92-4-120916-X
3850:
3847:. pp. 55–56.
3846:
3842:
3838:
3837:
3831:
3824:
3823:0-309-08537-3
3820:
3816:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3785:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3716:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3656:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3626:
3618:
3612:
3608:
3601:
3593:
3587:
3583:
3576:
3560:
3556:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3537:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3488:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3450:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3417:
3413:
3411:9780721686349
3407:
3403:
3402:
3394:
3378:
3374:
3368:
3364:
3363:
3355:
3346:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3316:
3315:
3307:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3219:
3210:
3202:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3186:
3177:
3169:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3077:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3043:
3036:
3034:
3029:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3013:Macromolecule
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2629:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2075:
2068:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2047:dietary fiber
2041:
2036:
2035:
2029:
2021:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1895:dietary fiber
1890:
1880:
1878:
1877:blood insulin
1874:
1873:insulin index
1870:
1866:
1865:blood glucose
1862:
1861:glycemic load
1858:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1801:disaccharides
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1781:Nutritionists
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1747:dietary fiber
1744:
1740:
1736:
1735:arabinoxylans
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1701:disaccharides
1698:
1693:
1691:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1664:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1641:
1640:cell adhesion
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1624:glycoproteins
1621:
1617:
1616:disaccharides
1614:, similar to
1613:
1607:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1528:for sucrose,
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1482:formed via a
1481:
1477:
1476:covalent bond
1473:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1433:Disaccharides
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1411:glycosylation
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:glycoproteins
1396:
1392:
1391:galactolipids
1388:
1384:
1380:
1377:occur in the
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1310:
1308:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1213:stereoisomers
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1069:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1004:
1003:Hydrocolloids
1000:
996:
995:Hemicellulose
992:
988:
985:
982:
981:
977:
973:
970:
968:
965:
962:
958:
954:
950:
947:
944:
943:
940:
939:Maltodextrins
937:
934:
931:
927:
924:
920:
917:
915:
912:
911:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
889:
887:
886:Disaccharides
884:
883:
880:
876:
872:
868:
865:
863:
860:
857:
853:
849:
846:
841:
840:
834:
832:
822:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
785:
781:
778:
774:
770:
766:
761:
751:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
693:
688:
683:
674:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
631:
626:
616:
611:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
572:
563:
559:
556:This section
554:
551:
547:
546:
538:
536:
531:
527:
526:dietary fiber
523:
519:
515:
511:
506:
504:
500:
496:
491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
467:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
436:dietary fiber
433:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
388:
385:, preventing
384:
383:fertilization
380:
379:immune system
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
333:store (e.g.,
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
298: 'wine,
297:
294:
287:
283:
280:
279:Ancient Greek
276:
272:
271:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
249:disaccharides
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
227:
220:
217:
216:Ancient Greek
213:
209:
204:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
170:
166:
162:
156:
146:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
114:
69:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
18:Carbohydrates
6485:
6474:
6456:
6388:Maltodextrin
6269:Isomaltulose
6060:Deoxy sugars
5996:Ketotetrose
5899:Mutarotation
5838:
5745:
5457:Galactolysis
5427:Glycogenesis
5232:Fermentation
5204:ATP synthase
5035:. Retrieved
4995:. Retrieved
4986:
4976:
4967:
4945:
4936:
4893:
4887:
4854:
4850:
4844:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4780:. Retrieved
4771:
4762:
4755:Supplements.
4753:
4746:. Retrieved
4694:
4690:
4684:
4672:. Retrieved
4645:
4641:
4635:
4599:
4595:
4588:
4553:
4549:
4539:
4527:. Retrieved
4489:
4485:
4472:
4437:
4433:
4423:
4390:
4386:
4380:
4352:
4338:
4332:
4297:
4293:
4264:. Retrieved
4228:
4224:
4211:
4199:. Retrieved
4161:
4157:
4144:
4109:
4105:
4095:
4079:
4066:
4054:. Retrieved
4034:
4027:
4005:(2): 44–49.
4002:
3998:
3992:
3980:. Retrieved
3971:
3932:
3927:
3915:. Retrieved
3908:the original
3877:
3873:
3860:
3835:
3830:
3797:
3792:
3765:
3761:
3751:
3739:. Retrieved
3732:the original
3727:
3715:
3703:. Retrieved
3694:
3685:
3673:. Retrieved
3669:the original
3664:
3661:"Show Foods"
3655:
3645:February 26,
3643:. Retrieved
3634:
3631:"lyxoflavin"
3625:
3606:
3600:
3581:
3575:
3563:. Retrieved
3543:
3536:
3524:. Retrieved
3497:
3487:
3477:December 21,
3475:. Retrieved
3466:
3457:
3439:Biochemistry
3438:
3432:
3420:. Retrieved
3400:
3393:
3381:. Retrieved
3361:
3354:
3345:
3335:November 30,
3333:. Retrieved
3313:
3306:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3245:. Retrieved
3225:
3218:
3209:
3184:
3176:
3141:
3137:
3127:
3086:
3082:
3076:
3064:. Retrieved
3057:the original
3048:
2978:Glycobiology
2927:
2902:
2872:
2837:Nef reaction
2797:
2761:
2742:
2678:
2656:
2637:
2635:
2492:Sweet potato
2232:Navel orange
2026:
1997:side effects
1978:
1958:healthy diet
1955:
1923:
1919:constipation
1907:whole grains
1892:
1854:
1841:
1836:
1828:fermentation
1813:
1792:
1791:publication
1784:
1779:
1751:
1714:
1704:
1694:
1682:
1609:
1580:
1563:
1553:
1529:
1512:
1464:disaccharide
1461:
1458:Disaccharide
1327:biosynthesis
1316:
1306:
1290:
1280:
1268:heterocyclic
1266:, forming a
1257:
1182:
1111:
1090:
1077:
1051:
903:isomaltulose
828:
788:
762:
738:uronic acids
697:
695:(C=O)–(CHOH)
691:
686:
681:
670:
641:
630:formaldehyde
624:
614:
607:
579:
569:January 2022
566:
562:adding to it
557:
507:
495:food science
492:
473:
430:
399:
387:pathogenesis
375:biomolecules
328:
292:
289:
282:
268:
225:
222:
219:
211:
208:biochemistry
205:
197:formaldehyde
189:deoxy-sugars
185:uronic acids
164:
160:
154:
144:
68:carbohydrate
67:
65:
48:disaccharide
36:
6546:Xanthan gum
6534:Amylopectin
6406:Beta-glucan
6317:Maltotriose
6132:Ketohexoses
6085:Aldohexoses
6065:Deoxyribose
6000:Erythrulose
5958:Ketotriose
5948:Aldotriose
5583:lipogenesis
5445:Fructolysis
5259:Lactic acid
5037:October 30,
4997:October 15,
4782:January 30,
4748:December 1,
4602:: 124–131.
4368:|work=
3843:). Geneva:
3741:October 30,
3565:December 2,
3144:(1): 5–10.
3066:January 28,
2659:biochemical
2371:Vegetables
2076:Sucrose as
1846:whole grain
1620:glygolipids
1569:D-galactose
1478:known as a
1448:(left) and
1359:Deoxyribose
1221:enantiomers
1170:aldopentose
976:amylopectin
850:Components
799:deoxyribose
666:sialic acid
530:food energy
522:lactic acid
480:polyhydroxy
470:Terminology
460:metabolized
418:sugar beets
395:development
371:deoxyribose
201:acetic acid
119:biomolecule
52:D-galactose
32:hydrocarbon
6583:Categories
6322:Melezitose
6264:Isomaltose
6259:Cellobiose
5925:Aldodiose
5406:Glycolysis
5339:metabolism
5337:Nucleotide
5327:Urea cycle
5308:Amino acid
5297:Catabolism
5240:Glycolysis
5183:Glycolysis
5166:metabolism
5126:catabolism
5122:Metabolism
5055:(Requires
4693:(Review).
4552:(Review).
4389:(Review).
4160:(Review).
3526:August 30,
3422:January 8,
3024:References
2993:Glycolipid
2962:Bioplastic
2753:glycolysis
2749:catabolism
2739:Catabolism
2647:Metabolism
2575:Sugar beet
2548:Sugar cane
2434:Red pepper
1987:. Through
1711:lac operon
1589:cellobiose
1522:D-fructose
1450:D-fructose
1319:metabolism
1260:hemiacetal
1189:asymmetric
1178:ketohexose
1162:aldohexose
1152:, six are
1054:hydrolyzed
784:hemiacetal
771:where the
765:open-chain
709:with many
458:, and are
452:microbiota
408:, such as
277:(from
214:(from
212:saccharide
6594:Nutrition
6476:Galactose
6431:Cellulose
6421:Sizofiran
6345:Stachyose
6327:Raffinose
6294:Trehalose
6279:Lactulose
6100:Galactose
6023:Arabinose
5985:Erythrose
5837:Types of
5741:Additives
5579:lipolysis
5386:anabolism
5130:anabolism
5057:MDL Chime
4806:: 91–95.
4674:April 24,
4529:April 24,
4370:ignored (
4360:cite book
4266:April 24,
4201:April 24,
4056:April 24,
3937:chapter 1
3705:August 2,
3383:April 24,
3247:April 24,
3003:Glycomics
2674:organisms
2667:breakdown
2663:formation
2316:Pineapple
2071:fructose/
2069:Ratio of
2058:fructose
1911:halitosis
1739:Ruminants
1727:cellulose
1668:Nutrition
1628:raffinose
1573:D-glucose
1518:D-glucose
1446:D-glucose
1427:Trehalose
1419:digestion
1383:Galactose
1347:cell wall
1343:cellulose
1289:. In the
1264:hemiketal
1026:D-glucose
991:Cellulose
953:stachyose
949:Raffinose
907:trehalose
871:galactose
610:chemistry
604:Structure
586:sugarcane
432:Cellulose
414:sugarcane
402:nutrition
351:coenzymes
241:cellulose
226:sákkharon
56:D-glucose
6568:Category
6497:Glycogen
6480:Galactan
6458:Fructose
6443:Chitosan
6416:Lentinan
6365:Acarbose
6299:Turanose
6243:Multiple
6184:Heptoses
6172:Rhamnose
6167:Fuculose
6152:Tagatose
6137:Fructose
6053:Xylulose
6048:Ribulose
6012:Pentoses
5974:Tetroses
5877:Geometry
5868:Pyranose
5863:Furanose
5791:Vitamins
5786:Proteins
5751:Coloring
5502:Nonhuman
5487:O-linked
5482:N-linked
5274:Specific
5028:Archived
4991:Archived
4928:19768616
4894:Biofuels
4879:40353516
4871:24827686
4836:53757166
4828:30481664
4776:Archived
4742:Archived
4719:53102654
4711:30362180
4668:Archived
4664:30559231
4616:28750216
4580:29541907
4520:Archived
4516:56488132
4508:30544168
4464:21670516
4456:26768850
4415:54484172
4407:28074888
4324:28898979
4257:Archived
4253:52174104
4245:30194696
4192:Archived
4188:58632705
4180:30638909
4136:30122560
4084:Archived
4050:Archived
3982:April 3,
3976:Archived
3940:Archived
3904:28836672
3811:Archived
3784:16614413
3699:Archived
3665:usda.gov
3639:Archived
3559:Archived
3520:Archived
3516:20301274
3471:Archived
3416:Archived
3377:Archived
3329:Archived
3298:25971927
3241:Archived
3168:17610157
3111:12529622
3051:. Wien:
3008:Glycosyl
2983:Glycogen
2956:See also
2755:and the
2073:glucose
2066:Sucrose
2063:glucose
2001:insomnia
1985:epilepsy
1915:headache
1850:enriched
1816:fructose
1743:termites
1545:furanose
1541:pyranose
1488:hydrogen
1452:(right).
1415:Fructose
1401:in many
1375:xylulose
1371:Ribulose
1335:glycogen
1307:β anomer
1291:α anomer
1276:pyranose
1272:furanose
1174:fructose
1150:pentoses
1146:tetroses
1126:aldehyde
1114:carbonyl
1038:aldehyde
987:Glycogen
963:(>9)
923:mannitol
919:Sorbitol
875:fructose
847:Subgroup
825:Division
819:nitrogen
780:carbonyl
773:aldehyde
750:inositol
730:fructose
711:hydroxyl
703:aldehyde
594:glycogen
484:aldehyde
339:glycogen
318:sugar),
304:fructose
221:σάκχαρον
191:such as
129:(H) and
127:hydrogen
6539:Amylose
6487:Glucose
6462:Fructan
6452:Dextran
6448:Dextrin
6426:Zymosan
6289:Sucrose
6284:Maltose
6274:Lactose
6223:Nonoses
6218:Octoses
6211:Above 7
6147:Sorbose
6142:Psicose
6120:Mannose
6105:Glucose
6095:Altrose
6077:Hexoses
5990:Threose
5941:Trioses
5846:General
5766:Flavors
5756:Enzymes
5642:Ketosis
5254:Ethanol
5137:General
4898:Bibcode
4808:Bibcode
4571:5959976
4315:5546881
4127:6339822
4019:3703387
3895:6484378
3806:. Page
3695:fao.org
3675:June 4,
3289:4564526
3159:7088275
3119:4421938
3091:Bibcode
2998:Glycome
2681:glucose
2609:, sweet
2601:Grains
2587:0.1–0.5
2584:0.1–0.5
2560:0.2–1.0
2557:0.2–1.0
2542:Traces
2465:, sweet
2436:, sweet
2177:, dried
2119:Apricot
2085:Fruits
2053:sugars
2015:Sources
1939:insulin
1899:legumes
1869:glucose
1830:by the
1719:Diauxie
1690:lactose
1585:maltose
1565:Lactose
1514:Sucrose
1496:formula
1472:lactose
1468:sucrose
1442:Sucrose
1407:Mannose
1403:tissues
1397:and in
1387:lactose
1323:glucose
1287:anomers
1252:Glucose
1233:rotates
1225:epimers
1197:isomers
1158:glucose
1154:hexoses
1142:trioses
1100:anomers
999:Pectins
972:Amylose
914:Polyols
899:maltose
895:lactose
891:Sucrose
867:Glucose
726:glucose
652:(e.g.,
650:sulfate
541:History
454:of the
424:, many
353:(e.g.,
324:lactose
308:sucrose
293:gleûkos
286:γλεῦκος
275:glucose
159:(where
117:) is a
44:Lactose
6529:Starch
6524:Pectin
6519:Mannan
6514:Lignin
6491:Glucan
6468:Inulin
6436:Chitin
6162:Fucose
6125:Talose
6110:Gulose
6090:Allose
6038:Xylose
6033:Ribose
6028:Lyxose
5918:Dioses
5894:Epimer
5884:Anomer
5858:Ketose
5853:Aldose
5776:Lipids
5164:Energy
4926:
4916:
4877:
4869:
4834:
4826:
4717:
4709:
4662:
4614:
4578:
4568:
4514:
4506:
4462:
4454:
4413:
4405:
4345:
4322:
4312:
4251:
4243:
4186:
4178:
4158:Lancet
4134:
4124:
4042:
4017:
3950:
3902:
3892:
3851:
3821:
3782:
3613:
3588:
3551:
3514:
3504:
3445:
3408:
3369:
3321:
3296:
3286:
3233:
3197:
3166:
3156:
3117:
3109:
3083:Nature
2943:Benzyl
2774:) and
2725:oxygen
2713:energy
2701:lipids
2697:starch
2689:plants
2671:living
2536:Traces
2533:Traces
2530:Traces
2406:Carrot
2204:Grapes
2147:Banana
2051:Total
1972:. The
1953:risk.
1903:pulses
1839:USDA's
1731:chitin
1554:-oside
1367:Lyxose
1351:Ribose
1339:starch
1235:plane
1168:is an
1166:ribose
1160:is an
1138:ketose
1134:ketone
1130:aldose
1122:chiral
1118:carbon
967:Starch
932:(3–9)
879:xylose
858:(1–2)
856:Sugars
811:chitin
807:ribose
777:ketone
748:O and
742:fucose
732:, and
715:carbon
707:ketone
685:where
662:fucose
646:chitin
518:acetic
499:starch
488:ketone
448:inulin
426:fruits
393:, and
347:ribose
343:chitin
335:starch
331:energy
320:ribose
255:, and
239:, and
237:starch
233:sugars
193:fucose
131:oxygen
123:carbon
6384:(IMO)
6378:(GOS)
6372:(FOS)
6354:Other
6115:Idose
5796:Water
5660:Other
5620:Other
5395:Human
5276:paths
5031:(PDF)
5020:(PDF)
4875:S2CID
4832:S2CID
4715:S2CID
4523:(PDF)
4512:S2CID
4482:(PDF)
4460:S2CID
4411:S2CID
4260:(PDF)
4249:S2CID
4221:(PDF)
4195:(PDF)
4184:S2CID
4154:(PDF)
3911:(PDF)
3870:(PDF)
3735:(PDF)
3724:(PDF)
3191:52–59
3115:S2CID
3060:(PDF)
3045:(PDF)
2951:ether
2945:ether
2782:) to
2733:water
2705:fungi
2630:15.0
2596:high
2590:16–17
2581:17–18
2569:high
2563:11–16
2554:13–18
2514:60.3
2486:14.3
2463:Onion
2400:96.2
2379:, red
2366:16.2
2338:60.8
2282:56.7
2260:Peach
2254:50.4
2198:0.15
2169:20.0
2141:63.5
2113:19.9
2091:Apple
2061:Free
2056:Free
2039:item
2037:Food
1677:Grain
1423:semen
1295:trans
1176:is a
842:Class
535:sugar
422:honey
410:bread
406:flour
281:
218:
125:(C),
46:is a
5384:and
5084:and
5039:2016
4999:2015
4924:PMID
4914:ISBN
4867:PMID
4824:PMID
4784:2017
4750:2020
4707:PMID
4676:2022
4660:PMID
4612:PMID
4576:PMID
4531:2022
4504:PMID
4452:PMID
4403:PMID
4372:help
4343:ISBN
4320:PMID
4268:2022
4241:PMID
4203:2022
4176:PMID
4132:PMID
4075:USDA
4073:and
4071:DHHS
4058:2022
4040:ISBN
4015:PMID
3984:2013
3948:ISBN
3919:2018
3900:PMID
3849:ISBN
3819:ISBN
3780:PMID
3743:2016
3707:2013
3677:2014
3647:2014
3611:ISBN
3586:ISBN
3567:2008
3549:ISBN
3528:2017
3512:PMID
3502:ISBN
3479:2015
3443:ISBN
3424:2016
3406:ISBN
3385:2022
3367:ISBN
3337:2017
3319:ISBN
3294:PMID
3249:2022
3231:ISBN
3195:ISBN
3164:PMID
3107:PMID
3068:2018
2731:and
2627:0.61
2612:19.0
2607:Corn
2524:27.9
2496:20.1
2457:0.0
2377:Beet
2363:0.66
2348:11.4
2344:Plum
2320:13.1
2310:8.0
2292:15.5
2288:Pear
2242:2.25
2236:12.5
2211:15.5
2208:18.1
2195:0.93
2189:24.8
2186:22.9
2183:47.9
2180:63.9
2154:12.2
2151:22.8
2123:11.1
2098:10.4
2095:13.8
1917:and
1901:and
1859:and
1855:The
1837:The
1807:(or
1799:and
1764:and
1752:The
1741:and
1733:and
1699:and
1685:gram
1638:and
1622:and
1552:The
1470:and
1373:and
1274:and
1223:and
1095:and
1091:The
817:, a
793:(or
763:The
718:atom
664:and
503:jams
446:and
361:and
337:and
316:beet
312:cane
300:must
270:-ose
199:and
135:atom
5408:⇄
5249:ABE
4906:doi
4859:doi
4816:doi
4804:158
4699:doi
4650:doi
4604:doi
4600:131
4566:PMC
4558:doi
4494:doi
4442:doi
4438:115
4395:doi
4310:PMC
4302:doi
4233:doi
4166:doi
4162:393
4122:PMC
4114:doi
4007:doi
3890:PMC
3882:doi
3841:PDF
3808:769
3770:doi
3766:136
3284:PMC
3276:doi
3154:PMC
3146:doi
3099:doi
3087:421
2788:FBP
2780:F6P
2772:G6P
2717:ATP
2699:or
2624:0.9
2621:3.4
2618:1.9
2615:6.2
2593:1.0
2566:1.0
2527:0.5
2520:Yam
2511:0.9
2508:2.5
2505:1.0
2502:0.7
2499:4.2
2483:0.9
2480:0.7
2477:2.3
2474:2.0
2471:5.0
2468:7.6
2454:1.2
2451:0.0
2448:1.9
2445:2.3
2442:4.2
2439:6.0
2428:77
2425:1.0
2422:3.6
2419:0.6
2416:0.6
2413:4.7
2410:9.6
2397:1.0
2394:6.5
2391:0.1
2388:0.1
2385:6.8
2382:9.6
2360:1.6
2357:5.1
2354:3.1
2351:9.9
2335:1.1
2332:6.0
2329:1.7
2326:2.1
2323:9.9
2307:2.1
2304:0.8
2301:2.8
2298:6.2
2295:9.8
2279:0.9
2276:4.8
2273:2.0
2270:1.5
2267:8.4
2264:9.5
2251:1.1
2248:4.3
2245:2.0
2239:8.5
2223:1.1
2220:0.2
2217:7.2
2214:8.1
2192:0.9
2175:Fig
2166:1.0
2163:2.4
2160:5.0
2157:4.9
2138:0.7
2135:5.9
2132:2.4
2129:0.9
2126:9.2
2110:2.0
2107:2.1
2104:2.4
2101:5.9
1993:fad
1811:).
1721:).
1715:lac
1393:in
1363:DNA
1355:RNA
1262:or
803:DNA
760:).
752:(CH
705:or
668:).
656:),
648:),
632:(CH
564:.
520:or
493:In
486:or
474:In
416:or
367:RNA
363:NAD
359:FAD
355:ATP
314:or
203:).
83:ɑːr
6585::
6489:/
6478:/
6460:/
6450:/
5581:,
5425:⇄
5242:→
5202:+
5193:→
5189:→
5185:→
5128:,
5124:,
5022:.
4989:.
4985:.
4966:.
4954:^
4944:.
4922:.
4912:.
4904:.
4873:.
4865:.
4855:11
4853:.
4830:.
4822:.
4814:.
4802:.
4770:.
4752:.
4727:^
4713:.
4705:.
4695:36
4666:.
4658:.
4646:42
4644:.
4640:.
4624:^
4610:.
4598:.
4574:.
4564:.
4554:57
4548:.
4518:.
4510:.
4502:.
4490:77
4484:.
4458:.
4450:.
4436:.
4432:.
4409:.
4401:.
4391:71
4364::
4362:}}
4358:{{
4351:.
4318:.
4308:.
4298:38
4296:.
4292:.
4276:^
4255:.
4247:.
4239:.
4229:19
4223:.
4190:.
4182:.
4174:.
4156:.
4130:.
4120:.
4104:.
4077:,
4048:.
4013:.
4003:44
4001:.
3970:.
3959:^
3946:.
3935:,
3898:.
3888:.
3876:.
3872:.
3817:.
3778:.
3764:.
3760:.
3726:.
3697:.
3693:.
3663:.
3637:.
3633:.
3557:.
3518:.
3510:.
3496:.
3465:.
3414:.
3375:.
3327:.
3292:.
3282:.
3272:39
3270:.
3266:.
3239:.
3193:.
3162:.
3152:.
3142:25
3140:.
3136:.
3113:.
3105:.
3097:.
3085:.
3032:^
2759:.
2751::
2676:.
2665:,
2639:^A
2226:1
1921:.
1913:,
1905:,
1852:.
1834:.
1692:.
1642:.
1508:11
1504:22
1500:12
1425:.
1405:.
1381:.
1365:.
1357:.
1309:.
1227:.
1207:O)
1064:O)
1032:O)
1001:,
997:,
993:,
989:,
974:,
951:,
921:,
905:,
901:,
897:,
893:,
877:,
873:,
869:,
809:;
756:O)
728:,
679:O)
622:O)
618:(H
600:.
466:.
397:.
389:,
381:,
357:,
322:,
251:,
247:,
235:,
187:,
173:CH
152:O)
148:(H
107:eɪ
98:aɪ
89:oʊ
66:A
5830:e
5823:t
5816:v
5722:e
5715:t
5708:v
5607:)
5603:(
5585:)
5577:(
5388:)
5379:(
5207:)
5197:(
5114:e
5107:t
5100:v
5059:)
5041:.
5001:.
4970:.
4948:.
4930:.
4908::
4900::
4881:.
4861::
4838:.
4818::
4810::
4721:.
4701::
4678:.
4652::
4638:"
4618:.
4606::
4582:.
4560::
4533:.
4496::
4466:.
4444::
4417:.
4397::
4374:)
4326:.
4304::
4270:.
4235::
4205:.
4168::
4138:.
4116::
4110:3
4090:.
4060:.
4021:.
4009::
3986:.
3954:.
3921:.
3884::
3878:8
3855:.
3839:(
3825:.
3786:.
3772::
3745:.
3709:.
3679:.
3649:.
3619:.
3594:.
3569:.
3530:.
3481:.
3451:.
3426:.
3387:.
3339:.
3300:.
3278::
3251:.
3203:.
3170:.
3148::
3121:.
3101::
3093::
3070:.
2786:(
2778:(
2770:(
2539:—
1581:O
1530:O
1506:O
1502:H
1303:2
1299:2
1209:6
1205:2
1104:2
1097:β
1093:α
1066:n
1062:2
1034:6
1030:2
775:/
758:6
754:2
746:2
698:y
692:x
687:n
682:n
677:2
642:N
634:2
625:n
620:2
615:m
571:)
567:(
533:"
310:(
296:)
290:(
229:)
223:(
177:O
175:2
165:n
161:m
155:n
150:2
145:m
142:C
113:/
110:t
104:r
101:d
95:h
92:ˈ
86:b
80:k
77:ˌ
74:/
70:(
62:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.