1923:. Seafloor weather is linked both to solar luminosity and carbon dioxide concentration. However, it presented a challenge to modelers who have tried to relate the rate of outgassing and subduction to the related rates of seafloor change. Proper, uncomplicated proxy data is difficult to attain for such questions. For example, sediment cores, from which scientists can deduce past sea levels, are not ideal because sea levels change as a result of more than just seafloor adjustment. Recent modeling studies have investigated the role of seafloor weathering on the early evolution of life, showing that relatively fast seafloor creation rates worked to draw down carbon dioxide levels to a moderate extent.
177:
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27:
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indicate that Earth has a relatively insensitive rock weathering feedback, allowing for large temperature swings. With about twice as much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, paleoclimate records show that global temperatures reached up to 5 to 6 °C higher than current temperatures. However, other
1217:
Changes to the surface of the planet, such as an absence of volcanoes or higher sea levels, which would reduce the amount of land surface exposed to weathering can change the rates at which different processes in this cycle take place. Over tens to hundreds of millions of years, carbon dioxide levels
1226:
builds up in the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect will serve to increase the surface temperature, which will in turn increase the rate of rainfall and silicate weathering, which will remove carbon from the atmosphere. In this way, over long timescales, the carbonate-silicate cycle has a stabilizing
1959:
to produce more bicarbonate ions and reduce the available carbonate ions, which presents an obstacle to the carbon carbonate precipitation process. Put differently, 30% of excess carbon emitted into the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. Higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the oceans work
2006:
is such a planet. Located at the edge of the solar system's habitable zone, its surface is too cold for liquid water to form without a greenhouse effect. With its thin atmosphere, Mars' mean surface temperature is 210 K (−63 °C). In attempting to explain topographical features resembling
1209:. 99.6% of all carbon on Earth (equating to roughly 10 billion tons of carbon) is sequestered in the longterm rock reservoir. And essentially all carbon has spent time in the form of carbonate. By contrast, only 0.002% of carbon exists in the biosphere.
814:, but over long timescales, it can dissolve silicate rocks (as well as carbonate rocks). Most of the Earth's crust (and mantle) is composed of silicates. These substances break down into dissolved ions as a result. For example,
956:
1946:
in the Earth system has reached unprecedented levels in a very short amount of time. Excess carbon in the atmosphere that is dissolved in seawater can alter the rates of carbonate-silicate cycle. Dissolved
1075:
1824:
2007:
fluvial channels, despite seemingly insufficient incoming solar radiation, some have suggested that a cycle similar to Earth's carbonate-silicate cycle could have existed – similar to a retreat from
1196:
1868:
boundary would have allowed more efficient removal of weathering products from the ocean. Biological processes in soils can significantly increase weathering rates. Plants produce
2913:
IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of
Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
104:
changes. Furthermore, these geomorphic and chemical changes have worked in tandem with solar forcing, whether due to orbital changes or stellar evolution, to determine the
778:
830:, and dissolved silica. This reaction structure is representative of general silicate weathering of calcium silicate minerals. The chemical pathway is as follows:
2963:
Batalha, Natasha E.; Kopparapu, Ravi Kumar; Haqq-Misra, Jacob; Kasting, James F. (2016). "Climate cycling on early Mars caused by the carbonate-silicate cycle".
1856:
changes. Generally, the formation of carbonates has outpaced that of silicates, effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The advent of carbonate
1831:
156:
Microscopic shells found in sediment cores may be used to determine past climate conditions including ocean temperatures and aspects of atmospheric chemistry.
2722:
Brady, Patrick; Gíslason, Sigurdur R. (March 1997). "Seafloor weathering controls on atmospheric CO2 and global climate Author links open overlay panel".
2202:
Walker, James C. G.; Hays, P. B.; Kasting, J. F. (1981). "A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature".
2575:"Evaluating the effects of terrestrial ecosystems, climate and carbon dioxide on weathering over geological time: a global-scale process-based approach"
2247:
Biogeochemistry of Global Change: Radiatively Active Trace Gases
Selected Papers from the Tenth International Symposium on Environmental Biogeochemistry
3538:
2094:
1980:. To begin, the carbonate-silicate cycle requires the presence of a water cycle. It therefore breaks down at the inner edge of the Solar System's
2679:
Raymo, Maureen E.; Ruddiman, William F.; Froelich, Philip N. (1988). "Influence of late
Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles".
2488:
Berner, Robert A.; Beerling, David J.; Dudley, Robert; Robinson, Jennifer M.; Wildman, Jr., Richard A. (2003). "Phanerozoic
Atmospheric Oxygen".
1099:. Some carbonate may be carried deep into the mantle where high pressure and temperature conditions allow it to combine metamorphically with SiO
3188:
2034:
is located at the inner edge of the habitable zone and has a mean surface temperature of 737 K (464 °C). After losing its water by
836:
2027:
clouds do not reflect in the same way that water clouds do on Earth, it could not have had much of a carbonate-silicate cycle in the past.
1084:
are required for silicate rock weathering; marine calcification releases one molecule back to the atmosphere. The calcium carbonate (CaCO
264:
124:
This schematic shows the relationship between the different physical and chemical processes that make up the carbonate-silicate cycle.
3423:
3059:
Forget, François; Pierrehumbert, Raymond T. (1997). "Warming Early Mars with Carbon
Dioxide Clouds That Scatter Infrared Radiation".
1347:
1340:
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222:
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249:
81:. On million-year time scales, the carbonate-silicate cycle is a key factor in controlling Earth's climate because it regulates
785:
603:
30:
This figure describes the geological aspects and processes of the carbonate silicate cycle, within the long-term carbon cycle.
2538:
Ridgewell, A; Zeebe, R (2005). "The role of the global carbonate cycle in the regulation and evolution of the Earth system".
2386:
2320:
2292:
2262:
1817:
727:
2855:"Constraining climate sensitivity and continental versus seafloor weathering using an inverse geological carbon cycle model"
1121:
3355:
3106:; Bannon, Peter R. (2012). "The Carbonate-Silicate Cycle and CO2/Climate Feedbacks on Tidally Locked Terrestrial Planets".
1783:
2356:
1988:, losing surface water. Without the requisite rainwater, no weathering will occur to produce carbonic acid from gaseous CO
1308:
810:) from rainwater and gaseous carbon dioxide. Due to this process, normal rain has a pH of around 5.6. Carbonic acid is a
192:
137:
1907:
Tectonics can induce changes in the carbonate-silicate cycle. For example, the uplift of major mountain ranges, such as
3459:
3335:
3181:
2156:"The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years"
2019:
O acting as greenhouse gases could not have kept Mars warm during its early history when the Sun was fainter because CO
1759:
1379:
1218:
in the atmosphere may vary due to natural perturbations in the cycle but even more generally, it serves as a critical
3484:
1416:
2700:
2042:, Venus stopped removing carbon dioxide from its atmosphere, and began instead to build it up, and experience a
1088:) contained in shells and skeletons sinks after the marine organism dies and is deposited on the ocean floor.
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3174:
1804:
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3319:
1981:
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The rate of weathering is sensitive to factors that change how much land is exposed. These factors include
3494:
1984:. Even if a planet starts out with liquid water on the surface, if it becomes too warm, it will undergo a
1739:
1960:
to push the carbonate precipitation process in the opposite direction (to the left), producing less CaCO
1111:, which is released from the interior into the atmosphere via volcanism, thermal vents in the ocean, or
712:
610:
316:
310:
105:
2043:
1985:
717:
337:
2573:
Taylor, Lyla L.; Banwart, Steve A.; Valdes, Paul J.; Leake, Jonathan R.; Beerling, David J. (2012).
2039:
1885:
140:, in which biological processes convert carbon dioxide and water into organic matter and oxygen via
3543:
3452:
3447:
1552:
1547:
1303:
692:
620:
615:
598:
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2000:
and reducing the surface temperature. As a result, the atmosphere would collapse into polar caps.
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River runoff carries these products to the ocean, where marine calcifying organisms use Ca and HCO
3386:
2119:
1881:
1706:
702:
217:
109:
26:
3275:
3161:
Understanding the long-term carbon-cycle: weathering of rocks - a vitally important carbon-sink
2786:"Constraining the climate and ocean pH of the early Earth with a geological carbon cycle model"
1656:
522:
298:
259:
227:
3533:
3479:
2749:
Berner, Robert A.; Lasaga, Antonio C. (March 1989). "Modeling the
Geochemical Carbon Cycle".
2141:(1952). The planets: their origin and development. Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Lectures.
1916:
1399:
771:
758:
707:
438:
2986:
2245:
Walker, James C. G. (1993). "Biogeochemical Cycles of Carbon on a
Hierarchy of Timescales".
108:. Additionally, the carbonate-silicate cycle has been considered a possible solution to the
3398:
3228:
3205:
3197:
3115:
3068:
3025:
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2866:
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292:
197:
8:
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2114:
1965:
1893:
1727:
1537:
1428:
826:, reacts with carbon dioxide and water to yield a calcium ion, Ca, a bicarbonate ion, HCO
583:
399:
254:
3119:
3072:
3029:
2870:
2811:
2762:
2692:
2647:
2501:
2453:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
2423:
2215:
2171:
811:
2998:
2972:
2887:
2854:
2830:
2797:
2785:
2607:
2574:
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2448:
2079:
1977:
1666:
1227:
effect on the Earth's climate, which is why it has been called the Earth's thermostat.
1112:
662:
430:
414:
409:
332:
73:
is removed from the atmosphere during burial of weathered minerals and returned to the
2770:
2735:
3474:
3442:
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3223:
3139:
3131:
3084:
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3037:
3002:
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2227:
2035:
1997:
1877:
1857:
1696:
1542:
1394:
1330:
1219:
593:
372:
207:
37:
2449:"The carbon cycle and carbon dioxide over Phanerozoic time: the role of land plants"
3393:
3381:
3312:
3282:
3123:
3076:
3033:
2990:
2882:
2874:
2825:
2815:
2766:
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2696:
2651:
2602:
2586:
2547:
2505:
2468:
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2427:
2250:
2219:
2175:
2054:
1845:
1713:
1701:
1411:
1274:
1206:
1096:
815:
559:
453:
448:
3080:
3413:
3371:
2927:
2283:
Sullivan, Woodruff T.; Baross, John A. (2007). "Planetary
Atmospheres and Life".
2089:
1932:
1691:
1646:
1510:
1493:
687:
554:
487:
475:
404:
278:
120:
2784:
Krissansen-Totton, Joshua; Arney, Giada N.; Catling, David C. (April 17, 2018).
2254:
2099:
3292:
3265:
3260:
3240:
3235:
3160:
2994:
2551:
2104:
2058:
2008:
1920:
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1616:
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1601:
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1515:
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647:
588:
502:
385:
380:
241:
141:
129:
82:
70:
50:
2337:
3527:
3469:
3255:
3250:
3135:
2708:
2665:
2598:
2559:
2231:
1901:
1651:
1641:
1596:
1591:
1581:
1529:
1452:
1384:
799:
58:
2820:
2223:
1955:, and hydrogen ions, H. These hydrogen ions quickly react with carbonate, CO
176:
3302:
3297:
3270:
3213:
3143:
3103:
3045:
2896:
2839:
2616:
2590:
2524:
2464:
2074:
1869:
1626:
1611:
1457:
1423:
1406:
1298:
1290:
1115:, which are natural springs that contain carbon dioxide gas or soda water:
823:
480:
394:
348:
286:
168:
133:
62:
17:
3127:
3088:
2432:
2403:
2180:
2155:
1976:
One should not assume that a carbonate-silicate cycle would appear on all
1222:
loop between carbon dioxide levels and climate changes. For example, if CO
152:
3418:
3408:
3403:
3307:
3016:
Kasting, J. F. (1991). "CO2 condensation and the climate of early Mars".
2138:
2062:
1861:
1586:
1503:
1335:
1325:
1269:
1261:
1091:
The final stage of the process involves the movement of the seafloor. At
544:
517:
512:
507:
497:
467:
353:
212:
3166:
2909:
2878:
2315:(2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–128.
61:, and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicate rocks by
3287:
3245:
2084:
1873:
1671:
1636:
1631:
1621:
1444:
1092:
951:{\displaystyle {\ce {2CO2 + H2O + CaSiO3 -> Ca^2+ + 2HCO3- + SiO2}}}
492:
101:
93:
74:
54:
2911:
2579:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3435:
3340:
2109:
2050:
1942:
have been steadily increasing, and the consequent concentration of CO
1927:
1908:
1889:
1853:
1764:
1732:
97:
89:
78:
66:
2977:
2802:
1865:
1251:
46:
2962:
2011:
periods. It has been shown using modeling studies that gaseous CO
575:
358:
1964:. This process, which harms shell-building organisms, is called
2381:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 299–326.
2335:
1919:
due to increased rates of silicate weathering and draw down of
737:
132:
levels over long timescales. It can be seen as a branch of the
2287:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–116.
1095:, the carbonate sediments are buried and forced back into the
1070:{\displaystyle {\ce {Ca^2+ + 2HCO3- -> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O}}}
3345:
2783:
2031:
1935:
contribute to global temperature change in the paleo-record.
1912:
1844:
Aspects of the carbonate-silicate cycle have changed through
1773:
732:
2853:
Krissansen-Totton, Joshua; Catling, David C. (22 May 2017).
2487:
3350:
2910:
Core Writing Team; R.K. Pachauri; L.A. Meyer, eds. (2014).
2701:
10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0649:iolcmb>2.3.co;2
2003:
1778:
2154:
Berner, Robert; Lasaga, Antonio; Garrels, Robert (1983).
1184:
1168:
1152:
1136:
1060:
1044:
1028:
944:
890:
871:
855:
2852:
2572:
1191:{\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 + SiO2 -> CaSiO3 + CO2}}}
128:
The carbonate-silicate cycle is the primary control on
3101:
2379:
Atmospheric Evolution on Inhabited and Lifeless Worlds
965:
to build their shells and skeletons, a process called
2678:
1124:
978:
839:
2632:"Weathering, plants, and the long-term carbon cycle"
2372:
2370:
2278:
2276:
2274:
1205:
molecule to the atmosphere and closes the inorganic
3102:Edson, Adam R.; Kasting, James F.; Pollard, David;
3058:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2336:Environmental Protection Agency (9 February 2016).
2153:
2357:"Geology and Climate: ACS Climate Science Toolkit"
1951:may react with water to form bicarbonate ions, HCO
1190:
1069:
950:
798:The inorganic cycle begins with the production of
147:
2367:
2313:Ecological Climatology: Concepts and Applications
2271:
2201:
3525:
2344:
1230:
2846:
2777:
2537:
2376:
2282:
2023:would condense out into clouds. Even though CO
3182:
2721:
2490:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
2377:Catling, David C.; Kasting, James F. (2017).
1971:
1825:
779:
2934:. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI).
2748:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
45:, describes the long-term transformation of
23:Geochemical transformation of silicate rocks
2306:
2304:
3189:
3175:
3052:
2742:
2481:
2440:
2395:
1832:
1818:
786:
772:
3539:History of climate variability and change
3196:
2976:
2886:
2829:
2819:
2801:
2715:
2655:
2606:
2472:
2431:
2238:
2188:
2179:
999:
915:
844:
85:levels and therefore global temperature.
2903:
2516:
2301:
2132:
1996:may condense, consequently reducing the
151:
119:
115:
25:
3015:
2938:
2249:. Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 3–28.
2204:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1876:. These acids are secreted by root and
723:Territorialisation of carbon governance
3526:
2629:
2525:"The Carbon Cycle and Earth's Climate"
2510:10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141329
2447:Berner, Robert A. (January 29, 1998).
2446:
2401:
2244:
3170:
2310:
1201:This final step returns the second CO
728:Total Carbon Column Observing Network
2920:
2522:
2149:
2147:
1992:. Furthermore, at the outer edge, CO
2965:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2540:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2402:Berner, Robert A. (April 1, 1991).
1915:, is thought to have initiated the
1740:Biogeochemical planetary boundaries
13:
3460:Human impact on the nitrogen cycle
2566:
2531:
14:
3555:
3154:
2771:10.1038/scientificamerican0389-74
2144:
3508:
3507:
3163:by John Mason, Skeptical Science
2932:Ocean Carbon and Biogeochemistry
1799:
1798:
1250:
753:
752:
175:
3095:
3009:
2956:
2724:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
2672:
2636:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
2623:
148:Physical and chemical processes
2329:
1904:, which increases weathering.
1155:
1015:
893:
688:Climate reconstruction proxies
1:
3081:10.1126/science.278.5341.1273
2736:10.1016/S0016-7037(96)00385-7
2125:
1231:Changes through Earth history
3465:Lichens and nitrogen cycling
3320:Marine biogeochemical cycles
3038:10.1016/0019-1035(91)90137-I
2916:. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.
2657:10.1016/0016-7037(92)90300-8
2057:will dictate the release of
1485:Marine biogeochemical cycles
1212:
658:Carbonate compensation depth
323:Particulate inorganic carbon
7:
2412:American Journal of Science
2404:"A model for atmospheric CO
2255:10.1007/978-1-4615-2812-8_1
2160:American Journal of Science
2068:
1931:factors such as changes in
10:
3560:
2995:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.08.044
2630:Berner, Robert A. (1992).
2552:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.03.006
1972:The cycle on other planets
1926:Observations of so-called
713:Carbon capture and storage
317:Particulate organic carbon
311:Dissolved inorganic carbon
136:, which also includes the
106:global surface temperature
15:
3503:
3364:
3328:
3204:
2361:American Chemical Society
2095:Runaway greenhouse effect
2044:runaway greenhouse effect
718:Carbon cycle re-balancing
3453:Arctic methane emissions
3448:clathrate gun hypothesis
3219:carbonate–silicate cycle
1900:, which is converted to
1553:Arctic methane emissions
1548:clathrate gun hypothesis
1463:Carbonate–silicate cycle
693:Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
653:Carbonate–silicate cycle
621:Carbon dioxide clathrate
616:Clathrate gun hypothesis
444:Net ecosystem production
305:Dissolved organic carbon
16:Not to be confused with
3485:Phosphorus assimilation
3387:environmental chemistry
2987:2016E&PSL.455....7B
2821:10.1073/pnas.1721296115
2224:10.1029/JC086iC10p09776
2120:Faint young Sun paradox
1707:environmental chemistry
967:carbonate precipitation
703:Deep Carbon Observatory
163:Part of a series on the
110:faint young Sun paradox
2591:10.1098/rstb.2011.0251
2527:. Columbia University.
2465:10.1098/rstb.1998.0192
2408:over Phanerozoic time"
2311:Bonan, Gordon (2013).
2053:, the location of the
1192:
1071:
952:
523:Continental shelf pump
299:Total inorganic carbon
265:Satellite measurements
157:
125:
43:inorganic carbon cycle
31:
3480:Nitrogen assimilation
3198:Biogeochemical cycles
3128:10.1089/ast.2011.0762
2928:"Ocean Acidification"
2859:Nature Communications
2433:10.2475/ajs.291.4.339
2181:10.2475/ajs.283.7.641
1938:Human emissions of CO
1933:orbital/solar forcing
1917:Late Cenozoic Ice Age
1882:microbial plant decay
1244:Biogeochemical cycles
1193:
1072:
953:
708:Global Carbon Project
439:Ecosystem respiration
155:
123:
116:Overview of the cycle
29:
3495:Planetary boundaries
3399:carbon sequestration
3229:oceanic carbon cycle
2338:"What is Acid Rain?"
1850:biological evolution
1390:nitrogen and lichens
1122:
976:
837:
537:Carbon sequestration
293:Total organic carbon
138:organic carbon cycle
41:, also known as the
3490:Sulfur assimilation
3431:Ocean acidification
3120:2012AsBio..12..562E
3073:1997Sci...278.1273F
3067:(5341): 1273–1276.
3030:1991Icar...94....1K
2952:. NASA. 2011-06-16.
2879:10.1038/ncomms15423
2871:2017NatCo...815423K
2812:2018PNAS..115.4105K
2763:1989SciAm.260c..74B
2751:Scientific American
2693:1988Geo....16..649R
2648:1992GeCoA..56.3225B
2502:2003AREPS..31..105B
2424:1991AmJS..291..339B
2216:1981JGR....86.9776W
2172:1983AmJS..283..641B
2115:Ocean acidification
1978:terrestrial planets
1966:ocean acidification
1894:organic soil matter
1728:Ocean acidification
1538:Atmospheric methane
1238:Part of a series on
1186:
1170:
1154:
1138:
1080:Two molecules of CO
1062:
1046:
1030:
1014:
946:
930:
892:
873:
857:
584:Atmospheric methane
550:Soil carbon storage
400:Reverse Krebs cycle
255:Ocean acidification
36:carbonate–silicate
2210:(C10): 9776–9782.
2080:Reverse weathering
2049:On tidally locked
1986:runaway greenhouse
1188:
1174:
1158:
1142:
1126:
1067:
1050:
1034:
1018:
1000:
948:
934:
916:
880:
861:
845:
663:Great Calcite Belt
611:Aerobic production
431:Carbon respiration
373:Metabolic pathways
333:Primary production
158:
126:
32:
3521:
3520:
3475:Nitrogen fixation
3443:Methane clathrate
3424:mycorrhizal fungi
3377:geochemical cycle
3224:deep carbon cycle
2950:Earth Observatory
2796:(16): 4105–4110.
2585:(1588): 565–582.
2388:978-0-521-84412-3
2322:978-0-521-69319-6
2294:978-0-521-53102-3
2264:978-1-4613-6215-9
2036:photodissociation
1998:greenhouse effect
1878:mycorrhizal fungi
1858:biomineralization
1842:
1841:
1697:geochemical cycle
1543:Methane clathrate
1341:mycorrhizal fungi
1331:deep carbon cycle
1220:negative feedback
1177:
1161:
1145:
1129:
1065:
1053:
1037:
1021:
1003:
983:
937:
919:
899:
883:
876:
864:
848:
796:
795:
594:Methane emissions
250:In the atmosphere
38:geochemical cycle
3551:
3511:
3510:
3394:Biosequestration
3382:chemical cycling
3313:deep water cycle
3283:Phosphorus cycle
3191:
3184:
3177:
3168:
3167:
3148:
3147:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2980:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2833:
2823:
2805:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2659:
2642:(8): 3225–3231.
2627:
2621:
2620:
2610:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2546:(3–4): 299–315.
2535:
2529:
2528:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2374:
2365:
2364:
2353:
2342:
2341:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2308:
2299:
2298:
2285:Planets and Life
2280:
2269:
2268:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2199:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2151:
2142:
2136:
2055:substellar point
1886:Root respiration
1834:
1827:
1820:
1807:
1802:
1801:
1714:Biosequestration
1702:chemical cycling
1412:Phosphorus cycle
1275:deep water cycle
1254:
1235:
1234:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1159:
1153:
1150:
1143:
1137:
1134:
1127:
1093:subduction zones
1076:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1035:
1029:
1026:
1019:
1013:
1008:
1001:
992:
991:
981:
957:
955:
954:
949:
947:
945:
942:
935:
929:
924:
917:
908:
907:
897:
891:
888:
881:
874:
872:
869:
862:
856:
853:
846:
816:calcium silicate
788:
781:
774:
761:
756:
755:
560:pelagic sediment
454:Soil respiration
449:Photorespiration
179:
160:
159:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3544:Climate forcing
3524:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3499:
3414:biological pump
3372:Biogeochemistry
3360:
3329:Research groups
3324:
3200:
3195:
3157:
3152:
3151:
3100:
3096:
3057:
3053:
3014:
3010:
2961:
2957:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2908:
2904:
2851:
2847:
2782:
2778:
2747:
2743:
2720:
2716:
2677:
2673:
2628:
2624:
2571:
2567:
2536:
2532:
2523:DiVenere, Vic.
2521:
2517:
2496:(31): 105–134.
2486:
2482:
2459:(1365): 75–82.
2445:
2441:
2407:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2375:
2368:
2355:
2354:
2345:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2309:
2302:
2295:
2281:
2272:
2265:
2243:
2239:
2200:
2189:
2152:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2090:Gaia hypothesis
2071:
2040:hydrogen escape
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
1995:
1991:
1974:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1848:as a result of
1838:
1797:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1769:
1754:
1753:Research groups
1746:
1745:
1744:
1723:
1692:Biogeochemistry
1686:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1571:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1532:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1511:Calcareous ooze
1494:Biological pump
1489:
1479:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1364:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1293:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1264:
1233:
1225:
1215:
1204:
1183:
1178:
1167:
1162:
1151:
1146:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1087:
1083:
1059:
1054:
1043:
1038:
1027:
1022:
1009:
1004:
984:
980:
979:
977:
974:
973:
964:
943:
938:
925:
920:
900:
896:
889:
884:
870:
865:
854:
849:
840:
838:
835:
834:
829:
821:
809:
805:
792:
751:
744:
743:
742:
682:
674:
673:
672:
637:
627:
626:
625:
578:
568:
567:
566:
555:Marine sediment
539:
529:
528:
527:
488:Solubility pump
476:Biological pump
470:
460:
459:
458:
433:
423:
422:
421:
405:Carbon fixation
390:
375:
365:
364:
363:
344:
328:
281:
279:Forms of carbon
271:
270:
269:
244:
234:
233:
232:
187:
150:
118:
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
3557:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3440:
3439:
3438:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3368:
3366:
3365:Related topics
3362:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3293:Selenium cycle
3290:
3285:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3268:
3266:Nutrient cycle
3263:
3261:Nitrogen cycle
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3241:Hydrogen cycle
3238:
3236:Chlorine cycle
3233:
3232:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3210:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3194:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3156:
3155:External links
3153:
3150:
3149:
3114:(6): 562–571.
3094:
3051:
3008:
2955:
2946:"Carbon Cycle"
2937:
2919:
2902:
2845:
2776:
2741:
2730:(5): 965–973.
2714:
2671:
2622:
2565:
2530:
2515:
2480:
2439:
2418:(4): 339–376.
2405:
2394:
2387:
2366:
2343:
2328:
2321:
2300:
2293:
2270:
2263:
2237:
2187:
2166:(7): 641–683.
2143:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2105:Snowball earth
2102:
2100:Major ice ages
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2070:
2067:
2059:carbon dioxide
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:Snowball Earth
1993:
1989:
1982:habitable zone
1973:
1970:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1921:carbon dioxide
1898:carbon dioxide
1872:that increase
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1829:
1822:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1719:Deep biosphere
1716:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1688:
1687:
1685:Related topics
1684:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1516:Siliceous ooze
1513:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1499:microbial loop
1490:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1409:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1375:Nitrogen cycle
1372:
1370:Hydrogen cycle
1366:
1365:
1362:Nutrient cycle
1360:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1348:Boreal forests
1345:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1295:
1294:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1214:
1211:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1181:
1173:
1165:
1157:
1149:
1141:
1133:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1085:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1057:
1049:
1041:
1033:
1025:
1017:
1012:
1007:
998:
995:
990:
987:
962:
959:
958:
941:
933:
928:
923:
914:
911:
906:
903:
895:
887:
879:
868:
860:
852:
843:
827:
819:
807:
803:
794:
793:
791:
790:
783:
776:
768:
765:
764:
763:
762:
746:
745:
741:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
698:Deep biosphere
695:
690:
684:
683:
680:
679:
676:
675:
671:
670:
668:Redfield ratio
665:
660:
655:
650:
648:Nutrient cycle
645:
639:
638:
635:Biogeochemical
633:
632:
629:
628:
624:
623:
618:
613:
608:
607:
606:
601:
591:
589:Methanogenesis
586:
580:
579:
574:
573:
570:
569:
565:
564:
563:
562:
552:
547:
541:
540:
535:
534:
531:
530:
526:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
503:Microbial loop
500:
495:
490:
485:
484:
483:
472:
471:
466:
465:
462:
461:
457:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
434:
429:
428:
425:
424:
420:
419:
418:
417:
412:
402:
397:
391:
389:
388:
386:Chemosynthesis
383:
381:Photosynthesis
377:
376:
371:
370:
367:
366:
362:
361:
356:
351:
345:
343:
342:
341:
340:
329:
327:
326:
320:
314:
308:
302:
296:
290:
283:
282:
277:
276:
273:
272:
268:
267:
262:
257:
252:
246:
245:
242:Carbon dioxide
240:
239:
236:
235:
231:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
189:
188:
185:
184:
181:
180:
172:
171:
165:
164:
149:
146:
142:photosynthesis
130:carbon dioxide
117:
114:
83:carbon dioxide
71:Carbon dioxide
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3556:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3514:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3470:Nitrification
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Mineral cycle
3254:
3252:
3251:Mercury cycle
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3187:
3185:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3104:Lee, Sukyoung
3098:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3012:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2951:
2947:
2941:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2915:
2914:
2906:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2526:
2519:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2398:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2371:
2362:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2339:
2332:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2305:
2296:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2266:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2148:
2140:
2135:
2131:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2030:By contrast,
2028:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1999:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1967:
1936:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1902:carbonic acid
1899:
1896:also produce
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1880:, as well as
1879:
1875:
1871:
1870:organic acids
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1846:Earth history
1835:
1830:
1828:
1823:
1821:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1806:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1750:
1749:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1682:
1681:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:
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1536:
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1531:
1530:Methane cycle
1526:
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1514:
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1509:
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1454:
1453:Calcium cycle
1451:
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1427:
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1385:nitrification
1383:
1381:
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1349:
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1329:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1321:Sequestration
1319:
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1221:
1210:
1208:
1207:carbon budget
1179:
1171:
1163:
1147:
1139:
1131:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1103:to form CaSiO
1098:
1094:
1089:
1055:
1047:
1039:
1031:
1023:
1010:
1005:
996:
993:
988:
985:
972:
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970:
968:
939:
931:
926:
921:
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904:
901:
885:
877:
866:
858:
850:
841:
833:
832:
831:
825:
817:
813:
801:
800:carbonic acid
789:
784:
782:
777:
775:
770:
769:
767:
766:
760:
750:
749:
748:
747:
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731:
729:
726:
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685:
678:
677:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
643:Marine cycles
641:
640:
636:
631:
630:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
605:
602:
600:
597:
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571:
561:
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387:
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318:
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312:
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297:
294:
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266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
243:
238:
237:
229:
226:
224:
223:Boreal forest
221:
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111:
107:
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99:
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91:
86:
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80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
59:sedimentation
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
39:
28:
19:
3534:Geochemistry
3303:Sulfur cycle
3298:Silica cycle
3271:Oxygen cycle
3218:
3214:Carbon cycle
3111:
3108:Astrobiology
3107:
3097:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3021:
3017:
3011:
2968:
2964:
2958:
2949:
2940:
2931:
2922:
2912:
2905:
2862:
2858:
2848:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2757:(3): 74–81.
2754:
2750:
2744:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2639:
2635:
2625:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2543:
2539:
2533:
2518:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2456:
2452:
2442:
2415:
2411:
2397:
2378:
2360:
2331:
2312:
2284:
2246:
2240:
2207:
2203:
2163:
2159:
2134:
2075:Carbon cycle
2048:
2029:
2002:
1975:
1937:
1925:
1906:
1843:
1657:ozone–oxygen
1569:Other cycles
1477:Marine cycle
1462:
1458:Silica cycle
1429:assimilation
1424:Sulfur cycle
1417:assimilation
1407:Oxygen cycle
1400:assimilation
1380:human impact
1291:Carbon cycle
1216:
1200:
1113:soda springs
1090:
1079:
966:
960:
824:wollastonite
797:
652:
481:Martin curve
468:Carbon pumps
395:Calvin cycle
349:Black carbon
287:Total carbon
228:Geochemistry
169:Carbon cycle
134:carbon cycle
127:
87:
63:metamorphism
42:
35:
33:
18:Carbon cycle
3419:viral shunt
3409:soil carbon
3404:carbon sink
3308:Water cycle
3024:(1): 1–13.
2139:Urey, H. C.
2063:lithosphere
1862:Precambrian
1504:viral shunt
1336:soil carbon
1326:carbon sink
1309:terrestrial
1304:atmospheric
1270:Water cycle
1262:Water cycle
545:Carbon sink
508:Viral shunt
498:Marine snow
354:Blue carbon
208:Deep carbon
203:Atmospheric
193:Terrestrial
3528:Categories
3288:Rock cycle
3246:Iron cycle
2978:1609.00602
2803:1804.00763
2687:(7): 649.
2126:References
2085:Daisyworld
2051:exoplanets
1874:weathering
1445:Rock cycle
518:Whale pump
513:Jelly pump
493:Lipid pump
218:Permafrost
186:By regions
102:vegetation
94:topography
75:atmosphere
55:weathering
3436:acid rain
3341:GEOTRACES
3136:1531-1074
3003:119257332
2865:: 15423.
2709:0091-7613
2666:0016-7037
2599:0962-8436
2560:0012-821X
2232:2156-2202
2110:Lake Nyos
2061:from the
1928:deep time
1909:Himalayas
1890:oxidation
1860:near the
1765:GEOTRACES
1733:acid rain
1647:manganese
1213:Feedbacks
1156:⟶
1016:⟶
1011:−
927:−
894:⟶
812:weak acid
98:lithology
90:sea level
79:volcanism
67:volcanism
53:rocks by
51:carbonate
49:rocks to
3513:Category
3144:22775488
3046:11538088
2971:: 7–13.
2897:28530231
2840:29610313
2617:22232768
2069:See also
1911:and the
1866:Cambrian
1854:tectonic
1805:Category
1667:vanadium
1662:selenium
1617:fluorine
1607:chromium
1602:chlorine
1577:aluminum
1395:fixation
759:Category
77:through
47:silicate
3116:Bibcode
3089:9360920
3069:Bibcode
3061:Science
3026:Bibcode
2983:Bibcode
2888:5458154
2867:Bibcode
2831:5910859
2808:Bibcode
2759:Bibcode
2689:Bibcode
2681:Geology
2644:Bibcode
2608:3248708
2498:Bibcode
2474:1692179
2420:Bibcode
2212:Bibcode
2168:Bibcode
1652:mercury
1642:lithium
1597:cadmium
1592:bromine
1582:arsenic
1314:oceanic
604:Wetland
576:Methane
359:Kerogen
260:Removal
3206:Cycles
3142:
3134:
3087:
3044:
3018:Icarus
3001:
2895:
2885:
2838:
2828:
2707:
2664:
2615:
2605:
2597:
2558:
2471:
2385:
2319:
2291:
2261:
2230:
1803:
1627:iodine
1612:copper
1299:Global
1107:and CO
1097:mantle
822:), or
818:(CaSiO
757:
738:CO2SYS
599:Arctic
338:marine
198:Marine
100:, and
3356:SOLAS
3346:IMBER
3276:ozone
2999:S2CID
2973:arXiv
2798:arXiv
2032:Venus
2015:and H
1913:Andes
1784:SOLAS
1774:IMBER
1587:boron
1160:CaSiO
882:CaSiO
733:C4MIP
681:Other
325:(PIC)
319:(POC)
313:(DIC)
307:(DOC)
301:(TIC)
295:(TOC)
3351:NOBM
3336:DAAC
3140:PMID
3132:ISSN
3085:PMID
3042:PMID
2893:PMID
2836:PMID
2790:PNAS
2705:ISSN
2662:ISSN
2613:PMID
2595:ISSN
2556:ISSN
2383:ISBN
2317:ISBN
2289:ISBN
2259:ISBN
2228:ISSN
2038:and
2004:Mars
1888:and
1852:and
1779:NOBM
1760:DAAC
1672:zinc
1637:lead
1632:iron
1622:gold
1128:CaCO
1020:CaCO
289:(TC)
213:Soil
65:and
57:and
34:The
3124:doi
3077:doi
3065:278
3034:doi
2991:doi
2969:455
2883:PMC
2875:doi
2826:PMC
2816:doi
2794:115
2767:doi
2755:260
2732:doi
2697:doi
2652:doi
2603:PMC
2587:doi
2583:367
2548:doi
2544:234
2506:doi
2469:PMC
2461:doi
2457:353
2428:doi
2416:291
2251:doi
2220:doi
2176:doi
2164:283
1892:of
1144:SiO
1002:HCO
936:SiO
918:HCO
3530::
3138:.
3130:.
3122:.
3112:12
3110:.
3083:.
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3040:.
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2146:^
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1968:.
1947:CO
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1036:CO
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898:Ca
847:CO
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410:C3
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2178::
2170::
2025:2
2021:2
2017:2
2013:2
1994:2
1990:2
1962:3
1957:3
1953:3
1949:2
1944:2
1940:2
1864:-
1833:e
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1224:2
1203:2
1180:2
1172:+
1164:3
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1140:+
1132:3
1109:2
1105:3
1101:2
1086:3
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1064:O
1056:2
1052:H
1048:+
1040:2
1032:+
1024:3
1006:3
997:2
994:+
989:+
986:2
963:3
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922:3
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905:+
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875:O
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851:2
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780:t
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