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general system of education for all
Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs. However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission's problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state's control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the "proper and effectual education of the female sex"; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes. This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a 'new kind of people' raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment. The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.
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be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to convey their message. However, usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the empress, they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned empress and misinterpreting her decrees. However, they were already suspicious of
Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church. Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were confused as to the circumstances of her accession to the throne.
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large territories of the
Russian protectorate of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania and left its territories to Prussia and Austria. The Commonwealth had become the Russian protectorate since the reign of Peter I, but he did not intervene into the problem of political freedoms of dissidents advocating for their religious freedoms only. Catherine did turn Russia into a global great power, not only a European one, but with quite a different reputation from what she initially had planned as an honest policy. The global trade of Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia. Her dynasty lost power because of this and of a war with Austria and Germany, impossible without her foreign policy.
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to his serfs was to kill them. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters), they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during
Catherine's reign, but she signed legislation prohibiting it. Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, she took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.
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2264:, increasing the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statute of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing "little by little".
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795:, though she survived and recovered. In her memoirs, she wrote that she made the decision then to do whatever was necessary and to profess to believe whatever was required of her to become qualified to wear the crown. Although she was able to learn Russian, she spoke with a heavy accent, and made grammatical mistakes. Her writing also contained numerous spelling errors. In most circumstances Catherine II spoke French in her court. In fact the use of French as the main language of the Russian imperial court continued until 1812, when it became politically incorrect to speak French in court due to the
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established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical methods. Yet by the end of
Catherine's reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.
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because she did not want to be bothered by the peasantry, but did not want to give them reason to revolt. In this act, she gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status they had lacked before. Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs. Some serfs did apply for freedom and were successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles, but this was by no means universal.
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2612:, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practice their faith openly without interference. While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Old Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764, she deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith. In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia.
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2977:: "The empress's body lay in state for six weeks in a large and magnificently decorated room in the castle, which was kept lit day and night. Catherine was stretched on a ceremonial bed surrounded by the coats of arms of all the towns in Russia. Her face was left uncovered, and her fair hand rested on the bed. All the ladies, some of whom took turn to watch by the body, would go and kiss this hand, or at least appear to." A description of the empress's funeral is written in Madame Vigée Le Brun's memoirs.
2605:. Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the original intended amount. She closed 569 of 954 monasteries, of which only 161 received government money. Only 400,000 roubles of church wealth were paid back. While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat. Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine's reign.
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697:, "I see nothing of interest in it". Although Sophie was born a princess, her family had little money; her rise to power was supported by her mother Joanna's wealthy relatives, who were both nobles and royal relations. The more than 300 sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire, many of them small and powerless, made for a highly competitive political system in which the various princely families fought for advantages over one another, often by way of political marriages.
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her white hair up, framing it perfectly. Her genius seemed to rest on her forehead, which was both high and wide. Her eyes were soft and sensitive, her nose quite Greek, her colour high and her features expressive. She addressed me immediately in a voice full of sweetness, if a little throaty: "I am delighted to welcome you here, Madame, your reputation runs before you. I am very fond of the arts, especially painting. I am no connoisseur, but I am a great art lover."
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incentives. Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if
Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy. However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.
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the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute's philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.
3084:. Elizabeth served as godmother; she held Anna above the baptismal font and brought Catherine, who did not witness any of the celebrations, and Peter a gift of 60,000 rubles. Elizabeth took Anna and raised the baby herself, as she had done with Paul. In her memoirs, Catherine makes no mention of Anna's death on 8 March 1759, though she was inconsolable and entered a state of shock. Anna's funeral took place on 15 March, at
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been Queen of the World; she wore the sashes of three orders, and her costume was both simple and regal; it consisted of a muslin tunic embroidered with gold fastened by a diamond belt, and the full sleeves were folded back in the
Asiatic style. Over this tunic she wore a red velvet dolman with very short sleeves. The bonnet which held her white hair was not decorated with ribbons, but with the most beautiful diamonds.
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take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the
Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the
1579:, poised to attack mainland Iran. In this month, Catherine died, and her son and successor Paul I, who detested that the Zubovs had other plans for the army, ordered the troops to retreat to Russia. This reversal aroused the frustration and enmity of the powerful Zubovs and other officers who took part in the campaign; many of them would be among the conspirators who arranged Paul's murder five years later.
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2053:, which now occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine's personal collection. The empress was a great lover of art and books, and ordered the construction of the Hermitage in 1770 to house her expanding collection of paintings, sculpture, and books. By 1790, the Hermitage was home to 38,000 books, 10,000 gems and 10,000 drawings. Two wings were devoted to her collections of "curiosities".
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Viatka and
Bulgaria and others; Lady and Grand Duchess of Novgorod in the Netherland of Chernigov, Resan, Rostov, Yaroslav, Beloosrial, Udoria, Obdoria, Condinia, and Ruler of the entire North region and Lady of the Yurish, of the Cartalinian and Grusinian tsars and the Cabardinian land, of the Cherkessian and Gorsian princes and the lady of the manor and sovereign of many others.
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mind, Catherine did rule for 10 years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as
Pugachev's. The rebellion ultimately failed and in fact backfired as Catherine was pushed away from the idea of serf liberation following the violent uprising. Under Catherine's rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontented.
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accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine's control. News of Catherine's plan spread, and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her. She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov's child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then.
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people who wandered through southern Russia. In 1786, she assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system under government regulation. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.
1727:(1791) might lead to a resurgence in the power of the PolishâLithuanian Commonwealth and the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to refrain from her planned intervention into France and to intervene in Poland instead. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the
2181:. Catherine expressed some frustration with the economists she read for what she regarded as their impractical theories, writing in the margin of one of Necker's books that if it was possible to solve all of the state's economic problems in one day, she would have done so a long time ago. For information about particular nations that interested her, she read
826:. Her mother's opposition to this practice brought her the Empress's disfavour. When Sophie's situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran pastor. Awaking from her delirium, however, Sophie said, "I don't want any Lutheran; I want my Orthodox father ". This increased her popularity with the Empress and her court as a whole.
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2861:, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg. Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists.
2335:, commonly known as The Bolshoi Ballet Academy, was founded during Catherine's reign on 23 December 1773. It entered into a contract with the Italian teacher-choreographer Filippo Becari, who must was "the most capable of dancing" children to learn "to dance with all possible precision and to show themselves publicly in all pantomime ballets".
2563:. She levied additional taxes on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Orthodox faith, that additional tax was lifted. Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule.
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support in times of hardship. In addition, they received land to till, but were taxed a certain percentage of their crops to give to their landowners. These were the privileges a serf was entitled to and that nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine's reign, and this is the system she inherited.
952:, the sister of her husband's official mistress. In Dashkova's opinion, Dashkova introduced Catherine to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband; however, Catherine had been involved in military schemes against Elizabeth with the likely goal of subsequently getting rid of Peter III since at least 1749.
2896:, visited her in September 1796, the empress's intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept that Alexandra would not convert to
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1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs from 1762 to 1772, 202,000 from 1773 to 1793, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795. Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. In 1767, Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants automatically would be promoted regardless of office or merit.
1044:, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the Ismailovsky Regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne and began her reign as Empress of Russia as Catherine II.
1851:, farmers from Germany who settled mostly in the Volga River Valley region. They indeed helped modernise the sector that totally dominated the Russian economy. They introduced numerous innovations regarding wheat production and flour milling, tobacco culture, sheep raising, and small-scale manufacturing.
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opposed her husband. Unhappy with her husband, Catherine became an avid reader of books, mostly in French. She disparaged her husband for his devotion to reading on the one hand "Lutheran prayer-books, the other the history of and trial of some highway robbers who had been hanged or broken on the wheel".
2789:(25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter's pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine's husband, Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762
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Noble Feelings of Dissent: Russian Emotional Culture and the Decembrist Revolt of 1825 A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Stanislav
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Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates. The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10% in 1767 to 11% in 1781 to 14% in
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Religious education was reviewed strictly. At first, she attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786, Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education. By separating the
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in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well. The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in
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the sight of this famous woman so impressed me that I found it impossible to think of anything: I could only stare at her. Firstly I was very surprised at her small stature; I had imagined her to be very tall, as great as her fame. She was also very fat, but her face was still beautiful, and she wore
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Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real emperor should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause. With all this discontent in
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Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals. The only thing a noble could not do
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was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation roubles circulated on equal footing with the silver rouble; a market
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that caused what she called a "revolution" in her teenage mind as Tacitus was the first intellectual she read who understood power politics as they are, not as they should be. She was especially impressed with his argument that people do not act for their professed idealistic reasons, and instead she
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Her Majesty has a masculine force of mind, obstinacy in adhering to a plan, and intrepidity in the execution of it; but she wants the more manly virtues of deliberation, forbearance in prosperity and accuracy of judgment, while she possesses in a high degree the weaknesses vulgarly attributed to her
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and Nicholas Alexander Suk). Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 roubles, a pension of 5,000 roubles, and 4,000 peasants in Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777. The
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on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called
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Catherine read three sorts of books, namely those for pleasure, those for information, and those to provide her with a philosophy. In the first category, she read romances and comedies that were popular at the time, many of which were regarded as "inconsequential" by the critics both then and since.
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Catherine paid a great deal of attention to financial reform, and relied heavily on the advice of Prince A. A. Viazemski. She found that piecemeal reform worked poorly because there was no overall view of a comprehensive state budget. Money was needed for wars and necessitated the junking of the old
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Catherine's undated will, discovered in early 1792 among her papers by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky, gave specific instructions should she die: "Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn
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died in 1763, so Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king. She sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as king. Poniatowski
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The double doors opened and the Empress appeared. I have said that she was quite small, and yet on the days when she made her public appearances, with her head held high, her eagle-like stare and a countenance accustomed to command, all this gave her such an air of majesty that to me she might have
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at Tsarskoye Selo in May 1770. In a letter to Voltaire in 1772, she wrote: "Right now I adore English gardens, curves, gentle slopes, ponds in the form of lakes, archipelagos on dry land, and I have a profound scorn for straight lines, symmetric avenues. I hate fountains that torture water in order
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The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one. However, if the empress' policies were too extreme or too disliked, she was not considered the true empress. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this "fake" empress with the "true" empress, whoever she may
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was given the task of issuing the first government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded
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which was committed by the Qing Empire had led many Dzungars to seek sanctuary in the Russian Empire, and it was also one of the reasons for the abrogation of the Treaty of Kyakhta. Catherine perceived that the Qianlong Emperor was an unpleasant and arrogant neighbour, once saying: "I shall not die
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from the age of six months and was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup against Catherine. Like Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. The woman later
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In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while Catherine lived in another palace nearby. On the night of 8 July 1762 (OS: 27 June 1762), Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been
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to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin's advice on military strategy. Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became the de facto
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While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school as well as employ them at businesses that paid wages. This happened more often during Catherine's reign because of the new schools she established. Only in
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by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as to accumulate wealth. To become serfs, people conceded their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and
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and lying-in hospital. In 1763, she opened Paul's Hospital, also known as Pavlovskaya Hospital. She had the government collect and publish vital statistics. In 1762, she called on the army to upgrade its medical services. She established a centralised medical administration charged with initiating
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The crown contains 75 pearls and 4,936 Indian diamonds forming laurel and oak leaves, the symbols of power and strength, and is surmounted by a 398.62-carat ruby spinel that previously belonged to the Empress Elizabeth, and a diamond cross. The crown was produced in a record two months and weighed
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In 1759, Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna, who only lived to 14 months. Due to various rumours of Catherine's promiscuity, Peter was led to believe he was not the child's biological father and is known to have proclaimed, "Go to the devil!" when Catherine angrily dismissed his
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Apart from providing that experience, the marriage was unsuccessful; it was not consummated for years due to Peter III's mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups that
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For smaller German princely families, an advantageous marriage was one of the best means of advancing their interests. To improve the position of her house, Sophie was groomed throughout her childhood to become the wife of a powerful ruler. In addition to her native German, Sophie became fluent in
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We, Catherine the second, by the Grace of God, Empress and Autocrat of all the Russians at Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsarina of Kasan, Tsarina of Astrachan, Tsarina of Siberia, Lady of Pleskow and Grand Duchess of Smolensko, Duchess of Estonia and Livland, Carelial, Tver, Yugoria, Permia,
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Grigory Potemkin was involved in the palace coup of 1762. In 1772, Catherine's close friends informed her of Orlov's affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773, the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine's son Paul had started gaining support; both of these
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In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia's economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782. Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres,
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Catherine's apparent embrace of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion. She nationalised all of the church lands to help pay for her wars, largely emptied the monasteries, and forced most of the remaining clergymen to survive as farmers or
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From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system. However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to
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and Dr John Brown. In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a
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Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775, the empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the provinces of the Russian Empire. The statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country
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Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She refused the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, which had ports on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and refrained from having a Russian army in Germany. Instead, she pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the
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In 1785, Catherine approved the subsidising of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic
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capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the "Guide to
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Nicholas I, her grandson, evaluated the foreign policy of Catherine the Great as a dishonest one. Catherine failed to reach any of the initial goals she had put forward. Her foreign policy lacked a long-term strategy and from the very start was characterised by a series of mistakes. She lost the
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public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.
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Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a Jew is because the term meant many things during her reign.
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of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland. For example, although Catholic parishes were allowed to retain their property and worship, Papal oversight of parishes was restricted to only theology. In its
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Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program. Two years after the implementation of Catherine's program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions
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as her advisor on educational matters. Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British pedagogical
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Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia. She believed a 'new kind of person' could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could
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Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom. If a noble did not live up to his side of the deal, the serfs could file complaints against him by following the proper channels of law. Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this
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At the time of Catherine's reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land their parents had. Even before the rule of Catherine, serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly
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and, at the time of his daughter's birth, he held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. However, because her second cousin Peter III converted to Orthodox Christianity, her mother's brother became the heir to the Swedish throne and two of her first
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Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. She avoided force and tried persuasion (and money) to integrate Muslim areas into her empire. Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary
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Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire and stated: "My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger". By 1800, approximately 2 million
2218:. For philosophy, she liked books promoting what has been called "enlightened despotism", which she embraced as her ideal of an autocratic but reformist government that operated according to the rule of law, not the whims of the ruler, hence her interest in Blackstone's legal commentaries.
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change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.
1704:. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in its execution in the 1790s. In 1768, she formally became the protector of the political rights of dissidents and peasants of the PolishâLithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an
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In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started. The church's lands were expropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the
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in 1790, shortly after the start of the French Revolution. He warned of uprisings in Russia because of the deplorable social conditions of the serfs. Catherine decided it promoted the dangerous poison of the French Revolution. She had the book burned and the author exiled to Siberia.
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financial institutions. A key principle was responsibilities defined by function. It was instituted by the Fundamental Law of 7 November 1775. Vaizemski's Office of State Revenue took centralised control and by 1781, the government possessed its first approximation of a state budget.
2441:. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created. The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in
1313:
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Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts, but Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in Saint Petersburg when Catherine became empress.
2260:
into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts were created, government officials numbering more than double this were appointed, and spending on local government increased sixfold. In 1785, Catherine conferred on the nobility the
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from fees for baptisms and other services. Very few members of the nobility entered the church, which became even less important than it had been. She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.
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As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisors, she refrained from immediately putting them into practice. After holding more than 200 sittings, the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.
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had neither a free peasantry, nor a significant middle class, nor legal norms hospitable to private enterprise. Still, there was a start of industry, mainly textiles around Moscow and ironworks in the Ural Mountains, with a labour force mainly of serfs, bound to the
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of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true empress because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time they followed a pretender under Catherine's reign.
1846:
Catherine imposed a comprehensive system of state regulation of merchants' activities. It was a failure because it narrowed and stifled entrepreneurship and did not reward economic development. She had more success when she strongly encouraged the migration of the
2703:. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, well before encountering the Orlov brothers. They had a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with
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circulated regarding the cause and manner of her death. The most famous of these rumors is that she died after having sex with her horse. This rumor was widely circulated by satirical British and French publications at the time of her death. In his 1647 book
2900:, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. The frustration affected Catherine's health. She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony which would establish her favourite grandson
1000:
in Saint Petersburg. The Emperor's eccentricities and policies, including his great admiration for the Prussian King Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated as allies. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the
1712:(1768â1772), supported by France. After the rebels, their French and European volunteers, and their allied Ottoman Empire had been defeated, she established in the Commonwealth a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a
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and established rule in 1795, expelling the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. The ultimate goal for the Russian government, however, was to topple the anti-Russian shah (king), and to replace him with his pro-Russian half-brother
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2.3 kg (5.1 lbs). From 1762, the Great Imperial Crown was the coronation crown of all Romanov emperors until the monarchy's abolition in 1917. It is one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and is now on display in the Moscow Kremlin
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This second lost pregnancy was also attributed to Saltykov; this time she was very ill for 13 days. Catherine later wrote in her memoirs: "...They suspect that part of the afterbirth has not come away ... on the 13th day it came out by itself".
912:, in which she explained why Paul had been Peter's son. Saltykov was used to make Peter jealous, and she did not desire to have a child with him; Catherine wanted to become empress herself, and did not want another heir to the throne; however,
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and with the Russian people at large. She zealously applied herself to learning the Russian language, rising late at night to repeat her lessons in her bedroom. Staying up late at night in the harsh Russian cold caused her to fall ill with
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stead, Catherine appointed a Catholic bishop (later raising the position to archbishop) of Mohylev to administer all Catholic churches in her territory. Nevertheless, Catherine's Russia provided an asylum and a base for regrouping to the
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of China was committed to an expansionist policy in Central Asia and saw the Russian Empire as a potential rival, making for difficult and unfriendly relations between Beijing and Saint Petersburg. In 1762, he unilaterally abrogated the
2527:
to help regulate Muslim-populated regions as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government as a way of regulating religious affairs.
2726:) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 52,000 km (20,000 sq mi) among them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less,
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sexâlove of flattery, and its inseparable companion, vanity; an inattention to unpleasant but salutary advice; and a propensity to voluptuousness which leads to excesses that would debase a female character in any sphere of life.
2574:. Catherine's decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians.
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to hide away from Peter's abrasive personality. In the first version of her memoirs, edited and published by Alexander Hertzen, Catherine strongly implied that the real father of her son Paul was not Peter, but rather Saltykov.
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By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries. One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician,
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to build the Chinese Village at Tsarskoye Selo. Catherine had at first attempted to hire a Chinese architect to build the Chinese Village, and on finding that was impossible, settled on Cameron, who likewise specialised in the
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Peter III's temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants, who later joined Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.
1995:. The nobles were imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767. Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during
1422:
leader, to head the Crimean state and maintain friendly relations with Russia. His period of rule proved disappointing after repeated effort to prop up his regime through military force and monetary aid. Finally, Catherine
3040:
Born at the Winter Palace, officially he was a son of Peter III but in her memoirs, Catherine implies very strongly that Saltykov was the biological father of the child, though she later retracted this. He married firstly
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this wayâapart from conscription to the armyâcould a serf leave the farm for which he was responsible, but this was used for selling serfs to people who could not own them legally because of absence of nobility abroad.
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blackmailed Peter and Catherine to produce this heir. Peter and Catherine had both been involved in a 1749 Russian military plot to crown Peter (together with Catherine) in Elizabeth's stead. As a result of this plot,
1058:(younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of
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while living at Oranienbaum, as her marriage to Peter had not yet been consummated, as Catherine later claimed. Nonetheless, Catherine would eventually leave the final version of her memoirs to her son, the future
2915:, that she had slept better than she had in a long time. Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured. The court physician diagnosed a
2145:, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Although she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the
686:. In accordance with the prevailing custom among the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. According to her memoirs, Sophie was considered a
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for information about the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean khanate; the books of Frederick the Great praising himself to learn about Frederick just as much as to learn about Prussia; and pamphlets written by
1637:
instigated by Catherine's cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to overrun the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottomans and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia's
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After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigory Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as
1434:
2514:
Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry became too disruptive. After the "Toleration of All Faiths" Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build
1804:, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Daikokuya an audience at
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Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her "The Star of the North" and the "
921:
likely wanted to deny both Catherine and Peter any rights to the Russian throne. Elizabeth, therefore, allowed Catherine to have sexual lovers only after a new legal heir, Catherine and Peter's son
972:
I used to say to myself that happiness and misery depend on ourselves. If you feel unhappy, raise yourself above unhappiness, and so act that your happiness may be independent of all eventualities.
1772:
until I have ejected the Turks from Europe, suppressed the pride of China and established trade with India". In a 1790 letter to Baron de Grimm written in French, she called the Qianlong Emperor "
1662:. Russia was to stop any involvement in the internal affairs of Sweden. Large sums were paid to Gustav III and peace ensued for 20 years even in spite of the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.
716:. She later wrote that she immediately found Peter detestable and that she stayed at one end of the castle and Peter at the other. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol.
605:, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. The construction of many mansions of the nobility in the
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Orlov died in 1783. Their son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762â1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeyeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798â1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince
2691:, the British ambassador to Russia, offered StanisĆaw Poniatowski a place in the embassy in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother's side, came from the
2426:âa provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governorâon the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.
2570:
In 1785, Catherine declared Jews to be officially foreigners, with foreigners' rights. This re-established the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish
849:, the mother of Elizabeth and the grandmother of Peter III. The following year, on 21 August 1745, the long-planned dynastic marriage between Catherine and Peter finally took place in
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1363:
The Russian victories procured access to the Black Sea and allowed Catherine's government to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of
1935:
slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom. The understanding of law in
1287:
in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of friendship with Britain, Catherine was wary of Britain's increased power following
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as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Her hunger for fame centered on her daughter's prospects of becoming Empress of Russia, but Joanna also infuriated
3137:'s daughter, and never acknowledged by Catherine, it has been suggested that Temkina was the illegitimate child of Catherine and Potemkin, but this is now regarded as unlikely.
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dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery's chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by
2409:
Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of
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Catherine was worried that Potemkin's poor health would delay his important work in colonising and developing the south as he had planned. He died at the age of 52 in 1791.
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in 1727, before the wedding could take place. Despite Joanna's interference, Elizabeth took a strong liking to Sophie, and Sophie and Peter were eventually married in 1745.
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She made a special effort to bring leading intellectuals and scientists to Russia, and she wrote her own comedies, works of fiction, and memoirs. She worked with Voltaire,
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1717:
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864:, which remained the residence of the "young court" for many years. From there, they governed the duchy (which occupied less than a third of the current German state of
2559:, the large new Jewish element was treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. Catherine separated the Jews from Orthodox society, restricting them to the
2232:, and peasants) and of various nationalities. The commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The empress prepared the
3076:
Possibly the offspring of Catherine and Stanislaus Poniatowski, Anna was born at the Winter Palace between 10 and 11 o'clock; she was named by Empress Elizabeth after
2470:
However, in accord with her anti-Ottoman policy, Catherine promoted the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule. She placed strictures on Catholics (
2434:. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels.
2313:
at her Tsarskoye Selo residence in St Petersburg, by whom she was painted shortly before her death. Madame Vigée Le Brun vividly describes the empress in her memoirs:
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of European elites in the 18th century. The young Sophie received the standard education for an 18th-century German princess, concentrating on etiquette, French, and
4389:
Ruth P. Dawson, "Perilous News and Hasty Biography : Representations of Catherine II Immediately after her Seizure of the Throne." Biography 27 (2004), 517â534.
3113:; his father was Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov. He married Baroness Anna Dorothea von Ungern-Sternberg and had issue. Created Count Bobrinsky in 1796, he died in 1813.
1040:
arrested by her estranged husband and that the coup they had been planning would have to take place at once. The next day, she left the palace and departed for the
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Another of her titles was "Mother of the Fatherland". She was often simply called "Mother"; even "Mommy" was used by the court nobles instead of "Your Majesty".
2911:
5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady's maid,
1260:(in office 1763â1781), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of Catherine's reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of
1125:
590:, and the increasing demands of the state and of private landowners intensified the exploitation of serf labour. This was a chief cause of rebellions, including
3952:
775:, who eventually banned her from the country for allegedly spying for King Frederick. Elizabeth knew the family well and had intended to marry Joanna's brother
6761:"Herzog Friedrich Eugen (1732â1797) â Briefwechsel des Herzogs mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland, 1768â1795 â 1. Briefwechsel mit der Kaiserin Katharina"
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Munro Social Science Journal, George E. (1976). "The Empress and the Merchants: Response in St. Petersburg to the Regulation of Commerce under Catherine II".
4414:. Đ ŃŃŃĐșĐ°Ń ŃŃĐ°ŃĐžĐœĐ°, 1893. â Đą. 80. â â 12. â ĐĄ. 487â496. â Đ ŃŃ.: ĐąŃŃĐČĐŸŃĐŸĐČ Đ. ĐĐŸŃĐŸĐœĐ°ŃĐžŃ ĐžĐŒĐżĐ”ŃĐ°ŃŃĐžŃŃ ĐĐșĐ°ŃĐ”ŃĐžĐœŃ ĐŃĐŸŃĐŸĐč â ĐĄĐ”ŃĐ”ĐČĐ°Ń ĐČĐ”ŃŃĐžŃ â Đ. ĐĐŸĐ·ĐœĐ”ŃĐ”ĐœŃĐșĐžĐč. 2006.
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to make it take a course contrary to its nature: Statues are relegated to galleries, vestibules etc.; in a word, Anglomania is the master of my plantomania".
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with horses. This was repeated in anti-Russian literature throughout the 17th and 18th centuries to illustrate the claimed barbarous Asian nature of Russia.
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2758:. Later uprisings in Poland led to the third partition in 1795. Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation until its post-World War I reconstitution.
1431:
passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1787, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.
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Peter supported Frederick II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the
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for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better." In the end, the empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver
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When Sophie arrived in Russia in 1744 at age 15, she spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with Elizabeth, but also with Elizabeth's husband
2695:, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland; Poniatowski and Catherine were eighth cousins, twice removed, by their mutual ancestor King
2072:
Catherine shared in the general European craze for all things Chinese, and made a point of collecting Chinese art and buying porcelain in the popular
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as her heir, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.
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to understand the reasons behind the American Revolution. In the third category fell the work of Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm,
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On 17 July 1762âeight days after the coup that amazed the outside world and just six months after his accession to the throneâPeter III died at
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586:, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the economy continued to depend on
10104:
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1837:
Russian economic development was well below the standards in western Europe. Historian François Cruzet writes that Russia under Catherine:
1739:(1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795).
507:, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, Russian Empire annexed the
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Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French
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Teachers". This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.
1915:
According to a census taken from 1754 to 1762, Catherine owned 500,000 serfs. A further 2.8 million belonged to the Russian state.
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League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour with Catherine and she had him replaced with
4735:
Jerzy Lojek, "Catherine II's Armed Intervention in Poland: Origins of the Political Decisions at the Russian Court in 1791 and 1792."
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The acceptance of a woman ruler was more of an issue among elites in Western Europe than in Russia. The British ambassador to Russia,
748:
of Prussia took an active part. The objective was to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of
10114:
10059:
3177:) written between 1768 and 1795, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.
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Catherine's life and reign included many personal successes, but they ended in two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed), King
2237:
2082:
style of architecture and gardening. The Chinese Palace was designed by the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi who specialised in the
1901:
inoculations (almost 6% of the population) were administered in the Russian Empire. Historians consider her efforts to be a success.
1614:
19th and early 20th centuries as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the
1047:
She had her husband arrested and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne.
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In 1772, Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General
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together at Moscow a Grand Commissionâalmost a consultative parliamentâcomposed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles,
1411:, granted Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and made Crimea a protectorate of Russia.
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The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including crop failure, and epidemics, especially a major
860:(located in the north-west of present-day Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of
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of an attempted mediation between Catherine the Great (on the right, supported by Austria and France) and the Ottoman Empire.
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received Sophie as a member. It was then that she took the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial)
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4412:"Coronation of the Empress Catherine II [ĐпОŃĐ°ĐœĐžĐ” ĐșĐŸŃĐŸĐœĐ°ŃОО, ĐŒĐžŃĐŸĐżĐŸĐŒĐ°Đ·Đ°ĐœĐžŃ Đž ĐżŃĐžŃĐ°ŃĐ”ĐœĐžŃ ĐžĐŒĐżĐ”ŃĐ°ŃŃĐžŃŃ ĐĐșĐ°ŃĐ”ŃĐžĐœŃ II-Đč]"
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1897:. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Her son Pavel later was inoculated as well.
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in Moscow on 22 September 1762. Her coronation marks the creation of one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty, the
887:. As she learned Russian, she became increasingly interested in the literature of her adopted country. Finally, it was the
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Documents of Catherine the Great. The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768
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In her accession to power and her rule of the empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Count
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in his famous ode; he later commented bitterly on Zubov's inglorious return from the expedition in another famous poem.
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Portrait of the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna (the future Catherine the Great) around the time of her wedding, by
457:, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities,
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7482:. Saint Petersburg: Printing office of the Department of inheritance, 1873. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
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Lists of holders of the Imperial Russian Orders of St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Alexander Nevsky and St. Anne
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During Catherine's reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the
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and theatres. At that time Russia became the new homeland for hundreds of thousands of European (particularly,
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653:, as Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica (Sophie Auguste Friederike) von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg. Her mother was
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Duran, James A. (1970). "The Reform of Financial Administration in Russia during the Reign of Catherine II".
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design, the crown was constructed of two half spheres, one gold and one silver, representing the Eastern and
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against her husband, but she preferred to remain the dowager empress of Russia rather than marrying anyone.
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vigorous health policies. Catherine decided to have herself inoculated against smallpox by English doctor
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to setting up a "Northern Accord" between Russia, Prussia, Poland, and Sweden to counter the power of the
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style endorsed by the empress changed the face of the country. She is often included in the ranks of the
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trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for helpâmostly militaryâand he became devoted to her.
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Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1998). "Legal Identity and the Possession of Serfs in Imperial Russia".
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2707:, the daughter of Peter I's second marriage), although she was legally regarded as Grand Duke Peter's.
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1627:
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Catherine recalled in her memoirs her optimistic and resolute mood before her accession to the throne:
933:
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8897:
5405:
Leckey, Colum (2005). "Patronage and Public Culture in the Russian Free Economic Society, 1765â1796".
4539:"Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources"
2555:
Judaism was a small, if not non-existent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the
2310:
1756:, which governed the caravan trade between the two empires. Another source of tension was the wave of
1340:. Russia inflicted some of the heaviest defeats ever suffered by the Ottoman Empire, including at the
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A teenage clone of Catherine the Great appears a recurring character in the American animated series
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In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under
1833:
A 5-kopeck coin bearing the monogram of Catherine the Great and the Imperial coat of arms, dated 1791
1292:
1055:
857:
796:
4945:"Doctor Thomas Dimsdale, and Smallpox in Russia: The Variolation of the Empress Catherine the Great"
2190:
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style. Between 1762 and 1766, she had built the "Chinese Palace" at Oranienbaum which reflected the
1658:(14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the
868:, even including that part of Schleswig occupied by Denmark) to obtain experience to govern Russia.
558:
Many cities and towns were founded on Catherine's orders in the newly conquered lands, most notably
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8628:
8317:
7894:
7886:
7630:
Sette, Alessandro. "Catherine II and the Socio-Economic Origins of the Jewish Question in Russia",
7304:——— (1972b). "Pugachev's Rebellion". In Forster, Robert; Greene, Jack P. (eds.).
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and his wife, the future Catherine the Great. He reigned only six months, and died on 17 July 1762.
523:. In anticipation of future conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, Russia colonised the territories of
496:
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even under the guise of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow's middle class.
1655:
712:
In 1739, when Catherine was 10, she met the second cousin who would become her future husband and
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9257:
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9003:
8927:
8862:
8208:
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Madariaga, Isabel De (1979). "The Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II".
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The Other East and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Imagining Poland and the Russian Empire
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3752:
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and died the following evening around 9:45. An autopsy confirmed a stroke as the cause of death.
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In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the
2602:
2174:
1996:
1864:
exchange rate for these two currencies was ongoing. The use of these notes continued until 1849.
1728:
1701:
1646:(July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the
1518:
1318:
838:
834:
753:
591:
298:
2365:, the closest female friend of Empress Catherine and a major figure of the Russian Enlightenment
2110:
who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as
903:, who edited a version of Catherine's memoirs, Catherine had her first sexual relationship with
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by Markus Cruse and Hilde Hoogenboom (translators). New York: Modern Library, 2005 (hardcover,
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It was widely expected that a 13,000-strong Russian corps would be led by the seasoned general
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845:ĐлДĐșŃДДĐČĐœĐ° (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey), so that she was in all respects the namesake of
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Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin
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Peter the Great had gained a foothold in the south, on the edge of the Black Sea, during the
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992:: 25 December 1761), Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III and Catherine became
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1808:. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by
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relied. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophie's mother,
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Catherine made public health a priority. She made use of the social theory ideas of German
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7491:. Saint Petersburg: Typography of A. Suvorin, 1885. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
2122:, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She recruited the scientists
1971:
814:
Sophie recalled in her memoirs that as soon as she arrived in Russia, she fell ill with a
8:
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4508:
K. D. Bugrov, "Nikita Panin and Catherine II: Conceptual aspect of political relations".
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1785:
1618:(1778â1779) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780, she established a
1541:
1513:
1357:
1332:. Catherine completed the conquest of the south, making Russia the dominant power in the
1082:
1002:
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928:
After this, Catherine carried on sexual liaisons over the years with many men, including
918:
913:
861:
853:. Catherine had recently turned 16. Her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding.
827:
772:
757:
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450:
197:
104:
9682:
8957:
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Hans, N. (1961). "Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II".
2519:
and practise all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to
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Catherine and Diderot: The Empress, the Philosopher, and the Fate of the Enlightenment
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1407:. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval and commercial traffic in the
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4899:"The Economic Contributions of the German Russians to the Imperial Russian Economy".
4860:
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3118:
2850:
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2236:, pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially
2199:
2038:
1960:
1910:
1713:
1709:
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1643:
1568:
1549:
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1474:(1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimean peninsula and granted the
1396:
1280:
1269:
1108:
in 1725. Historians debate Catherine's technical status, whether as a regent or as a
1069:
1068:
At the time of Peter III's overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included
900:
787:
737:
587:
512:
488:
446:
228:
72:
9456:
8877:
6225:
Meehan-Waters, Brenda (1975). "Catherine the Great and the Problem of Female Rule".
5314:
M. B. W. Trent, "Catherine the Great Invites Euler to Return to St. Petersburg." in
4411:
2791:
2393:
1555:
By mid-June 1796, Zubov's troops easily overran most of the territory of modern-day
1096:, which had preceded the Romanovs as rulers of Russia. She succeeded her husband as
693:
Catherine found her childhood to be uneventful; she once wrote to her correspondent
9620:
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1801:
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922:
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850:
662:
492:
480:
458:
391:
354:
310:
289:
244:
114:
9335:
7588:
Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal".
5503:
Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal".
1796:
to the south for supplies and food. In 1783, storms drove a Japanese sea captain,
1659:
1444:
706:
9425:
9310:
9186:
9148:
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Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 volumes)
4534:
3719:
3626:
3608:
3519:, which has been extended for a second season in 2017 and a third season in 2019.
3421:
3298:
3006:
2893:
2839:
2803:
2700:
2494:
2375:
2211:
1936:
1894:
1471:
1460:
1428:
1345:
1162:
1105:
904:
756:, a known partisan of the Austrian alliance on whom the reigning Russian Empress
634:
583:
552:
508:
280:
9474:
7575:
Ruling Russia: Politics & Administration in the Age of Absolutism, 1762â1796
7078:
China and Japan in the Russian Imagination, 1685â1922: To the Ends of the Orient
5582:
Entry dated 23 December 1773 // CIAM. F. 127. Op. 1. Unit hr. 12. L. 72-72 vol.
5001:
2738:. In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of
2458:
2223:
2033:
833:
Sophie's father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter's conversion to
9597:
9547:
9405:
9282:
9277:
9267:
9163:
9089:
8998:
8993:
8816:
8791:
8771:
8756:
8741:
8726:
8388:
8312:
8292:
8163:
8090:
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8021:
7991:
7986:
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6854:
Poland's Last King and English Culture: StanisĆaw August Poniatowski, 1732â1798
5553:
3990:
3780:
3695:
3632:
3499:
3439:
portrayed Catherine's journey to the throne as a side-plot in the Soviet film "
3409:
3329:
2885:
2881:
2775:
2280:
2152:
2123:
2115:
1805:
1757:
1593:
1533:
1419:
1230:
1210:
1198:
516:
504:
6909:
Fisher, Alan W. (1968). "Enlightened Despotism and Islam under Catherine II".
6806:
2382:
2287:
laid the groundwork for the great writers of the 19th century, especially for
1415:
1240:
9958:
9625:
9582:
9552:
9532:
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9049:
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8751:
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8079:
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2189:
to learn about the vast and wealthy Chinese empire that bordered her empire;
2099:
1848:
1789:
1598:
1525:
1500:
against any new invasions and further political aspirations of their Persian
1459:
Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire southward to absorb the
1273:
1097:
1093:
1059:
997:
993:
856:
The bridegroom, then known as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of
807:
702:
621:, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe.
476:
465:
172:
7709:
4985:
3857:
2919:
and despite attempts to revive her, she fell into a coma. She was given the
1676:
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6517:(English translation by Aidan Ellis). Oxford, Aidan Ellis, 1978, pp. 66â72.
3585:
3578:
3503:
3426:
2931:
2650:
2635:
2370:
2027:
1761:
1639:
1529:
1404:
1383:, signed 21 July 1774 (OS: 10 July 1774), gave the Russians territories at
1191:
1073:
823:
819:
679:
500:
6995:"The Ambiguous Legal Status of Russian Jewry in the Reign of Catherine II"
6838:
Brechka, Frank (January 1969). "Catherine the Great: The Books She Read".
5889:
5017:
4970:
4590:"Ćahin Girey, the Reformer Khan, and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea"
3714:
3129:
Born many years after the death of Catherine's husband, brought up in the
2531:
1923:
9587:
9372:
9168:
8942:
8781:
8660:
8643:
8638:
8213:
7466:
3871:
3536:
3293:
2926:
2897:
2229:
2173:. In the second category fell the work of Denis Diderot, Jacques Necker,
2074:
1992:
1881:
1809:
1647:
1622:, designed to defend neutral shipping from being searched by the British
1408:
1202:
1077:
846:
524:
469:
324:
8602:
7609:
5524:
5489:
4605:
4589:
4139:
3898:
3886:
3088:. After the funeral, Catherine never mentioned her dead daughter again.
1812:. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed.
441:; 2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796), most commonly known as
9592:
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8687:
8544:
8519:
8509:
8447:
7124:
7100:
7020:
6959:
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6891:
6492:(English translation by Aidan Ellis). Oxford, Aidan Ellis, 1978, p. 58.
5617:
5426:
5174:
4812:
3968:
3966:
3478:
3406:
3289:
2920:
2410:
1877:
1623:
1606:
1556:
1501:
1245:
1201:
by some 520,000 square kilometres (200,000 sq mi), absorbing
1190:, the chief architect of Catherine's foreign policy after the death of
960:
accusation. She therefore spent much of this time alone in her private
842:
675:
606:
579:
462:
7725:
Some of the code of laws mentioned above, along with other information
6332:
6308:
6246:
3842:(in Dutch) (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: G.A. van Oorschot. p. 111.
2638:, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the
8618:
8539:
7081:
5476:
Thaler, Roderick P. (1957). "Catherine II's Reaction to Radishchev".
4839:
Kamenskii A. B. "Catherine the Great's Foreign Policy Reconsidered".
3546:
Catherine (portrayed by Meghan Tonjes) is featured in the web series
3099:
2955:
2755:
2646:
2593:
2203:
2138:
1470:. This war was another catastrophe for the Ottomans, ending with the
1392:
1222:
1012:
with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of
815:
792:
575:
528:
449:
from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband,
252:
7219:
Max (2006). "If these walls....Smolny's Repeated Roles in History".
7011:
6994:
6922:
6309:"Catherine II, Potemkin, and Colonization Policy in Southern Russia"
5536:
5534:
5462:
Isabel De Madariaga, "Catherine the Great." in by H. M. Scott, ed.,
5418:
4804:
4111:(First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 89â102.
3963:
3560:" (12 July 2016), pitted against the titular characters, as well as
3190:
736:
The choice of Sophie as wife of the future tsar was a result of the
535:. In the west, the Russian Empire gained the largest share when the
8977:
8572:
8565:
7737:
Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II, inviting foreign immigration
7408:
6324:
6238:
4791:
Lensen, George Alexander (1950). "Early Russo-Japanese Relations".
4573:
The Eastern question, 1774â1923: A study in international relations
4538:
4366:
Great Catherine: The Life of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
3510:
3381:
3130:
2811:
2571:
2503:
2405:
and the first European state higher education institution for women
2049:
Catherine was a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The
1564:
1455:
1368:
1226:
1129:
Catherine II on a balcony of the Winter Palace on 9 July [
1013:
876:
780:
642:
595:
571:
532:
398:
6504:. Edited by M Morager, London, Hamish-Hamilton, 1955, pp. 205â218.
5340:
Inna Gorbatov, "Voltaire and Russia in the Age of Enlightenment."
1548:
on 21 May (OS: 10 May). The event was glorified by the court poet
1112:, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul.
8263:
5531:
4901:
Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia
3005:
According to court gossip, this lost pregnancy was attributed to
2963:
2826:
2751:
2735:
2731:
2142:
2023:
1545:
1537:
1475:
1400:
1376:
1333:
1218:
1109:
961:
892:
749:
567:
340:
151:
7101:"Catherine II and the Serfs: A Reconsideration of Some Problems"
5448:
Lentin, A. (May 1972). "Catherine the Great and Denis Diderot".
5053:
5051:
4301:
A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present
4082:
L'Allemagne dynastique: Les quinze Familles qui on fait l'Empire
3057:. He succeeded as emperor of Russia in 1796 and was murdered at
2699:, by virtue of Poniatowski's maternal descent from the Scottish
2267:
810:
portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna from before 1749
8648:
5075:
5063:
2916:
2747:
2516:
1976:
1665:
1372:
1364:
1249:
1206:
1051:
687:
563:
559:
427:
9901:
Viktoria Feodorovna (Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha)
6641:
Catherine the Great; Cruse, Markus; Hoogenboom, Hilde (2006).
5762:
5760:
5159:"Naive Monarchism and Rural Resistance In Contemporary Russia"
4634:
IranianâRussian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800
3992:
A History of Sweden from the Earliest Times to the Present Day
3960:(ADB). Band 4, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1876, S. 157â59.
2814:, and later served as ambassador in Turin, the capital of the
2766:
2165:
She especially liked the work of German comic writers such as
818:
that almost killed her. She credited her survival to frequent
802:
8534:
8254:
5087:
5048:
4698:
Imperial Policies and Perspectives towards Georgia, 1760â1819
3338:(1924) told the story of Catherine's romance with an officer.
2785:(1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the
2739:
2520:
2472:
2233:
1928:
1859:
upon the presentation of those notes. The emergence of these
1572:
1388:
1261:
1157:, divided by a foliate garland and fastened with a low hoop.
1062:
10000:
Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
7041:
A course in Russian history: the time of Catherine the Great
4879:
4242:
2876:
1794 portrait of Catherine, aged approximately 65, with the
2588:
1571:. By November, they were stationed at the confluence of the
1005:(1756â1763) and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761.
988:
After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (
613:. As a patron of the arts, she presided over the age of the
7470:
7335:
Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649â1815
5757:
5111:
5036:
4435:
4433:
3589:
3390:
in 1944, starring in it then and in subsequent productions.
2743:
2727:
2322:
Madame Vigée Le Brun also describes the empress at a gala:
1784:
In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in
1560:
1532:, and entrusted the command to his youthful brother, Count
1384:
1356:
in Ukraine, saw the capture of up to 20,000 slaves for the
7253:
Catherine the Great and Potemkin: The Imperial Love Affair
5877:
5099:
4254:
2854:
absolute ruler of New Russia, governing its colonisation.
2523:, which previously had been denied. Catherine created the
1959:
Captured Russian officials and aristocrats being tried by
1399:
and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers
1032:, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia's traditional
10070:
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree
9712:
7719:
6082:
6036:
6034:
5604:
Roucek, Joseph S. (1958). "Education in Czarist Russia".
5236:
5212:
4392:
4140:"ĐĐŸŃĐ”ĐŒŃ ĐŽĐČĐŸŃŃĐœĐ” ĐČ Đ ĐŸŃŃОО ĐłĐŸĐČĐŸŃОлО ĐžĐŒĐ”ĐœĐœĐŸ ĐœĐ° ŃŃĐ°ĐœŃŃĐ·ŃĐșĐŸĐŒ?"
3433:
as Empress Elizabeth, is based on Catherine's early life.
1650:). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the
896:
learned to look for the "hidden and interested motives".
6603:
5846:
4678:
4430:
4146:
4044:
4042:
3045:
in 1773 and had no issue. He married secondly, in 1776,
1884:, as well as Russian precedents and experiments such as
1197:
During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the
9874:
Militza Nikolaevna of Montenegro (Milica of Montenegro)
5543:
Translated by SiĂąn Evans. (London: Camden Press. 1989.)
4938:
4936:
3915:
Western Civilization: A Global and Comparative Approach
3601:
She appears as a leader of the Russian civilization in
3396:
played a version of Catherine in the farce comedy film
3368:
Lubitsch remade his 1924 silent film as the sound film
2068:
The throne of Empress Catherine II in the Winter Palace
539:
which had been ruled by Catherine's former lover, King
9859:
Alexandra Georgievna (Alexandra of Greece and Denmark)
9854:
Elizabeth Feodorovna (Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine)
6070:
6058:
6031:
5989:
4990:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
4583:
4581:
4297:
3498:. In the series' 2023 revival, Miller was recast with
3492:
Changes: The Big Prom: The Sex Romp: The Season Finale
2645:
Catherine kept her illegitimate son by Grigory Orlov (
1792:. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with
1466:
The Ottomans restarted hostilities with Russia in the
830:
doted on Sophie and saw her as a daughter after this.
7641:. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois UP, 2004 (hardcover,
5692:
A History of Russia: Peoples, Legends, Events, Forces
5224:
5188:
5024:
4344:
4158:
4039:
3800:
3757:
3667:
633:
Young Catherine soon after her arrival in Russia, by
453:. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the
303:
7465:. Berlin: Publishing Frederick Gottgeyner, 1900. At
6382:
6380:
6378:
5660:
4933:
4841:
Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography
4108:
Guardians of language: twenty voices through history
3988:
3911:
3840:
Een geschiedenis van Rusland. Van Rurik tot Brezjnev
3456:
as Catherine and Jeanne Moreau as Empress Elizabeth.
2944:
Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise
2649:, later elevated to Count Bobrinsky by Paul I) near
1528:, but the Empress followed the advice of her lover,
10075:
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
9864:
Elizaveta Mavrikievna (Elisabeth of Saxe-Altenburg)
7625:
The Politics of Catherinian Russia: The Panin Party
7479:
Russian army in the age of the Empress Catherine II
5865:
4578:
4075:
4073:
4006:
3918:. Vol. II: Since 1600. Routledge. p. 86.
3215:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2746:and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of
2141:of Russia" (in reference to the legendary Queen of
1815:
439:
Princess Sophie Augusta Frederica von Anhalt-Zerbst
37:"Catherine II" redirects here. For other uses, see
9917:Leonida Georgievna (Leonida Bagration of Mukhrani)
9761:Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt)
7632:Annales Universitatis Apulensis - Series Historica
7175:
7053:Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom
7050:
6971:
6826:
6734:Tarasov, M.A. Washington, DC 23 July 2021 page 148
6544:
2806:(London, England, 1784â1842) who took part in the
1145:, designed by Swiss-French court diamond jeweller
719:
468:) immigrants, and became recognized as one of the
285:Sophia Augusta Frederica/Sophie Auguste Friederike
9818:Alexandra Iosifovna (Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg)
9787:Anna Feodorovna (Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld)
9766:Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of WĂŒrttemberg)
6572:
6397:
6395:
6375:
3887:"Foreign Settlement in Russia under Catherine II"
3783:: 21 April 1729 – 6 November 1796.
3509:Her rise to power and reign are portrayed in the
2086:style. In 1779, she hired the Scottish architect
185:Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
9956:
9944:title granted by Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich
5801:
5799:
5636:
4852:
4105:Coulmas, Florian (2016). "Catherine the Great".
4070:
3463:played the role of the Empress in the 2000 film
3320:The Empress is parodied in Offenbach's operetta
3109:Born at the Winter Palace, he was brought up at
2948:Description of the Muscovite and Persian journey
2722:), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under
1731:. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the
1582:
1248:of Sweden and Empress Catherine II of Russia in
7182:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
6700:
6008:
6006:
6004:
3311:Catherine: The Great Journey, Russia, 1743â1745
2234:"Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly"
1092:dynasty, her ancestors included members of the
837:. Despite his objections, on 28 June 1744, the
10005:Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Lutheranism
9879:Maria Georgievna (Maria of Greece and Denmark)
9869:Anastasia Nikolaevna (Anastasia of Montenegro)
9849:Maria Pavlovna (Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin)
9745:Catherine Alexeievna (Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst)
6392:
6351:
4502:
3535:The song "Catherine the Great" from the album
2781:Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the
2022:Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of
1966:
875:It was during this period that she first read
598:, nomads, peoples of the Volga, and peasants.
9728:Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-WolfenbĂŒttel
9698:
8463:
8240:
7871:
6224:
5816:
5814:
5796:
4700:(Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2000) pp. 63â76.
3745:
3416:(Ekaterina Velika) was named after Catherine.
3173:, (the father of Catherine's daughter-in-law
3043:Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt
2271:The Bolshoi Theatre in the early 19th century
948:and others. She became friends with Princess
10100:Ethnic German people from the Russian Empire
10065:People of the War of the Bavarian Succession
8592:
8563:
8549:
7885:
7562:. New York: HarperCollins, 2006 (hardcover,
7394:
7098:
7035:
6817:
6718:
6665:
6535:, Arts & Letters, p. 15. 18 August 2005.
6001:
5117:
5105:
5093:
5081:
5069:
5057:
5042:
4859:. University of Virginia Press. p. 75.
4856:A History of the European Economy, 1000â2000
3419:The British/Canadian/American TV miniseries
3288:Empress Catherine appears as a character in
2954:alleged a supposed Russian tendency towards
2462:Catherine II in the Russian national costume
1776:" ("my Chinese neighbour with small eyes").
1666:Partitions of PolishâLithuanian Commonwealth
1088:Although Catherine did not descend from the
1085:(Ń. 1745â1775) was another potential rival.
10040:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
9823:Alexandra Petrovna (Alexandra of Oldenburg)
9792:Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)
8658:
7667:. New York: Dorset Press, 1991 (hardcover,
7432:Bibliography of Russian history (1613â1917)
7306:Preconditions of Revolution in Early Europe
6645:. New York: Random House LLC. p. 214.
4657:
4443:. Famousdiamonds.tripod.com. Archived from
3814:"Despot" is not derogatory in this context.
1642:checked the Royal Swedish navy in the tied
1133:28 June] 1762, the day of the coup
1100:, following the legal precedent of Empress
10045:Mistresses of StanisĆaw August Poniatowski
9990:18th-century women from the Russian Empire
9705:
9691:
8470:
8456:
8247:
8233:
7878:
7864:
7580:Malecka, Anna. "Did Orlov Buy the Orlov",
7249:
7227:
6850:
6799:"Alexander the Great vs Ivan the Terrible"
6775:
6706:
6670:. London: Profile Books. pp. 106â07.
6628:
6568:
6566:
6484:
6482:
6157:. New York, Oxford University Press, 2011.
5811:
3953:Christian August (FĂŒrst von Anhalt-Zerbst)
3344:portrayed Catherine the Great in the film
1375:(literally: "the Glory of Catherine") and
1229:at the expense, mainly, of two powersâthe
54:
9797:Elena Pavlovna (Charlotte of WĂŒrttemberg)
8256:Tsaritsas and empresses consort of Russia
7173:
7152:
7143:
7010:
6824:
6723:. Governing Senate of the Russian Empire.
6690:
6547:Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power
6203:Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power
6088:
5947:
5895:
5805:
5790:
5778:
5766:
5751:
5739:
5727:
5654:
5630:
5206:
4983:
4960:
4942:
4684:
4350:
4260:
4248:
3833:
3831:
3543:was released as a single on 24 June 2016.
3469:, based on the novel of the same name by
3275:Learn how and when to remove this message
2867:
2596:, an example of Late Baroque architecture
1026:Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff
996:. The imperial couple moved into the new
659:Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst
369:Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst
8477:
7547:. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001 (paperback,
7373:
7356:Catherine the Great: Love, Sex and Power
7352:
7322:
7202:Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman
7156:Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great
6743:"ĐĐ°ŃŃŃĐșĐ° ĐĐșĐ°ŃĐ”ŃĐžĐœĐ° (1760 - 1770-Đ” гг.)"
6576:Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman
6461:
6437:
6425:
6413:
6386:
6166:
5851:. Oxford University Press. p. 404.
5388:
5386:
5318:(AK Peters/CRC Press, 2009) pp. 276â283.
5281:
5257:
5156:
4362:
4304:. Indiana University Press. p. 71.
4285:
4188:
4176:
4060:
4033:
4021:
3972:
3884:
3502:, and depicted as now dating a clone of
3171:Frederick II Eugene, Duke of WĂŒrttemberg
3169:Empress Catherine's correspondence with
2925:
2871:
2825:
2765:
2673:
2587:
2530:
2498:
2457:
2392:
2381:
2357:
2342:
2266:
2246:
2151:
2063:
2032:
2017:
1970:
1954:
1922:
1918:
1828:
1824:
1675:
1592:
1454:
1433:
1317:Equestrian portrait of Catherine in the
1312:
1239:
1182:
1124:
975:
801:
723:
628:
421:
10110:Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia
9938:also a Grand Duchess of Russia by birth
7545:Catherine the Great (Profiles in Power)
7233:Prince of Princes: the life of Potemkin
7048:
6966:
6837:
6805:. Youtube. 12 July 2016. Archived from
6788:. Allmusic.com, accessed 13 March 2021.
6563:
6479:
6052:
6012:
5392:
5377:
5360:
5269:
5253:
5251:
4986:"Catherine the Great and public health"
4533:
4164:
4152:
4104:
4079:
4048:
3837:
3488:Escape to Beer Mountain: A Rope of Sand
3047:Princess Sophie Dorothea of WĂŒrttemberg
1980:
1779:
1742:
1508:in 1796 after they, under the new king
779:(Karl August von Holstein). He died of
690:and trained herself to master a sword.
14:
10085:Art collectors from the Russian Empire
9957:
9782:Elizabeth Alexeievna (Louise of Baden)
7616:Nikolaev, Vsevolod, and Albert Parry.
7587:
7331:
7327:. England: Cambridge University Press.
7303:
7270:
7196:
6908:
6579:. New York: Random House LLC. p.
6107:
6076:
6064:
6040:
5995:
5899:
5883:
5871:
5603:
5541:The Memoirs of Elisabeth Vigée-Le Brun
5502:
5475:
5466:(Palgrave, London, 1990) pp. 289â311.
5447:
5404:
5373:
5371:
5369:
5356:
5354:
5352:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5242:
5230:
5218:
5194:
5030:
4790:
4774:
4772:
4747:
4745:
4711:War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560â1790
4630:
4587:
4521:
4398:
3976:
3828:
2179:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
2056:She ordered the planting of the first
1348:(21 July 1770). In 1769, a last major
1072:(1740â1764), who had been confined at
925:, survived and appeared to be strong.
669:. He failed to become the duke of the
547:. In the east, Russian settlers began
213:
9714:Grand Duchesses of Russia by marriage
9686:
8708:
8489:
8451:
8228:
7859:
7522:Catherine, Empress of All the Russias
7445:. New York: Oxford University Press.
7235:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
7105:The Slavonic and East European Review
7045:(Translation of a 19th-century work.)
6992:
6883:
6473:
6449:
6419:
6401:
6361:(Swedish translation by Harald Bohrn
6306:
6297:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) pp. 14â40.
6113:
5983:
5971:
5959:
5935:
5923:
5911:
5678:
5383:
5129:
4920:
4916:
4914:
4276:(Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 34, 62.
4274:The Courtships of Catherine the Great
4009:The Courtships of Catherine the Great
3768:[jÉȘkÉtÊČÉȘËrÊČinÉÉlÊČÉȘkËsÊČejÉȘvnÉ]
3766:
3494:", and depicted as dating a clone of
3180:
2705:Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia
2302:Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow
2291:. Catherine became a great patron of
2195:Memoires de les Turcs et les Tartares
1298:
822:; in a single day, she received four
617:, including the establishment of the
9844:Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)
7524:. London: Collins, 1978 (hardcover,
7442:Catherine the Great: Life and Legend
7178:Catherine the Great: A Short History
6974:Russia: People and Empire, 1552â1917
6945:
6833:. New York: Oxford University Press.
6829:Catherine the Great: Life and Legend
6260:Hatt, Christine (24 November 2017).
6259:
5828:from the original on 6 February 2007
5666:
5642:
5564:from the original on 1 February 2024
5248:
4594:JahrbĂŒcher fĂŒr Geschichte Osteuropas
4553:from the original on 27 October 2018
4418:from the original on 17 October 2018
3932:from the original on 22 January 2023
3731:
3213:adding citations to reliable sources
3184:
3049:and had issue, including the future
2577:
2453:
2333:Moscow State Academy of Choreography
2134:from Sweden to the Russian capital.
1481:
1175:Foreign policy of the Russian Empire
1120:
1115:
762:Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
655:Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
641:Catherine was born on 2 May 1729 in
603:Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility
379:Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
217:
32:Catherine the Great (disambiguation)
10105:Russian grand duchesses by marriage
9813:Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)
7675:); London: Orion, 2000 (paperback,
7218:
7075:
6363:Katarina den stora : 1729â1796
6339:from the original on 17 August 2022
5715:
5703:
5591:
5366:
5349:
5302:
5287:
4778:
4769:
4763:
4751:
4742:
4575:(London: Macmillan, 1966) pp. 1â27.
4369:. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.
4279:
4195:, New York: Penguin Books, p.
2347:Catherine visits Russian scientist
2183:Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville
2037:Portrait of Catherine the Great by
2007:
1764:who took refuge with the Russians.
1633:From 1788 to 1790, Russia fought a
1559:, including three principal citiesâ
1451:, Platon Zubov and Grigory Potemkin
1289:its victory in the Seven Years' War
551:Alaska, establishing the colony of
170:6 November] 1796 (aged 67)
27:Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796
24:
9828:Olga Feodorovna (CĂ€cilie of Baden)
8394:
8273:
7496:The Memoirs of Catherine the Great
7425:
7291:from the original on 28 April 2024
6871:from the original on 28 April 2024
6643:The Memoirs of Catherine the Great
6502:The Memoirs of Catherine the Great
4949:Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal
4911:
4011:. Kessinger Publishing. p. 5.
2525:Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly
1774:mon voisin chinois aux petits yeux
1589:Russia and the American Revolution
1536:. The Russian troops set out from
1440:Monument to the founders of Odessa
1168:
752:, and to overthrow the chancellor
175:, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
25:
10131:
10030:House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
7703:
7485:Brickner, Alexander Gustavovich.
7146:Slavonic and East European Review
6948:Slavonic and East European Review
6786:, operetta in 3 acts: Description
6604:Bantysh-Kamensky, Dmitri (2005).
5847:Nancy Shields Kollmann · (2017).
5694:(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004).
5331:(Harvard University Press, 2019).
5316:Leonhard Euler and the Bernoullis
4332:from the original on 25 June 2014
4230:from the original on 27 June 2020
1979:on Catherine's morals and on the
1496:(1783), Russia agreed to protect
619:Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens
10115:Russian people of German descent
10060:People of the Russo-Persian Wars
9666:
9665:
7618:The Loves of Catherine the Great
6791:
6784:La Grande-Duchesse de GĂ©rolstein
6753:
6737:
6727:
6712:
6659:
6634:
6622:
6597:
6538:
6520:
6507:
6495:
6467:
6455:
6443:
6431:
6407:
6300:
6287:
6253:
6218:
6195:
6160:
6147:
6134:
6094:
6046:
6018:
5977:
5965:
5953:
5941:
5929:
5917:
5905:
5840:
5784:
5772:
5745:
5733:
5721:
5709:
5697:
5684:
5672:
5648:
5478:Slavic and East-European Studies
4923:CanadianâAmerican Slavic Studies
4737:Canadian-American Slavic Studies
4612:from the original on 10 May 2021
3995:. Chicago, New York The author.
3713:
3701:
3689:
3677:
3323:La Grande-Duchesse de GĂ©rolstein
3189:
2660:, reported back to London that:
2619:
2374:pioneers, particularly the Rev.
2118:, became foreign members of the
1871:
1816:The evaluation of foreign policy
1654:in 1790, the parties signed the
1104:, who had succeeded her husband
671:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
483:. Assisted by highly successful
412:
143:Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst
7796:9 July 1762 â 17 November 1796
7637:Smith, Douglas, ed. and trans.
7131:from the original on 1 May 2021
6608:. Moscow: Truten. p. 106.
5624:
5597:
5585:
5576:
5546:
5496:
5469:
5456:
5441:
5398:
5334:
5321:
5308:
5275:
5263:
5200:
5150:
5123:
4977:
4892:
4873:
4846:
4833:
4827:
4784:
4757:
4729:
4716:
4703:
4690:
4658:Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011).
4651:
4624:
4565:
4527:
4515:
4510:RUDN Journal of Russian History
4485:
4459:
4404:
4383:
4356:
4318:
4298:Barbara Evans Clements (2012).
4291:
4266:
4212:
4182:
4170:
4132:
4098:
4027:
4015:
4000:
3982:
3663:Family tree of Russian monarchs
3355:The Rise of Catherine the Great
3200:needs additional citations for
3152:begins with Catherine's title:
2718:Prussia (through the agency of
2331:Russia's second ballet school,
1716:, under the supervision of her
1698:Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski
1443:: Catherine and her companions
1010:partition of Polish territories
930:Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski
720:Marriage and reign of Peter III
305:Yekaterina Alekseyevna Romanova
209:
10035:Leaders who took power by coup
7602:10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360
7488:History of Catherine the Great
7462:History of Catherine the Great
7274:Catherine the Great: A Profile
7174:——— (1993).
7153:——— (1981).
6840:The Journal of Library History
5517:10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360
5133:Rebels in the Name of the Tsar
3958:Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie
3944:
3905:
3878:
3864:
3808:
3786:
3774:
3738:
3648:Legends of Catherine the Great
3095:Aleksey Grigorievich Bobrinsky
3073:8 March 1759 (aged 15 months)
2669:
2363:Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova
1616:War of the Bavarian Succession
1521:, who had defected to Russia.
1468:Russo-Turkish War of 1787â1792
1338:Russo-Turkish War of 1768â1774
1256:Catherine's foreign minister,
1235:PolishâLithuanian Commonwealth
537:PolishâLithuanian Commonwealth
430:Catherine II ĐĐĐ - Krasny Mint
83:9 July 1762 â 17 November 1796
13:
1:
10015:Duchesses of Holstein-Gottorp
9985:18th-century Russian monarchs
7835:5 January 1762 â 9 July 1762
7743: (archived 27 March 2004)
7338:. W.W. Norton & Company.
7099:de Madariaga, Isabel (1974).
7076:Lim, Susanna Soojung (2013).
6763:. Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart
6719:Catherine II (25 July 1763).
3989:Cronholm, Neander N. (1902).
3912:Campbell, Kenneth C. (2015).
3726:
2550:History of the Jews in Russia
1583:Relations with Western Europe
1309:Russo-Turkish War (1787â1792)
1305:Russo-Turkish War (1768â1774)
1179:History of Russia (1721â1796)
1137:Catherine was crowned at the
950:Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova
624:
511:following victories over the
315:Catherine Alexeievna Romanova
294:ĐĐșĐ°ŃĐ”ŃĐžĐœĐ° ĐлДĐșŃДДĐČĐœĐ° Đ ĐŸĐŒĐ°ĐœĐŸĐČĐ°
234:
61:
39:Catherine II (disambiguation)
9932:never converted to Orthodoxy
9884:Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia
8709:
8595:Liberté, égalité, fraternité
7584:, July 2014, pp. 10â12.
6978:. Harvard University Press.
6851:Butterwick, Richard (1998).
6170:A Treasure of Royal Scandals
6142:Russia under the old regime,
5849:The Russian Empire 1450-1801
5606:History of Education Journal
5136:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
4843:. 2019. No. 12. pp. 169â187.
4469:. Almazi.net. Archived from
4192:A Treasure of Royal Scandals
4007:Sergeant, Philip W. (2004).
3891:New Zealand Slavonic Journal
3838:Bezemer, Jan Willem (1988).
3821:
3119:Elizabeth Grigorieva Temkina
2930:Catherine's last favourite,
2689:Sir Charles Hanbury Williams
2679:StanisĆaw August Poniatowski
2506:riders from the Ural steppes
2338:
1888:. In 1764, she launched the
1504:. Catherine waged a new war
767:Historical accounts portray
541:StanisĆaw August Poniatowski
131:5 January 1762 â 9 July 1762
86:(34 years, 4 months, 8 days)
7:
10095:Empresses regnant of Russia
10090:Empresses consort of Russia
10055:People of the Caucasian War
9995:18th-century women monarchs
9980:18th-century art collectors
8564:
8330:Maria Buynosova-Rostovskaya
7439:Alexander, John T. (1988).
7353:Rounding, Virginia (2006).
7308:. The Johns Hopkins Press.
6803:Epic Rap Battles of History
6545:Rounding, Virginia (2008).
6155:A Concise History of Russia
6117:Russia under the old regime
6026:Russia under the old regime
4984:Alexander, John T. (1981).
3801:
3758:
3641:
3549:Epic Rap Battles of History
3164:
2821:
2810:(7 September 1812) against
2592:St. Catherine Cathedral in
2485:in most of Europe in 1773.
2403:Institute for Noble Maidens
2171:Christoph Friedrich Nicolai
2160:in Saint Petersburg in 1757
1967:Attitudes towards Catherine
1700:, her former lover, on the
1427:in 1783. The palace of the
1054:, possibly at the hands of
304:
249:Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna
10:
10136:
8490:
7947:Sviatoslav III of Vladimir
7690:. New York: Algora, 2001 (
7429:
7374:Streeter, Michael (2007).
7204:. New York: Random House.
7043:. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
6573:Massie, Robert K. (2012).
6167:Farquhar, Michael (2001).
5157:Mamonova, Natalia (2016).
4631:Cronin, Stephanie (2013).
4441:"The Russian Crown Jewels"
4363:Erickson, Carolly (1994).
4189:Farquhar, Michael (2001),
4084:. A. Giraud. p. 166.
3571:The television miniseries
3358:(1934) is a film starring
2804:Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin
2631:Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov
2581:
2547:
2543:
2535:The Russian Empire in 1792
2492:
2483:suppression of the Jesuits
2147:National Library of Russia
2043:The State Hermitage Museum
2011:
1908:
1733:PolishâRussian War of 1792
1725:May Constitution of Poland
1696:In 1764, Catherine placed
1669:
1628:American Revolutionary War
1620:League of Armed Neutrality
1605:is shown in armour riding
1586:
1488:Persian expedition of 1796
1485:
1449:François Sainte de Wollant
1302:
1172:
934:Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov
36:
29:
9926:
9909:
9893:
9836:
9805:
9774:
9753:
9737:
9720:
9652:
9606:
9508:
9465:
9444:
9391:
9360:
9344:
9291:
9225:
9177:
9141:
9108:
9027:
8986:
8830:
8719:
8715:
8704:
8609:Methodological skepticism
8500:
8496:
8485:
8383:
8262:
8139:
8055:
7895:Grand princes of Vladimir
7893:
7837:
7831:Empress consort of Russia
7828:
7815:
7808:
7798:
7789:
7781:
7776:
7749:
7730:26 September 2011 at the
7397:Journal of Modern History
7159:. Yale University Press.
6818:General and cited sources
6549:. Macmillan. p. 74.
6283:– via Google Books.
6266:. World Almanac Library.
5002:10.1093/jhmas/XXXVI.2.185
4853:François Crouzet (2001).
4793:The Far Eastern Quarterly
4664:. ABC-CLIO. p. 763.
4637:. Routledge. p. 51.
4220:"Đ ĐżŃĐŸĐžŃŃ
ĐŸĐ¶ĐŽĐ”ĐœĐžĐž ĐĐ°ĐČла I"
3793:
3746:
2907:On 16 November [
2557:First Partition of Poland
2413:, and founded the famous
2167:Moritz August von ThĂŒmmel
1293:European balance of power
408:
384:
374:
364:
339:
330:
323:
314:
293:
284:
271:
266:
262:
227:
191:
179:
162:
139:
135:
127:
122:Empress consort of Russia
120:
110:
100:
90:
78:
71:
53:
48:
8318:Maria Skuratova-Belskaya
7992:Dmitry the Terrible Eyes
7887:List of Russian monarchs
7590:Canadian Slavonic Papers
7059:Harvard University Press
7049:Kolchin, Peter (1990) .
6825:Alexander, John (1989).
6307:Duran, James A. (1969).
5822:"The Religion of Russia"
5505:Canadian Slavonic Papers
4588:Fisher, Alan W. (1967).
4467:"Diamond Fund Treasures"
4080:Huberty, Michel (1994).
3885:Bartlett, Roger (1974).
3143:
3082:Order of Saint Catherine
3068:Grand Duchess of Russia
3037:23 March 1801 (aged 46)
2980:
2830:Catherine II and Prince
2761:
2488:
2309:Catherine also received
2251:Portrait of Catherine II
2158:Imperial Academy of Arts
2156:The inauguration of the
2058:English landscape garden
1904:
1708:uprising in Poland, the
1603:William Pitt the Younger
1381:Treaty of KĂŒĂ§ĂŒk Kaynarca
1354:Russian held territories
1350:CrimeanâNogai slave raid
1344:(5â7 July 1770) and the
1143:Imperial Crown of Russia
1065:and an apoplexy stroke.
1030:Duke of Holstein-Gottorp
799:with Napoleonic France.
527:along the coasts of the
349:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
158:, Holy Roman Empire
7942:Yaroslav II of Vladimir
7476:Bogdanovich, Modest I.
7323:Reddaway, W.F (1971) .
7250:—— (2010).
7229:Montefiore, Simon Sebag
6993:Klier, John D. (1976).
6114:Pipes, Richard (1974).
3482:(2002â2003), voiced by
3106:20 June 1813 (aged 51)
2975:Ălisabeth VigĂ©e Le Brun
2750:down south in front of
2653:, away from her court.
2603:Collegium of Accounting
2311:Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun
2262:Charter to the Nobility
2175:Johann Bernhard Basedow
1729:Targowica Confederation
1692:in 1772, 1793, and 1795
1684:carried out by Russia,
1319:Preobrazhensky Regiment
1291:, which threatened the
1276:(in office 1781â1797).
839:Russian Orthodox Church
754:Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin
253:Alexei, Count Bobrinsky
149:21 April] 1729
10080:Sheikh Mansur Movement
8659:
8593:
8559:Enlightened absolutism
8550:
8399:
8278:
8141:Emperors of all Russia
7359:. London: Hutchinson.
5464:Enlightened Absolutism
5130:Field, Daniel (1976).
4943:Griffiths, J. (1984).
4882:Social Science Journal
3759:Yekaterina Alekseyevna
3658:Catherine II and opera
3466:The Captain's Daughter
3441:Vivat, Gardes-Marines!
3374:(1945), also known as
3159:
3126:25 May 1854 (aged 78)
3086:Alexander Nevsky Lavra
3071:9 December 1757 â
3059:Saint Michael's Castle
2934:
2889:
2868:Final months and death
2842:
2778:
2712:Augustus III of Poland
2697:Christian I of Denmark
2685:
2667:
2597:
2584:Christianity in Russia
2536:
2507:
2463:
2406:
2390:
2366:
2351:
2329:
2320:
2272:
2252:
2191:François Baron de Tott
2161:
2069:
2046:
2030:
1984:
1963:
1931:
1844:
1834:
1718:ambassadors and envoys
1693:
1610:
1463:
1452:
1325:
1279:Catherine agreed to a
1253:
1194:
1134:
985:
974:
811:
742:Jean Armand de Lestocq
733:
730:Georg Christoph Grooth
638:
431:
166:17 November [
18:Catherine II the Great
10020:German art collectors
8525:Counter-Enlightenment
8408:Catherine Alekseyevna
8398:
8277:
7952:Andrey II of Vladimir
7922:Vsevolod the Big Nest
7634:, 23#2 (2019): 47â63.
7494:Catherine the Great.
7271:Raeff, Marc (1972a).
7037:Kliuchevskii, Vasilii
6884:Dixon, Simon (2009).
6666:Dixon, Simon (2010).
6233:(3). quoting p. 293.
5346:62.5 (2007): 381â393.
4726:pp. 134â135, 316â320.
4326:"Catherine The Great"
3584:She was portrayed by
3532:was released in 2015.
3364:Douglas Fairbanks Jr.
3305:She was a subject in
3224:"Catherine the Great"
3154:
3051:Alexander I of Russia
3035:1 October 1754 â
2929:
2875:
2829:
2769:
2677:
2662:
2591:
2534:
2502:
2461:
2396:
2385:
2361:
2346:
2324:
2315:
2279:. Gavrila Derzhavin,
2277:Russian Enlightenment
2270:
2250:
2155:
2120:Free Economic Society
2067:
2036:
2021:
2014:Russian Enlightenment
1974:
1958:
1926:
1919:Rights and conditions
1890:Moscow Foundling Home
1839:
1832:
1825:Economics and finance
1679:
1597:A 1791 caricature by
1596:
1514:again invaded Georgia
1458:
1437:
1316:
1243:
1186:
1155:Western Roman Empires
1128:
1020:over the province of
979:
970:
938:Alexander Vasilchikov
805:
727:
647:Province of Pomerania
632:
615:Russian Enlightenment
425:
60:Catherine the Great,
10120:Women art collectors
10050:People from Szczecin
8479:Age of Enlightenment
8438:Alexandra Feodorovna
8423:Alexandra Feodorovna
8418:Elizabeth Alexeievna
8065:Ivan IV the Terrible
7932:Konstantin of Rostov
7912:Andrei I Bogolyubsky
7751:Catherine the Great
7710:Catherine the Great
7532:); 1996 (paperback,
7506:); 2006 (paperback,
7459:Bilbasov, Vasily A.
7332:Rodger, NAM (2005).
5898:, pp. 508â511;
4739:4.3 (1970): 570â593.
4696:Nikolas K. Gvosdev,
4495:(1944) pp. 298â320.
4272:Sergeant, Philip W.
3747:ĐĐșĐ°ŃĐ”ŃĐžĐœĐ° ĐлДĐșŃДДĐČĐœĐ°
3454:Catherine Zeta-Jones
3446:The television film
3209:improve this article
3104:11 April 1762 â
3055:Nicholas I of Russia
2634:last of her lovers,
2401:, the first Russian
2369:Catherine appointed
2297:Alexander Radishchev
1997:Pugachev's Rebellion
1780:Relations with Japan
1743:Relations with China
1710:Confederation of Bar
1682:Partitions of Poland
1672:Partitions of Poland
1652:Battle of Svensksund
1544:the key fortress of
1494:Treaty of Georgievsk
1352:, which ravaged the
1188:Alexander Bezborodko
1139:Assumption Cathedral
1042:Ismailovsky Regiment
946:Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov
885:French Enlightenment
663:ruling German family
592:Pugachev's Rebellion
216:; died
30:For other uses, see
9965:Catherine the Great
9485:FeijĂło y Montenegro
9436:Vorontsova-Dashkova
8365:Praskovia Saltykova
8355:Agafya Grushetskaya
8345:Maria Miloslavskaya
8283:Anastasia Romanovna
8057:Tsars of all Russia
8032:Vasily II the Blind
7972:Dmitry of Pereslavl
7937:Yuri II of Vladimir
7927:Yuri II of Vladimir
7917:Mikhail of Vladimir
7665:Catherine the Great
7649:); 2005 (paperback
7380:. Haus Publishing.
7377:Catherine the Great
6887:Catherine the Great
6857:. Clarendon Press.
6809:on 27 October 2021.
6781:Corleonis, Adrian.
6668:Catherine the Great
6527:Dangerous Liaisons.
6515:Catherine the Great
6490:Catherine the Great
6359:Catherine la Grande
6263:Catherine the Great
6212:3 July 2013 at the
6201:Virginia Rounding,
6153:Bushkovitch, Paul.
6104:(2006) pp. 147â173.
5886:, pp. 546â548.
5690:Catherine Evtuhov,
5245:, pp. 171â172.
5221:, pp. 166â169.
5084:, pp. 565â567.
5072:, pp. 563â564.
4724:Catherine the Great
4713:(1993) pp. 156â157.
4709:Stewart P. Oakley,
4493:A History of Russia
4401:, pp. 274â275.
4328:. History Channel.
4251:, pp. 400â403.
4224:history-gatchina.ru
3950:Ferdinand Siebigk:
3802:Yekaterina Velikaya
3574:Catherine the Great
3562:Frederick the Great
3554:Alexander the Great
3529:Catherine the Great
3449:Catherine the Great
3387:Catherine Was Great
3347:The Scarlet Empress
3309:series in the book
3124:13 July 1775 â
3121:(alleged daughter)
3078:her deceased sister
2913:Maria Perekusikhina
2836:Millennium Monument
2816:Kingdom of Sardinia
2681:, the last King of
2285:Ippolit Bogdanovich
2132:Anders Johan Lexell
1861:assignation roubles
1760:fugitives from the
1737:KoĆciuszko Uprising
1358:Crimean slave trade
1083:Princess Tarakanova
1034:ally against Sweden
746:Frederick the Great
714:Peter III of Russia
611:enlightened despots
445:, was the reigning
443:Catherine the Great
198:Peter III of Russia
8624:Natural philosophy
8428:Maria Alexandrovna
8403:Marta Skavronskaya
8400:
8375:Marta Skavronskaya
8350:Natalya Naryshkina
8340:Eudoxia Streshneva
8279:
8037:Ivan III the Great
7977:Andrey of Gorodets
7967:Vasily of Kostroma
7842:Title next held by
7820:Title last held by
7623:Ransel, David L.
7582:Gems and Jewellery
7560:Sex With the Queen
6440:, pp. 508â509
6313:The Russian Review
6227:The Russian Review
6102:Sex With the Queen
5950:, pp. 504â508
5926:, pp. 506â507
5808:, pp. 111â122
5284:, pp. 222â223
5209:, pp. 239â255
5175:10.1111/ruso.12097
3592:television series
3552:, in the episode "
3526:television series
3524:Channel One Russia
3513:television series
3437:Kristina OrbakaitÄ
3335:Forbidden Paradise
3181:In popular culture
3032:Emperor of Russia
3028:Paul (I) Petrovich
2950:), German scholar
2935:
2890:
2843:
2808:Battle of Borodino
2787:Battle of Zorndorf
2779:
2693:Czartoryski family
2686:
2598:
2561:Pale of Settlement
2537:
2508:
2464:
2407:
2391:
2367:
2352:
2273:
2253:
2216:William Blackstone
2208:Ferdinando Galiani
2162:
2128:Peter Simon Pallas
2070:
2047:
2045:, Saint-Petersburg
2031:
1985:
1964:
1932:
1927:Punishment with a
1835:
1694:
1635:war against Sweden
1611:
1510:Agha Mohammad Khan
1464:
1453:
1326:
1299:Russo-Turkish Wars
1254:
1215:right-bank Ukraine
1195:
1135:
986:
866:Schleswig-Holstein
812:
734:
661:, belonged to the
651:Kingdom of Prussia
639:
432:
156:Kingdom of Prussia
9952:
9951:
9680:
9679:
9648:
9647:
9644:
9643:
8700:
8699:
8696:
8695:
8673:Scientific method
8530:Critical thinking
8445:
8444:
8385:Empresses consort
8370:Eudoxia Lopukhina
8335:Maria Dolgorukova
8303:Anna Vasilchikova
8288:Maria Temryukovna
8264:Tsaritsas consort
8222:
8221:
8022:Dmitry of the Don
7997:Alexander of Tver
7907:Yuri I Dolgorukiy
7854:
7853:
7824:Martha SkowroĆska
7799:Succeeded by
7792:Empress of Russia
7688:Terrible Tsarinas
7573:LeDonne, John P.
7558:Herman, Eleanor.
7452:978-0-19-505236-7
7387:978-1-905791-06-4
7366:978-0-09-179992-2
7345:978-0-393-06050-8
7284:978-1-349-01467-5
7263:978-0-297-86623-7
7242:978-1-84212-438-3
7223:. pp. 19â24.
7211:978-0-679-45672-8
7198:Massie, Robert K.
7189:978-0-300-05427-9
7068:978-0-674-92098-9
6968:Hosking, Geoffrey
6901:978-0-06-078627-4
6864:978-0-19-820701-6
6749:978-5-373-03076-2
6721:Manifesto of 1763
6677:978-1-84765-192-1
6652:978-0-8129-6987-0
6615:978-5-94926-007-4
6590:978-0-345-40877-8
6556:978-0-312-37863-9
6370:978-91-1-952612-0
6188:978-0-7394-2025-6
5633:, pp. 369â95
5327:Robert Zaretsky,
5143:978-0-395-21986-7
5118:Wirtschafter 1998
5106:de Madariaga 1974
5096:, pp. 42â46.
5094:de Madariaga 1974
5082:Wirtschafter 1998
5070:Wirtschafter 1998
5060:, pp. 48â51.
5058:de Madariaga 1974
5043:Wirtschafter 1998
4866:978-0-8139-2190-7
4671:978-1-59884-337-8
4644:978-0-415-62433-6
4543:Oxford University
4311:978-0-253-00104-7
4263:, pp. 51â54.
4206:978-0-7394-2025-6
4155:, pp. 39â52.
4091:978-2-901138-07-5
3979:, pp. 10â19.
3925:978-1-317-45230-0
3799:
3794:ĐĐșĐ°ŃĐ”ŃĐžĐœĐ° ĐДлОĐșĐ°Ń
3756:
3732:Explanatory notes
3558:Ivan the Terrible
3541:The Divine Comedy
3471:Alexander Pushkin
3429:as Catherine and
3425:(1991), starring
3360:Elisabeth Bergner
3315:Kristiana Gregory
3307:The Royal Diaries
3285:
3284:
3277:
3259:
3150:Manifesto of 1763
3141:
3140:
3002:20 December 1752
2888:in the background
2857:In 1780, Emperor
2851:Aleksandr Bibikov
2783:Streltsy uprising
2640:legends about her
2578:Russian Orthodoxy
2454:Religious affairs
2349:Mikhail Lomonosov
2289:Alexander Pushkin
2200:Benjamin Franklin
2039:Marie-Anne Collot
1981:Russo-Turkish war
1911:Serfdom in Russia
1754:Treaty of Kyakhta
1723:Fearing that the
1714:Permanent Council
1644:Battle of Hogland
1519:Morteza Qoli Khan
1482:Russo-Persian War
1281:commercial treaty
1121:Coronation (1762)
1116:Reign (1762â1796)
901:Alexander Hertzen
835:Eastern Orthodoxy
788:Alexei Razumovsky
740:, in which Count
707:Lutheran theology
521:Russo-Turkish War
513:Bar Confederation
489:Alexander Suvorov
447:empress of Russia
420:
419:
335:
334:
302:
96:22 September 1762
73:Empress of Russia
16:(Redirected from
10127:
10025:House of Ascania
9707:
9700:
9693:
9684:
9683:
9669:
9668:
8717:
8716:
8706:
8705:
8664:
8598:
8569:
8555:
8498:
8497:
8487:
8486:
8472:
8465:
8458:
8449:
8448:
8433:Maria Feodorovna
8413:Maria Feodorovna
8298:Anna Koltovskaya
8249:
8242:
8235:
8226:
8225:
8132:
8017:Dmitry of Suzdal
8012:Ivan II the Fair
8007:Simeon the Proud
7962:Yaroslav of Tver
7957:Alexander Nevsky
7880:
7873:
7866:
7857:
7856:
7782:Preceded by
7772:
7771:17 November 1796
7765:
7747:
7746:
7627:(Yale UP, 1975).
7613:
7456:
7420:
7391:
7370:
7349:
7328:
7319:
7300:
7298:
7296:
7267:
7246:
7224:
7215:
7193:
7181:
7170:
7149:
7140:
7138:
7136:
7095:
7072:
7056:
7044:
7032:
7014:
6989:
6977:
6963:
6942:
6905:
6880:
6878:
6876:
6847:
6834:
6832:
6811:
6810:
6795:
6789:
6779:
6773:
6772:
6770:
6768:
6757:
6751:
6741:
6735:
6731:
6725:
6724:
6716:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6688:
6682:
6681:
6663:
6657:
6656:
6638:
6632:
6626:
6620:
6619:
6601:
6595:
6594:
6570:
6561:
6560:
6542:
6536:
6532:The New York Sun
6524:
6518:
6511:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6486:
6477:
6471:
6465:
6459:
6453:
6447:
6441:
6435:
6429:
6423:
6417:
6411:
6405:
6399:
6390:
6384:
6373:
6357:Henri Troyat in
6355:
6349:
6348:
6346:
6344:
6304:
6298:
6291:
6285:
6284:
6282:
6280:
6257:
6251:
6250:
6222:
6216:
6199:
6193:
6192:
6164:
6158:
6151:
6145:
6138:
6132:
6131:
6111:
6105:
6100:Eleanor Herman,
6098:
6092:
6086:
6080:
6074:
6068:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6029:
6022:
6016:
6010:
5999:
5993:
5987:
5981:
5975:
5969:
5963:
5957:
5951:
5945:
5939:
5933:
5927:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5903:
5893:
5887:
5881:
5875:
5869:
5863:
5862:
5844:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5818:
5809:
5803:
5794:
5788:
5782:
5776:
5770:
5764:
5755:
5749:
5743:
5737:
5731:
5725:
5719:
5713:
5707:
5701:
5695:
5688:
5682:
5676:
5670:
5664:
5658:
5652:
5646:
5640:
5634:
5628:
5622:
5621:
5601:
5595:
5594:, pp. 19â24
5589:
5583:
5580:
5574:
5573:
5571:
5569:
5558:balletacademy.ru
5550:
5544:
5538:
5529:
5528:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5473:
5467:
5460:
5454:
5453:
5445:
5439:
5438:
5402:
5396:
5395:, pp. 44â45
5390:
5381:
5375:
5364:
5358:
5347:
5343:Orbis Litterarum
5338:
5332:
5325:
5319:
5312:
5306:
5300:
5285:
5279:
5273:
5267:
5261:
5255:
5246:
5240:
5234:
5228:
5222:
5216:
5210:
5204:
5198:
5192:
5186:
5185:
5183:
5181:
5154:
5148:
5147:
5127:
5121:
5115:
5109:
5103:
5097:
5091:
5085:
5079:
5073:
5067:
5061:
5055:
5046:
5040:
5034:
5028:
5022:
5021:
4981:
4975:
4974:
4964:
4940:
4931:
4930:
4918:
4909:
4908:
4907:(2): 1â34. 2012.
4896:
4890:
4889:
4877:
4871:
4870:
4850:
4844:
4837:
4831:
4825:
4824:
4788:
4782:
4776:
4767:
4766:, pp. 55â56
4761:
4755:
4749:
4740:
4733:
4727:
4720:
4714:
4707:
4701:
4694:
4688:
4682:
4676:
4675:
4655:
4649:
4648:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4585:
4576:
4571:M. S. Anderson,
4569:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4558:
4535:Kizilov, Mikhail
4531:
4525:
4519:
4513:
4512:4 (2010): 38â52.
4506:
4500:
4489:
4483:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4437:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4408:
4402:
4396:
4390:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4360:
4354:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4295:
4289:
4283:
4277:
4270:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4246:
4240:
4239:
4237:
4235:
4216:
4210:
4209:
4186:
4180:
4179:, pp. 87â88
4174:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4150:
4144:
4143:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4102:
4096:
4095:
4077:
4068:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4037:
4031:
4025:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4004:
3998:
3996:
3986:
3980:
3970:
3961:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3835:
3815:
3812:
3806:
3804:
3798:romanized:
3797:
3795:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3770:
3765:
3761:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3742:
3718:
3717:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3694:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3673:
3653:Potemkin village
3566:Pompey the Great
3431:Vanessa Redgrave
3342:Marlene Dietrich
3280:
3273:
3269:
3266:
3260:
3258:
3217:
3193:
3185:
3175:Maria Feodorovna
3135:Grigory Potemkin
2985:
2984:
2832:Grigory Potemkin
2647:Alexis Bobrinsky
2439:Pyotr Zavadovsky
2415:Smolny Institute
2399:Smolny Institute
2388:Moscow Orphanage
2187:Memoirs de Chine
2130:from Berlin and
2051:Hermitage Museum
2041:, marble, 1769,
2026:(1789â1790), by
2008:Arts and culture
1993:epidemic in 1771
1856:Assignation Bank
1802:Aleutian Islands
1800:, ashore in the
1798:Daikokuya KĆdayĆ«
1769:Dzungar genocide
1749:Qianlong Emperor
1656:Treaty of VÀrÀlÀ
1342:Battle of Chesma
1323:Vigilius Eriksen
1003:Seven Years' War
942:Grigory Potemkin
858:Holstein-Gottorp
851:Saint Petersburg
777:Charles Augustus
738:Lopukhina affair
582:. An admirer of
493:Pyotr Rumyantsev
481:Grigory Potemkin
459:public libraries
416:
392:Russian Orthodox
316:
307:
297:
295:
286:
279:
264:
263:
238:
221:
219:
215:
211:
145:2 May [
84:
66:
63:
58:
46:
45:
21:
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9711:
9681:
9676:
9675:
9662:
9640:
9602:
9504:
9461:
9440:
9387:
9356:
9352:Carvalho e Melo
9340:
9287:
9221:
9173:
9137:
9104:
9023:
8982:
8826:
8711:
8692:
8678:Spanish America
8552:Encyclopédistes
8515:Civil liberties
8492:
8481:
8476:
8446:
8441:
8379:
8360:Marfa Apraksina
8324:Marina Mniszech
8258:
8253:
8223:
8218:
8135:
8130:
8051:
7982:Mikhail of Tver
7889:
7884:
7847:
7846:Sophie Dorothea
7843:
7834:
7821:
7810:Russian royalty
7804:
7795:
7787:
7766:
7760:
7759:
7756:House of Anhalt
7752:
7741:Wayback Machine
7732:Wayback Machine
7706:
7701:
7686:Troyat, Henri.
7518:Cronin, Vincent
7473:and PDF formats
7453:
7438:
7434:
7428:
7426:Further reading
7423:
7388:
7367:
7346:
7316:
7294:
7292:
7285:
7264:
7243:
7212:
7190:
7167:
7134:
7132:
7092:
7069:
7012:10.2307/2495122
6986:
6954:(94): 229â235.
6923:10.2307/2494437
6902:
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6766:
6764:
6759:
6758:
6754:
6742:
6738:
6732:
6728:
6717:
6713:
6707:Montefiore 2010
6705:
6701:
6689:
6685:
6678:
6664:
6660:
6653:
6639:
6635:
6629:Montefiore 2010
6627:
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6412:
6408:
6400:
6393:
6385:
6376:
6356:
6352:
6342:
6340:
6305:
6301:
6293:Thomas McLean,
6292:
6288:
6278:
6276:
6274:
6258:
6254:
6223:
6219:
6214:Wayback Machine
6200:
6196:
6189:
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6099:
6095:
6087:
6083:
6075:
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6063:
6059:
6051:
6047:
6039:
6032:
6024:Richard Pipes,
6023:
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6002:
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5990:
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5470:
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5457:
5446:
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5419:10.2307/3649988
5403:
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5359:
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5237:
5229:
5225:
5217:
5213:
5205:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5179:
5177:
5163:Rural Sociology
5155:
5151:
5144:
5128:
5124:
5116:
5112:
5104:
5100:
5092:
5088:
5080:
5076:
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4805:10.2307/2049650
4789:
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4777:
4770:
4762:
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4579:
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4532:
4528:
4520:
4516:
4507:
4503:
4491:Bernard Pares,
4490:
4486:
4476:
4474:
4473:on 26 July 2007
4465:
4464:
4460:
4450:
4448:
4447:on 27 June 2014
4439:
4438:
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4123:
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4099:
4092:
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4071:
4059:
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4016:
4005:
4001:
3987:
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3729:
3724:
3712:
3702:
3700:
3690:
3688:
3678:
3676:
3668:
3644:
3422:Young Catherine
3399:Great Catherine
3371:A Royal Scandal
3332:'s silent film
3281:
3270:
3264:
3261:
3218:
3216:
3206:
3194:
3183:
3167:
3146:
3125:
3105:
3100:Count Bobrinsky
3098:
3072:
3067:
3036:
3031:
3007:Sergei Saltykov
2983:
2968:Antonio Rinaldi
2939:several rumours
2894:Gustav IV Adolf
2870:
2824:
2764:
2701:House of Stuart
2672:
2622:
2586:
2580:
2552:
2546:
2497:
2495:Islam in Russia
2491:
2456:
2376:Daniel Dumaresq
2341:
2242:Cesare Beccaria
2212:Nicolas Baudeau
2202:denouncing the
2088:Charles Cameron
2016:
2010:
1969:
1937:Imperial Russia
1921:
1913:
1907:
1895:Thomas Dimsdale
1886:foundling homes
1874:
1827:
1818:
1782:
1745:
1674:
1668:
1591:
1585:
1490:
1484:
1472:Treaty of Jassy
1461:Crimean Khanate
1429:Crimean Khanate
1346:Battle of Kagul
1321:'s uniform, by
1311:
1301:
1181:
1173:Main articles:
1171:
1169:Foreign affairs
1123:
1118:
1098:empress regnant
994:empress consort
905:Sergei Saltykov
722:
684:Kings of Sweden
635:Louis Caravaque
627:
584:Peter the Great
553:Russian America
509:Crimean Khanate
404:
360:
319:
275:
257:
235:among others...
232:
231:
223:
207:
203:
200:
187:
171:
150:
144:
85:
82:
67:
64:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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5:
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9940:
9934:
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9924:
9923:
9921:
9920:
9913:
9911:
9910:8th generation
9907:
9906:
9904:
9903:
9897:
9895:
9894:7th generation
9891:
9890:
9888:
9887:
9881:
9876:
9871:
9866:
9861:
9856:
9851:
9846:
9840:
9838:
9837:6th generation
9834:
9833:
9831:
9830:
9825:
9820:
9815:
9809:
9807:
9806:5th generation
9803:
9802:
9800:
9799:
9794:
9789:
9784:
9778:
9776:
9775:4th generation
9772:
9771:
9769:
9768:
9763:
9757:
9755:
9754:3rd generation
9751:
9750:
9748:
9747:
9741:
9739:
9738:2nd generation
9735:
9734:
9732:
9731:
9724:
9722:
9721:1st generation
9718:
9717:
9710:
9709:
9702:
9695:
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9678:
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8855:
8850:
8845:
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8834:
8832:
8828:
8827:
8825:
8824:
8822:Wollstonecraft
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
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8779:
8774:
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8759:
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8332:
8327:
8320:
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8313:Irina Godunova
8310:
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8295:
8293:Marfa Sobakina
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8099:
8094:
8091:False Dmitry I
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8009:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7987:Yuri of Moscow
7984:
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7909:
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7891:
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7883:
7882:
7875:
7868:
7860:
7852:
7851:
7848:of WĂŒrttemberg
7841:
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7777:Regnal titles
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7704:External links
7702:
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7596:(2): 187â201.
7585:
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7543:Dixon, Simon.
7541:
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7403:(3): 561â587.
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7111:(126): 34â62.
7096:
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6691:Alexander 1989
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6596:
6589:
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6529:Liena Zagare,
6519:
6513:Henri Troyat,
6506:
6494:
6488:Henri Troyat,
6478:
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6239:10.2307/127976
6217:
6194:
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6159:
6146:
6133:
6127:978-0684140414
6126:
6106:
6093:
6091:, p. 224.
6089:Alexander 1989
6081:
6079:, p. 298.
6069:
6067:, p. 296.
6057:
6045:
6043:, p. 294.
6030:
6017:
6000:
5998:, p. 293.
5988:
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5964:
5952:
5948:Madariaga 1981
5940:
5928:
5916:
5904:
5902:, p. 549.
5896:Madariaga 1981
5888:
5876:
5864:
5857:
5839:
5810:
5806:Madariaga 1981
5795:
5791:Madariaga 1979
5783:
5779:Madariaga 1979
5771:
5767:Madariaga 1979
5756:
5752:Madariaga 1979
5744:
5740:Madariaga 1979
5732:
5728:Madariaga 1979
5720:
5708:
5696:
5683:
5671:
5669:, p. 233.
5659:
5655:Madariaga 1979
5647:
5635:
5631:Madariaga 1979
5623:
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5511:(2): 187â201.
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5223:
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5207:Madariaga 1981
5199:
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5187:
5169:(3): 316â342.
5149:
5142:
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5110:
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4702:
4689:
4687:, p. 321.
4685:Alexander 1989
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4643:
4623:
4600:(3): 341â364.
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4403:
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4382:
4376:978-0517590911
4375:
4355:
4351:Alexander 1989
4343:
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4278:
4265:
4261:Alexander 1989
4253:
4249:Alexander 1989
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4157:
4145:
4142:. 4 June 2024.
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3781:Old Style date
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3500:Dannah Phirman
3474:
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3330:Ernst Lubitsch
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3292:'s unfinished
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2886:Tsarskoye Selo
2882:Catherine Park
2869:
2866:
2823:
2820:
2776:Fyodor Rokotov
2763:
2760:
2671:
2668:
2621:
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2579:
2576:
2545:
2542:
2490:
2487:
2481:following the
2455:
2452:
2340:
2337:
2299:published his
2281:Denis Fonvizin
2124:Leonhard Euler
2116:Jacques Necker
2108:encyclopedists
2012:Main article:
2009:
2006:
1968:
1965:
1920:
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1873:
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1826:
1823:
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1806:Tsarskoye Selo
1781:
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1758:Dzungar Mongol
1744:
1741:
1670:Main article:
1667:
1664:
1584:
1581:
1540:in April 1796
1534:Valerian Zubov
1506:against Persia
1483:
1480:
1476:Yedisan region
1425:annexed Crimea
1373:Yekaterinoslav
1336:following the
1330:Azov campaigns
1300:
1297:
1231:Ottoman Empire
1211:North Caucasus
1199:Russian Empire
1170:
1167:
1163:Armoury Museum
1149:. Inspired by
1147:Jérémie Pauzié
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
879:and the other
721:
718:
657:. Her father,
626:
623:
564:Yekaterinoslav
517:Ottoman Empire
505:Fyodor Ushakov
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8634:Progressivism
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8607:
8605:
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8583:Individualism
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8209:Alexander III
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7910:
7908:
7905:
7904:
7902:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7888:
7881:
7876:
7874:
7869:
7867:
7862:
7861:
7858:
7850:
7849:
7840:
7833:
7832:
7826:
7825:
7818:
7814:
7811:
7807:
7803:
7794:
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7763:
7758:
7757:
7748:
7742:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7729:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7717:
7716:
7711:
7708:
7707:
7697:
7696:1-892941-54-6
7693:
7689:
7685:
7682:
7681:1-84212-029-8
7678:
7674:
7673:0-88029-688-7
7670:
7666:
7662:
7661:Troyat, Henri
7659:
7656:
7655:0-87580-607-4
7652:
7648:
7647:0-87580-324-5
7644:
7640:
7636:
7633:
7629:
7626:
7622:
7619:
7615:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7586:
7583:
7579:
7576:
7572:
7569:
7568:0-06-084673-9
7565:
7561:
7557:
7554:
7553:0-582-09803-3
7550:
7546:
7542:
7539:
7538:1-86046-091-7
7535:
7531:
7530:0-00-216119-2
7527:
7523:
7519:
7516:
7513:
7512:0-8129-6987-1
7509:
7505:
7504:0-679-64299-4
7501:
7497:
7493:
7490:
7489:
7484:
7481:
7480:
7475:
7472:
7468:
7464:
7463:
7458:
7454:
7448:
7444:
7443:
7437:
7436:
7433:
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7414:
7410:
7406:
7402:
7398:
7393:
7389:
7383:
7379:
7378:
7372:
7368:
7362:
7358:
7357:
7351:
7347:
7341:
7337:
7336:
7330:
7326:
7321:
7317:
7315:9780801813771
7311:
7307:
7302:
7290:
7286:
7280:
7276:
7275:
7269:
7265:
7259:
7255:
7254:
7248:
7244:
7238:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7222:
7217:
7213:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7185:
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7179:
7172:
7168:
7166:9780300025156
7162:
7158:
7157:
7151:
7147:
7142:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7102:
7097:
7093:
7087:
7083:
7079:
7074:
7070:
7064:
7060:
7057:. Cambridge:
7055:
7054:
7047:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7005:(3): 504â17.
7004:
7000:
6999:Slavic Review
6996:
6991:
6987:
6985:9780674781184
6981:
6976:
6975:
6969:
6965:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6912:
6911:Slavic Review
6907:
6903:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6888:
6882:
6870:
6866:
6860:
6856:
6855:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6830:
6823:
6822:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6794:
6787:
6785:
6778:
6762:
6756:
6750:
6746:
6740:
6730:
6722:
6715:
6709:, p. 159
6708:
6703:
6696:
6692:
6687:
6679:
6673:
6669:
6662:
6654:
6648:
6644:
6637:
6630:
6625:
6617:
6611:
6607:
6600:
6592:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6577:
6569:
6567:
6558:
6552:
6548:
6541:
6534:
6533:
6528:
6523:
6516:
6510:
6503:
6498:
6491:
6485:
6483:
6476:, p. 318
6475:
6470:
6464:, p. 503
6463:
6462:Rounding 2006
6458:
6452:, p. 314
6451:
6446:
6439:
6438:Rounding 2006
6434:
6428:, p. 508
6427:
6426:Rounding 2006
6422:
6416:, p. 502
6415:
6414:Rounding 2006
6410:
6404:, p. 315
6403:
6398:
6396:
6389:, p. 499
6388:
6387:Rounding 2006
6383:
6381:
6379:
6371:
6367:
6364:
6360:
6354:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6310:
6303:
6296:
6290:
6275:
6269:
6265:
6264:
6256:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6221:
6215:
6211:
6208:
6204:
6198:
6190:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6175:Penguin Books
6172:
6171:
6163:
6156:
6150:
6143:
6137:
6129:
6123:
6119:
6118:
6110:
6103:
6097:
6090:
6085:
6078:
6073:
6066:
6061:
6055:, p. 237
6054:
6049:
6042:
6037:
6035:
6027:
6021:
6015:, p. 231
6014:
6009:
6007:
6005:
5997:
5992:
5986:, p. 515
5985:
5980:
5974:, p. 512
5973:
5968:
5962:, p. 511
5961:
5956:
5949:
5944:
5938:, p. 507
5937:
5932:
5925:
5920:
5914:, p. 505
5913:
5908:
5901:
5897:
5892:
5885:
5880:
5873:
5868:
5860:
5858:9780199280513
5854:
5850:
5843:
5827:
5823:
5817:
5815:
5807:
5802:
5800:
5793:, p. 394
5792:
5787:
5781:, p. 391
5780:
5775:
5769:, p. 385
5768:
5763:
5761:
5754:, p. 383
5753:
5748:
5742:, p. 380
5741:
5736:
5730:, p. 379
5729:
5724:
5717:
5712:
5705:
5700:
5693:
5687:
5681:, p. 130
5680:
5675:
5668:
5663:
5657:, p. 374
5656:
5651:
5644:
5639:
5632:
5627:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5600:
5593:
5588:
5579:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5549:
5542:
5537:
5535:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5499:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5472:
5465:
5459:
5451:
5450:History Today
5444:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5407:Slavic Review
5401:
5394:
5389:
5387:
5379:
5374:
5372:
5370:
5362:
5357:
5355:
5353:
5345:
5344:
5337:
5330:
5324:
5317:
5311:
5304:
5299:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5283:
5282:Rounding 2006
5278:
5271:
5266:
5260:, p. 222
5259:
5258:Rounding 2006
5254:
5252:
5244:
5239:
5232:
5227:
5220:
5215:
5208:
5203:
5196:
5191:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5153:
5145:
5139:
5135:
5134:
5126:
5119:
5114:
5108:, p. 35.
5107:
5102:
5095:
5090:
5083:
5078:
5071:
5066:
5059:
5054:
5052:
5044:
5039:
5032:
5027:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4980:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4939:
4937:
4929:(3): 485â496.
4928:
4924:
4917:
4915:
4906:
4902:
4895:
4887:
4883:
4876:
4868:
4862:
4858:
4857:
4849:
4842:
4836:
4830:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4775:
4773:
4765:
4760:
4753:
4748:
4746:
4738:
4732:
4725:
4719:
4712:
4706:
4699:
4693:
4686:
4681:
4673:
4667:
4663:
4662:
4654:
4646:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4627:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4584:
4582:
4574:
4568:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4530:
4524:, p. 328
4523:
4518:
4511:
4505:
4498:
4494:
4488:
4472:
4468:
4462:
4446:
4442:
4436:
4434:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4400:
4395:
4386:
4378:
4372:
4368:
4367:
4359:
4352:
4347:
4331:
4327:
4321:
4313:
4307:
4303:
4302:
4294:
4287:
4286:Rounding 2006
4282:
4275:
4269:
4262:
4257:
4250:
4245:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4208:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4193:
4185:
4178:
4177:Rounding 2006
4173:
4167:, p. 41.
4166:
4161:
4154:
4149:
4141:
4135:
4120:
4118:9780198736523
4114:
4110:
4109:
4101:
4093:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4074:
4066:
4062:
4061:Streeter 2007
4057:
4051:, p. 40.
4050:
4045:
4043:
4035:
4034:Rounding 2006
4030:
4023:
4022:Rounding 2006
4018:
4010:
4003:
3994:
3993:
3985:
3978:
3975:, p. 3;
3974:
3973:Streeter 2007
3969:
3967:
3959:
3955:
3954:
3947:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3917:
3916:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3873:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3845:
3841:
3834:
3832:
3827:
3811:
3803:
3789:
3782:
3777:
3769:
3760:
3754:
3744:Russian:
3741:
3737:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3709:
3699:
3697:
3687:
3685:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3605:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3580:
3577:(2019) stars
3576:
3575:
3570:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3550:
3545:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3496:Julius Caesar
3493:
3489:
3485:
3484:Murray Miller
3481:
3480:
3475:
3472:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3461:Olga Antonova
3458:
3455:
3452:(1995) stars
3451:
3450:
3445:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3394:Jeanne Moreau
3392:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3356:
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3349:
3348:
3343:
3340:
3337:
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3331:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3279:
3276:
3268:
3265:December 2022
3257:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3226: â
3225:
3221:
3220:Find sources:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3203:
3198:This article
3196:
3192:
3187:
3186:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3151:
3136:
3133:household as
3132:
3128:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3066:Anna Petrovna
3065:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3017:30 June 1753
3016:
3013:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2978:
2976:
2973:According to
2971:
2969:
2965:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2952:Adam Olearius
2949:
2945:
2940:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2878:Chesme Column
2874:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2855:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2773:
2772:Grigory Orlov
2768:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2724:Maria Theresa
2721:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2620:Personal life
2617:
2613:
2611:
2610:Old Believers
2606:
2604:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2575:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2541:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2474:
2468:
2460:
2451:
2447:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2432:Franz Aepinus
2427:
2425:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2345:
2336:
2334:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2312:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2293:Russian opera
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2269:
2265:
2263:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2204:British Crown
2201:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2076:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2054:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1930:
1925:
1916:
1912:
1902:
1898:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:Public health
1869:
1865:
1862:
1857:
1854:In 1768, the
1852:
1850:
1849:Volga Germans
1843:
1838:
1831:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1790:Kuril Islands
1787:
1777:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1702:Polish throne
1699:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1663:
1661:
1660:Treaty of Ă
bo
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1599:James Gillray
1595:
1590:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1526:Ivan Gudovich
1522:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1457:
1450:
1446:
1445:José de Ribas
1442:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1420:Crimean Tatar
1417:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1285:Great Britain
1282:
1277:
1275:
1274:Ivan Osterman
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1166:
1164:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1132:
1127:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1094:Rurik dynasty
1091:
1086:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1074:SchlĂŒsselburg
1071:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:haemorrhoidal
1057:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1004:
999:
998:Winter Palace
995:
991:
983:
978:
973:
969:
966:
963:
957:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
936:(1734â1783),
935:
931:
926:
924:
920:
915:
911:
906:
902:
899:According to
897:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
869:
867:
863:
859:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
809:
804:
800:
798:
794:
789:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
731:
726:
717:
715:
710:
708:
704:
703:lingua franca
698:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
636:
631:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
599:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
576:Yekaterinodar
573:
569:
565:
561:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
477:Grigory Orlov
473:
471:
467:
464:
460:
456:
455:Enlightenment
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
429:
424:
415:
411:
407:
400:
396:
393:
390:
389:
387:
383:
380:
377:
373:
370:
367:
363:
356:
353:
351:(by marriage)
350:
347:
346:
344:
342:
338:
329:
326:
322:
312:
309:
306:
300:
291:
288:
282:
278:
274:
273:
270:
265:
261:
254:
251:
248:
246:
243:
242:
240:
237:
236:
230:
226:
199:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
173:Winter Palace
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
148:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
123:
119:
116:
113:
109:
106:
103:
99:
95:
93:
89:
81:
77:
74:
70:
57:
52:
47:
44:
40:
33:
19:
9943:
9937:
9931:
9744:
9656:
9401:Catherine II
9400:
8853:Beaumarchais
8683:Universality
8654:Reductionism
8601:
8578:Human rights
8407:
8322:
8308:Maria Nagaya
8204:Alexander II
8184:Catherine II
8183:
8101:
8089:
7844:
7838:
7829:
7822:
7816:
7790:
7768:
7761:
7754:
7714:
7687:
7664:
7638:
7631:
7624:
7617:
7593:
7589:
7581:
7574:
7559:
7544:
7521:
7495:
7487:
7478:
7461:
7441:
7400:
7396:
7376:
7355:
7334:
7324:
7305:
7293:. Retrieved
7277:. Springer.
7273:
7252:
7232:
7221:Russian Life
7220:
7201:
7177:
7155:
7145:
7133:. Retrieved
7108:
7104:
7077:
7052:
7040:
7002:
6998:
6973:
6951:
6947:
6914:
6910:
6886:
6873:. Retrieved
6853:
6843:
6839:
6828:
6807:the original
6802:
6793:
6783:
6777:
6765:. Retrieved
6755:
6739:
6729:
6720:
6714:
6702:
6686:
6667:
6661:
6642:
6636:
6631:, p. 40
6624:
6605:
6599:
6575:
6546:
6540:
6530:
6526:
6522:
6514:
6509:
6501:
6497:
6489:
6469:
6457:
6445:
6433:
6421:
6409:
6362:
6358:
6353:
6341:. Retrieved
6319:(1): 23â36.
6316:
6312:
6302:
6294:
6289:
6277:. Retrieved
6262:
6255:
6230:
6226:
6220:
6202:
6197:
6173:. New York:
6169:
6162:
6154:
6149:
6141:
6136:
6120:. Scribner.
6116:
6109:
6101:
6096:
6084:
6072:
6060:
6053:Hosking 1997
6048:
6025:
6020:
6013:Hosking 1997
5991:
5979:
5967:
5955:
5943:
5931:
5919:
5907:
5891:
5879:
5867:
5848:
5842:
5830:. Retrieved
5786:
5774:
5747:
5735:
5723:
5718:, p. 21
5711:
5706:, p. 20
5699:
5691:
5686:
5674:
5662:
5650:
5638:
5626:
5612:(2): 37â45.
5609:
5605:
5599:
5587:
5578:
5566:. Retrieved
5557:
5548:
5540:
5508:
5504:
5498:
5481:
5477:
5471:
5463:
5458:
5449:
5443:
5410:
5406:
5400:
5393:Brechka 1969
5380:, p. 44
5378:Brechka 1969
5363:, p. 43
5361:Brechka 1969
5341:
5336:
5328:
5323:
5315:
5310:
5305:, p. 54
5277:
5272:, p. 47
5270:Brechka 1969
5265:
5238:
5226:
5214:
5202:
5190:
5180:12 September
5178:. Retrieved
5166:
5162:
5152:
5132:
5125:
5113:
5101:
5089:
5077:
5065:
5038:
5026:
4993:
4989:
4979:
4955:(1): 14â16.
4952:
4948:
4926:
4922:
4904:
4900:
4894:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4855:
4848:
4840:
4835:
4829:
4796:
4792:
4786:
4781:, p. 56
4759:
4754:, p. 55
4736:
4731:
4723:
4718:
4710:
4705:
4697:
4692:
4680:
4660:
4653:
4633:
4626:
4614:. Retrieved
4597:
4593:
4572:
4567:
4555:. Retrieved
4546:
4542:
4529:
4517:
4509:
4504:
4492:
4487:
4475:. Retrieved
4471:the original
4461:
4449:. Retrieved
4445:the original
4420:. Retrieved
4406:
4394:
4385:
4365:
4358:
4346:
4334:. Retrieved
4320:
4300:
4293:
4288:, p. 92
4281:
4273:
4268:
4256:
4244:
4234:26 September
4232:. Retrieved
4223:
4214:
4191:
4184:
4172:
4165:Brechka 1969
4160:
4153:Brechka 1969
4148:
4134:
4122:. Retrieved
4107:
4100:
4081:
4056:
4049:Brechka 1969
4036:, p. 10
4029:
4017:
4008:
4002:
3991:
3984:
3951:
3946:
3934:. Retrieved
3914:
3907:
3890:
3880:
3866:
3839:
3810:
3788:
3776:
3740:
3633:
3627:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3604:Civilization
3603:
3598:(2020â2023).
3593:
3586:Elle Fanning
3579:Helen Mirren
3572:
3547:
3527:
3515:
3504:Genghis Khan
3477:
3464:
3447:
3427:Julia Ormond
3420:
3397:
3385:
3375:
3369:
3353:
3345:
3333:
3321:
3310:
3297:
3271:
3262:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3231:
3219:
3207:Please help
3202:verification
3199:
3168:
3160:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3093:
3026:
3014:Miscarriage
2999:Miscarriage
2972:
2960:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2932:Platon Zubov
2906:
2891:
2863:
2856:
2848:
2844:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2780:
2720:Prince Henry
2717:
2709:
2687:
2663:
2658:James Harris
2655:
2644:
2636:Platon Zubov
2627:
2623:
2614:
2607:
2599:
2569:
2565:
2553:
2538:
2513:
2509:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2428:
2423:
2420:
2408:
2371:Ivan Betskoy
2368:
2353:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2308:
2300:
2274:
2258:
2254:
2224:Encyclopédie
2222:
2220:
2194:
2186:
2163:
2136:
2112:Arthur Young
2106:âall French
2097:
2092:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2071:
2055:
2048:
2028:Fedot Shubin
2002:
1990:
1986:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1933:
1914:
1899:
1875:
1866:
1853:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1819:
1783:
1773:
1766:
1746:
1722:
1706:anti-Russian
1695:
1640:Baltic Fleet
1632:
1612:
1609:, his horse.
1554:
1530:Prince Zubov
1523:
1491:
1465:
1438:
1413:
1362:
1327:
1278:
1258:Nikita Panin
1255:
1250:Fredrikshamn
1196:
1192:Nikita Panin
1159:
1136:
1087:
1067:
1056:Alexei Orlov
1049:
1046:
1038:
1007:
987:
971:
967:
958:
954:
927:
898:
888:
880:
874:
870:
855:
832:
824:phlebotomies
820:bloodletting
813:
785:
766:
735:
711:
701:French, the
699:
692:
680:Charles XIII
640:
602:
600:
557:
501:Samuel Greig
474:
470:great powers
442:
438:
435:Catherine II
434:
433:
331:Catherine II
233:
65: 1780s
49:Catherine II
43:
9975:1796 deaths
9970:1729 births
9658:Romanticism
9480:Charles III
9321:Poniatowski
9258:Leeuwenhoek
9238:de la Court
9226:Netherlands
9070:Mendelssohn
9065:Lichtenberg
8943:Montesquieu
8661:Sapere aude
8644:Rationalism
8639:Rationality
8629:Objectivity
8214:Nicholas II
8194:Alexander I
8154:Catherine I
8131:(co-rulers)
7715:In Our Time
7467:Runivers.ru
6846:(1): 39â52.
6767:26 November
6279:24 November
6077:Raeff 1972a
6065:Raeff 1972a
6041:Raeff 1972a
5996:Raeff 1972a
5900:Fisher 1968
5884:Fisher 1968
5872:Fisher 1968
5243:Raeff 1972b
5231:Raeff 1972b
5219:Raeff 1972b
5195:Raeff 1972b
5031:Massie 2011
4888:(2): 39â50.
4799:(1): 2â37.
4522:Rodger 2005
4399:Massie 2011
4063:, pp.
3977:Massie 2011
3893:(1): 1â22.
3537:Foreverland
3294:mock-heroic
2898:Lutheranism
2792:coup d'Ă©tat
2670:Poniatowski
2238:Montesquieu
2093:chinoiserie
2084:chinoiserie
2080:chinoiserie
2075:Chinoiserie
1983:, from 1791
1882:physiocracy
1880:and French
1810:Adam Laxman
1762:Qing Empire
1735:and in the
1648:Theatre War
1626:during the
1577:Kura Rivers
1542:and stormed
1478:to Russia.
1416:Ćahin Giray
1102:Catherine I
1078:Lake Ladoga
881:philosophes
862:Oranienbaum
847:Catherine I
695:Baron Grimm
549:to colonise
545:partitioned
479:and Prince
472:of Europe.
401:(1729â1744)
394:(1744â1796)
325:Regnal name
101:Predecessor
9959:Categories
9500:Villarroel
9495:Jovellanos
9431:Radishchev
9378:Micu-Klein
9316:Niemcewicz
9283:Swammerdam
9273:Nieuwentyt
9263:Mandeville
9118:Farmakidis
9004:Burlamaqui
8913:La Mettrie
8888:Fontenelle
8843:d'Argenson
8838:d'Alembert
8762:Harrington
8688:Utopianism
8588:Liberalism
8545:Empiricism
8520:Classicism
8510:Capitalism
8199:Nicholas I
8119:Feodor III
8042:Vasily III
7764:2 May 1729
7430:See also:
6693:, p.
6474:Dixon 2009
6450:Dixon 2009
6402:Dixon 2009
6177:. p.
5984:Klier 1976
5972:Klier 1976
5960:Klier 1976
5936:Klier 1976
5924:Klier 1976
5912:Klier 1976
5679:Dixon 2009
5568:5 February
5452:: 313â332.
4722:Anderson,
4557:8 December
4549:(1): 2â7.
3936:11 October
3849:9028206833
3727:References
3622:Revolution
3479:Clone High
3384:published
3290:Lord Byron
3235:newspapers
2956:bestiality
2921:last rites
2742:almost to
2582:See also:
2548:See also:
2493:See also:
2411:John Locke
2104:d'Alembert
1909:See also:
1878:cameralism
1624:Royal Navy
1607:George III
1587:See also:
1557:Azerbaijan
1486:See also:
1303:See also:
1246:Gustav III
1203:New Russia
843:patronymic
808:equestrian
676:Gustav III
625:Early life
580:Sevastopol
525:New Russia
463:protestant
357:(by birth)
92:Coronation
9621:Jefferson
9563:Hutcheson
9452:ObradoviÄ
9421:Lomonosov
9416:Kheraskov
9326:Ćniadecki
9090:Weishaupt
9085:Thomasius
9075:Pufendorf
8918:Lavoisier
8903:d'Holbach
8898:Helvétius
8878:Descartes
8873:Condorcet
8868:Condillac
8802:Priestley
8619:Modernity
8540:Democracy
8179:Peter III
8174:Elizabeth
8103:Vladislav
8097:Vasili IV
8085:Feodor II
7785:Peter III
7683:) popular
7417:154510675
7256:. Orion.
7148:: 369â95.
7117:0037-6795
7082:Routledge
7029:159944347
6939:155316413
6372:) p. 427.
6028:, p. 242.
5667:Hans 1961
5643:Hans 1961
5554:"ĐŃŃĐŸŃĐžŃ"
5435:159634090
5010:0022-5045
4821:162618073
4124:21 August
3822:Citations
3792:Russian:
3753:romanized
3684:Biography
3595:The Great
3516:Ekaterina
3490:" until "
3443:!" (1991)
3061:in 1801.
2902:Alexander
2859:Joseph II
2756:Black Sea
2754:, on the
2594:Kingisepp
2443:guberniya
2424:guberniya
2339:Education
2139:Semiramis
1786:Kamchatka
1550:Derzhavin
1502:suzerains
1369:Nikolayev
1223:Lithuania
1151:Byzantine
1081:known as
1022:Schleswig
982:Peter III
919:Elizabeth
914:Elizabeth
828:Elizabeth
816:pleuritis
793:pneumonia
773:Elizabeth
758:Elizabeth
744:and King
682:, became
674:cousins,
607:classical
572:Nikolayev
533:Azov Seas
451:Peter III
409:Signature
299:romanized
277:âčSee Tfdâș
111:Successor
105:Peter III
9671:Category
9616:Franklin
9583:Playfair
9553:Ferguson
9510:Scotland
9457:MrazoviÄ
9411:Kantemir
9406:Fonvizin
9345:Portugal
9311:Krasicki
9306:Konarski
9301:KoĆĆÄ
taj
9253:Koerbagh
9202:Genovesi
9187:Beccaria
9149:Berkeley
9080:Schiller
9045:Humboldt
9019:Saussure
9014:Rousseau
8978:Voltaire
8933:Maréchal
8908:Jaucourt
8863:ChĂątelet
8858:Chamfort
8807:Reynolds
8710:Thinkers
8614:Midlands
8603:LumiĂšres
8573:Humanism
8566:Haskalah
8159:Peter II
8070:Feodor I
8027:Vasily I
7728:Archived
7610:40866712
7289:Archived
7231:(2001).
7200:(2011).
7129:Archived
7039:(1997).
6970:(1997).
6875:29 April
6869:Archived
6343:5 August
6337:Archived
6210:Archived
5832:24 March
5826:Archived
5716:Max 2006
5704:Max 2006
5592:Max 2006
5562:Archived
5525:40866712
5490:41055626
5303:Lim 2013
4779:Lim 2013
4764:Lim 2013
4752:Lim 2013
4616:5 August
4610:Archived
4606:41043307
4551:Archived
4537:(2007).
4422:11 March
4416:Archived
4336:11 March
4330:Archived
4228:Archived
3930:Archived
3899:40920953
3858:65583925
3720:Monarchy
3642:See also
3511:Russia-1
3459:Actress
3410:new-wave
3407:Yugoslav
3382:Mae West
3299:Don Juan
3165:Archives
3131:Samoilov
2991:Lifespan
2840:Novgorod
2822:Potemkin
2812:Napoleon
2572:Haskalah
2230:burghers
2214:and Sir
1961:Pugachev
1788:and the
1565:Shemakha
1409:Azov Sea
1393:Yenikale
1270:Habsburg
1233:and the
1227:Courland
1014:Holstein
877:Voltaire
781:smallpox
596:Cossacks
515:and the
499:such as
497:admirals
487:such as
485:generals
399:Lutheran
385:Religion
9626:Madison
9598:Stewart
9538:Burnett
9533:Boswell
9518:Beattie
9490:MoratĂn
9475:Cadalso
9426:Novikov
9361:Romania
9336:Wybicki
9331:Staszic
9278:Spinoza
9248:Huygens
9243:Grotius
9197:Galvani
9192:Galiani
9142:Ireland
9123:Feraios
9095:Wieland
9060:Lessing
9055:Leibniz
9028:Germany
9009:Prévost
8994:Abauzit
8958:Quesnay
8948:Morelly
8938:Meslier
8923:Leclerc
8883:Diderot
8772:Johnson
8747:Collins
8742:Bentham
8727:Addison
8720:England
8668:Science
8505:Atheism
8169:Ivan VI
8149:Peter I
8124:Peter I
8109:Michael
8047:Ivan IV
7739:at the
7718:at the
7620:(1982).
7577:(1984).
7125:4206834
7021:2495122
6960:4205333
6931:2494437
6207:excerpt
6205:(2006)
6144:p. 135.
6140:Pipes,
5618:3692580
5427:3649988
5018:7012231
4971:6367898
4962:5077001
4813:2049650
4477:11 June
4451:11 June
3696:Germany
3670:Portals
3588:in the
3402:(1968).
3376:Czarina
3350:(1934).
3326:(1867).
3249:scholar
3111:Bobriki
2964:brocade
2937:Later,
2880:in the
2834:on the
2752:Ochakov
2736:Mogilev
2732:Polotsk
2544:Judaism
2517:mosques
2504:Bashkir
2479:Jesuits
2143:Babylon
2100:Diderot
2095:style.
2024:Minerva
1690:Austria
1686:Prussia
1546:Derbent
1538:Kizlyar
1498:Georgia
1492:In the
1401:Dnieper
1397:Kinburn
1377:Kherson
1334:Balkans
1266:Bourbon
1252:in 1783
1219:Belarus
1110:usurper
1106:Peter I
1090:Romanov
1070:Ivan VI
1018:Denmark
962:boudoir
893:Tacitus
883:of the
750:Austria
643:Stettin
588:serfdom
568:Kherson
519:in the
355:Ascania
311:English
301::
290:Russian
222:
206:
202:
152:Stettin
9578:Newton
9568:Hutton
9548:Cullen
9445:Serbia
9393:Russia
9383:Èincai
9293:Poland
9233:Bekker
9207:Pagano
9169:Toland
9133:Korais
9128:Kairis
9110:Greece
9040:Herder
9035:Goethe
8999:Bonnet
8987:Geneva
8973:Turgot
8963:Raynal
8953:Pascal
8893:Gouges
8831:France
8817:Tindal
8812:Sidney
8787:Newton
8782:Milton
8757:Godwin
8752:Gibbon
8649:Reason
8491:Topics
8389:Russia
8268:Russia
8189:Paul I
8128:Ivan V
8114:Alexis
8002:Ivan I
7899:Moscow
7839:Vacant
7817:Vacant
7802:Paul I
7767:
7694:
7679:
7671:
7653:
7645:
7608:
7566:
7551:
7536:
7528:
7510:
7502:
7449:
7415:
7384:
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