3968:
129:
4040:
3932:
3430:
3420:
4004:
4028:
3942:
3980:
4016:
204:. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of
3992:
1105:" may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as
533:
913:
However, Chandrasekhar chose to move on, leaving the study of stellar structure to focus on stellar dynamics. In 1983 in recognition for his work, Chandrasekhar shared a Nobel prize "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars" with
824:
who writes that: "Chandrasekhar famously, perhaps even notoriously did his critical calculation on board ship in 1930, and ... was not aware of either Stoner's or
Anderson's work at the time. His work was therefore independent, but, more to the point, he adopted Eddington's polytropes for his models
908:
Chandra's discovery might well have transformed and accelerated developments in both physics and astrophysics in the 1930s. Instead, Eddington's heavy-handed intervention lent weighty support to the conservative community astrophysicists, who steadfastly refused even to consider the idea that stars
859:
The star has to go on radiating and radiating and contracting and contracting until, I suppose, it gets down to a few km radius, when gravity becomes strong enough to hold in the radiation, and the star can at last find peace. ... I think there should be a law of Nature to prevent a star from
954:), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a
694:
A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature. Lieb and Yau have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a
1394:, Guidebook Part 2 page 44, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013, "...Chandrasekhar limit: The maximum mass of a white dwarf star, about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. Above this mass, the gravitational pull becomes too great, and the star must collapse to a neutron star or black hole..."
160:
Normal stars fuse gravitationally compressed hydrogen into helium, generating vast amounts of heat. As the hydrogen is consumed, the stars' core compresses further allowing the helium and heavier nuclei to fuse ultimately resulting in stable iron nuclei, a process called
892:, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar. Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, including his work on his
397:
946:
accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.
279:
As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and
854:
was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by
Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied:
1755:
714:
observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey
685:
1005:). Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light. This process is believed responsible for
1136:. One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of
370:. This is the Chandrasekhar limit. The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph. They are colored blue and green, respectively.
2914:
825:
which could, therefore, be in hydrostatic equilibrium, which constant density stars cannot, and real ones must be." This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist
808:
The existence of a related limit, based on the conceptual breakthrough of combining relativity with Fermi degeneracy, was first established in separate papers published by
120:. The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction.
528:{\displaystyle M_{\text{limit}}={\frac {\omega _{3}^{0}{\sqrt {3\pi }}}{2}}\left({\frac {\hbar c}{G}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {1}{(\mu _{\text{e}}m_{\text{H}})^{2}}}}
805:, and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above. Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture.
1067:
therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity. This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy.
820:
wrote a biography of
Chandrasekhar. Michael Nauenberg claims that Stoner established the mass limit first. The priority dispute has also been discussed at length by
3841:
3405:
1706:
1152:
Stars sufficiently massive to pass the
Chandrasekhar limit provided by electron degeneracy pressure do not become white dwarf stars. Instead they explode as
3002:
Hachisu, Izumi; Kato, M.; et al. (2012). "A single degenerate progenitor model for type Ia supernovae highly exceeding the
Chandrasekhar mass limit".
1097:
and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf that had grown to twice the mass of the
1031:, leading to a steadily increasing mass. As the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of
816:
for a uniform density star in 1929. Eric G. Blackman wrote that the roles of Stoner and
Anderson in the discovery of mass limits were overlooked when
942:, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when
2245:
1662:
639:
3395:
750:
for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the massâradius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately
2884:
2515:
Koester, D.; Reimers, D. (1996). "White dwarfs in open clusters. VIII. NGC 2516: a test for the mass-radius and initial-final mass relations".
893:
2036:
2906:
2101:
180:
The
Chandrasekhar limit is a consequence of competition between gravity and electron degeneracy pressure. Electron degeneracy pressure is a
1137:
1129:
1125:
1121:
829:, who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass.
793:
A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to
England in 1930, where the Indian physicist
196:, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a
2752:
3681:
1196:
1157:
727:
in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres.
1132:. The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4â2.8
1186:
688:
169:, remaining that way throughout the rest of the history of the universe absent external forces. Stars above the limit can become
3466:
2563:
2545:
276:â and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass.
3080:, sciencebits.com. Discusses how to find mass-radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments.
3905:
3105:
1290:
1249:
1265:
Bethe, Hans A.; Brown, Gerald (2003). "How A Supernova
Explodes". In Bethe, Hans A.; Brown, Gerald; Lee, Chang-Hwan (eds.).
1580:
1306:
Mazzali, P. A.; Röpke, F. K.; Benetti, S.; Hillebrandt, W. (2007). "A Common
Explosion Mechanism for Type Ia Supernovae".
1191:
838:
2580:
Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How Massive Single Stars End Their Life".
3915:
379:
has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses.
2936:
Howell, D. Andrew (2006). "The type Ia supernova SNLS-03D3bb from a super-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarf star".
2234:
3967:
1600:
Timmes, F. X.; Woosley, S. E.; Weaver, Thomas A. (1996). "The Neutron Star and Black Hole Initial Mass Function".
864:
Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law
3864:
3400:
3143:
797:
worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas. In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the
3945:
1947:
Frenkel, J. (1928). "Anwendung der Pauli-Fermischen Elektronengastheorie auf das Problem der KohÀsionskrÀfte".
776:
equation of state, which he published in 1932. These equations of state were also previously published by the
3890:
3869:
3302:
3174:
1991:
Yakovlev, D. G. (1994). "The article by Ya I Frenkel' on 'binding forces' and the theory of white dwarfs".
109:
2242:
2138:, ed. and with an introduction by D. ter Haar, New York: Gordon and Breach, 1965; originally published in
1724:
3859:
3702:
3367:
3362:
1161:
731:
applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately
3810:
1701:
3958:
3656:
3459:
3057:
794:
716:
98:
165:. The next step depends upon the mass of the star. Stars below the Chandrasekhar limit become stable
4075:
3874:
3388:
3292:
3098:
284:
must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form
197:
185:
2880:
3671:
3641:
3530:
3489:
2033:
1274:
321:
For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations
3588:
3319:
2472:
Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A.; Weaver, T. A. (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars".
2120:
1082:
1006:
970:
stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.) During the collapse,
611:
543:
153:
71:
696:
4070:
3935:
3520:
1032:
561:
105:
843:
Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British
4065:
4060:
3910:
3566:
3452:
3433:
3352:
3196:
2094:
Michael Nauenberg, "Edmund C. Stoner and the Discovery of the Maximum Mass of White Dwarfs,"
1168:; but if the total mass is above the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkhoff limit, the result will be a
1094:
915:
813:
724:
2799:
2528:
1266:
117:
3788:
3776:
3583:
3423:
3208:
3091:
3021:
2955:
2844:
2795:
2705:
2652:
2599:
2524:
2481:
2403:
2342:
2301:
2271:
2194:
2164:
2062:
2000:
1956:
1919:
1853:
1789:
1739:
1671:
1619:
1548:
1502:
1325:
1278:
1141:
991:
798:
2747:
2443:
8:
4032:
3761:
3739:
3515:
3232:
2543:
An Empirical Initial-Final Mass Relation from Hot, Massive White Dwarfs in NGC 2168 (M35)
1367:
1267:
1064:
790:. Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community.
3025:
2959:
2848:
2709:
2656:
2633:
Schaffner-Bielich, JĂŒrgen (2005). "Strange quark matter in stars: a general overview]".
2603:
2485:
2407:
2346:
2335:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
2305:
2275:
2198:
2168:
2066:
2004:
1960:
1923:
1857:
1793:
1743:
1675:
1623:
1552:
1506:
1329:
1282:
1215:
256:
is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a
4020:
4008:
3805:
3783:
3631:
3573:
3307:
3203:
3037:
3011:
2979:
2945:
2811:
2785:
2776:
Hillebrandt, Wolfgang; Niemeyer, Jens C. (2000). "Type IA Supernova Explosion Models".
2729:
2695:
2668:
2642:
2615:
2589:
2497:
2360:
2016:
1972:
1869:
1635:
1609:
1468:
1349:
1315:
1060:
1047:
281:
3065:
3895:
3734:
3661:
3336:
3169:
3138:
3071:
3041:
3033:
2971:
2862:
2721:
2672:
2664:
2230:
2227:
Empire of the Stars: Obsession, Friendship, and Betrayal in the Quest for Black Holes
2020:
1976:
1873:
1472:
1430:
1341:
1286:
1269:
Formation And Evolution of Black Holes in the Galaxy: Selected Papers with Commentary
1245:
1113:
1040:
1012:
939:
802:
787:
747:
387:
386:
composition of the mass. Chandrasekhar gives the following expression, based on the
361:. When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at
212:
181:
162:
2815:
2733:
2619:
2542:
2501:
2095:
2080:
2012:
1639:
1353:
3984:
3707:
3609:
3383:
3029:
2983:
2963:
2852:
2835:
2807:
2803:
2713:
2660:
2607:
2489:
2411:
2350:
2309:
2202:
2008:
1964:
1927:
1861:
1826:
1797:
1747:
1679:
1627:
1556:
1510:
1460:
1420:
1333:
1181:
1106:
983:
935:
901:
847:
821:
809:
728:
575:
205:
166:
26:
3077:
3626:
3616:
3578:
3237:
2756:
2567:
2549:
2249:
2105:
2040:
1710:
1584:
1233:
740:
711:
2380:, Sir Arthur Eddington, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936, chapter 13.
1575:
1050:
of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity,
4044:
3972:
3646:
3636:
3287:
2493:
1036:
931:
927:
889:
844:
552:
383:
3676:
2416:
2391:
2207:
2182:
1844:
Anderson, Wilhelm (1929). "Uber die Grenzdichte der Materie und der Energie".
1830:
1464:
1425:
1408:
1368:"Chandrasekhar limit | White Dwarf, Neutron Star & Supernova | Britannica"
1046:
A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the
4054:
3836:
3831:
3800:
3561:
3546:
3326:
3270:
3242:
3148:
2686:
Lattimer, James M.; Prakash, Madappa (2004). "The Physics of Neutron Stars".
1932:
1907:
1802:
1777:
1684:
1657:
1561:
1536:
1434:
1237:
1116:
have been observed that are very bright, and thought to have originated from
817:
783:
201:
113:
2717:
2314:
2289:
1337:
909:
might collapse to nothing. As a result, Chandra's work was almost forgotten.
896:. The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of
128:
80:. The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about 1.4
3996:
3712:
3686:
3556:
3551:
3475:
3357:
3331:
3314:
3265:
3215:
3181:
3133:
2975:
2725:
2433:, Sir A. S. Eddington, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946, §43â45.
2355:
2330:
1345:
1320:
1165:
1015:
derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a
955:
777:
244:
211:
In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an
170:
2866:
2053:
Chandrasekhar, S. (1934). "Stellar Configurations with degenerate Cores".
3771:
3756:
3722:
3651:
3297:
3225:
3164:
3114:
2950:
2790:
2700:
2647:
2594:
2560:
1614:
1117:
1086:
1016:
994:
of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy on the order of
967:
633:
74:
2967:
1725:"A rigorous examination of the Chandrasekhar theory of stellar collapse"
926:
The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the
3900:
3815:
3795:
3766:
3717:
3666:
3277:
3220:
2034:
Chandrasekhar's biographical memoir at the National Academy of Sciences
1968:
1865:
1817:
Stoner, Edmund C. (1929). "The Limiting Density of White Dwarf Stars".
1169:
1153:
1133:
1112:
Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, several more
1090:
1028:
1002:
963:
959:
951:
885:
851:
826:
174:
81:
4039:
2155:"Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, Friday, 1935 January 11".
1537:"The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass (second paper)"
1244:(1st pbk. corrected ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
950:
If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8
3746:
3729:
3282:
2364:
2079:
Eric G. Blackman, "Giants of physics found white-dwarf mass limits",
1102:
1076:
780:
720:
708:
578:
per electron, which depends upon the chemical composition of the star
391:
257:
138:
3062:, Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983.
2857:
2830:
1713:, Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983.
1164:
contributes to the balance against gravity and the result will be a
3751:
3510:
3191:
2611:
1751:
1631:
1515:
1490:
987:
975:
769:
590:
236:
189:
3016:
3604:
1035:
heating, its temperature also increases. This eventually ignites
971:
773:
744:
193:
2907:"Champagne supernova challenges ideas about how supernovae work"
2331:"The Pressure of a Degenerate Electron Gas and Related Problems"
2119:
Virginia Trimble, "Chandrasekhar and the history of astronomy",
1144:
smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely.
3494:
3444:
3186:
2262:"The International Astronomical Union meeting in Paris, 1935".
1024:
1020:
979:
3083:
2229:, Arthur I. Miller, Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005,
1451:
Chandrasekhar, S. (1931). "The Density of White Dwarf Stars".
1305:
300:. This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass,
62:
1120:
whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include
997:
680:{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{\text{Pl}}^{3}}{m_{\text{H}}^{2}}}}
32:
1887:
Stoner, Edmund C. (1930). "The Equilibrium of Dense Stars".
786:
in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of
3260:
1219:
943:
77:
56:
47:
35:
3991:
1390:
Sean Carroll, Ph.D., Caltech, 2007, The Teaching Company,
1101:
before exploding. They believe that the star, dubbed the "
53:
1409:"Mechanisms, Models and Laws in Understanding Supernovae"
1098:
3842:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
3406:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
3078:
Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition
2579:
1658:"The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass"
1392:
Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe
2541:
Kurtis A. Williams, M. Bolte, and Detlev Koester 2004
1070:
382:
Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the
3956:
1216:"Great Indians: Professor Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar"
642:
400:
59:
38:
29:
1043:, which disrupts the star and causes the supernova.
687:
The limiting mass can be obtained formally from the
44:
41:
2775:
1908:"The minimum pressure of a degenerate electron gas"
1599:
1147:
50:
2635:Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics
2471:
1577:Standards for Astronomical Catalogues, Version 2.0
1027:white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion
904:'s biography of Chandrasekhar. In Miller's view:
832:
679:
527:
137: Using the general pressure law for an ideal
2632:
2396:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2294:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2187:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1912:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1782:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1663:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1541:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1093:away. According to a group of astronomers at the
610:is a constant connected with the solution to the
4052:
132:Radiusâmass relations for a model white dwarf.
2685:
1697:
1695:
2822:
2514:
2115:
2113:
1587:, section 3.2.2, web page, accessed 12-I-2007.
1085:observed a type Ia supernova, designated
691:by taking the limit of large central density.
3460:
3099:
3067:White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit
3059:On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability
2771:
2769:
2052:
1703:On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability
1655:
1534:
1488:
1450:
1232:
723:model was then used by the British physicist
2746:Schneider, Stephen E.; and Arny, Thomas T.;
1692:
1402:
1400:
1273:. River Edge, NJ: World Scientific. p.
850:. Eddington was aware that the existence of
801:together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas
3001:
2778:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
2110:
1651:
1649:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1089:, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion
3467:
3453:
3419:
3106:
3092:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2766:
2378:Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons
1723:Lieb, Elliott H.; Yau, Horng-Tzer (1987).
1484:
1482:
1446:
1444:
1264:
3015:
2949:
2881:"The weirdest type Ia supernova yet"
2856:
2789:
2699:
2646:
2593:
2415:
2389:
2354:
2328:
2313:
2287:
2206:
2180:
1931:
1801:
1683:
1613:
1595:
1593:
1560:
1514:
1424:
1413:Journal for General Philosophy of Science
1397:
1384:
1319:
16:Maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star
1990:
1843:
1646:
1523:
1491:"The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs"
938:into heavier ones. At various stages of
127:
2990:
2749:Readings: Unit 66: End of a star's life
2467:
2465:
2463:
1946:
1722:
1479:
1441:
880:universally applicable, even for large
4053:
2935:
2828:
2679:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2027:
1905:
1886:
1816:
1775:
1590:
1406:
146: Non-relativistic ideal Fermi gas
3448:
3087:
2535:
2508:
116:stars, which resist collapse through
3941:
2460:
2097:Journal for the History of Astronomy
1569:
1187:Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation
689:Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation
2829:Branch, David (21 September 2006).
2573:
2392:"The physics of white dwarf matter"
2290:"Note on "Relativistic Degeneracy""
2215:
1071:Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovas
1039:reactions, leading to an immediate
13:
3051:
1242:Three Hundred Years of Gravitation
1007:supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II
14:
4087:
3070:, Masters' thesis, Dave Gentile,
2444:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983"
1156:. If the final mass is below the
768:). Stoner went on to derive the
4038:
4026:
4014:
4002:
3990:
3978:
3966:
3940:
3931:
3930:
3682:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
3474:
3429:
3428:
3418:
2917:from the original on 1 July 2017
2887:from the original on 6 July 2017
2831:"Astronomy: Champagne supernova"
2136:Collected Papers of L. D. Landau
2043:, web page, accessed 12-01-2007.
1197:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
1158:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
1148:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
25:
3865:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
3401:White dwarf luminosity function
3113:
2929:
2899:
2873:
2740:
2626:
2436:
2424:
2383:
2371:
2322:
2281:
2255:
2174:
2148:
2128:
2088:
2073:
2046:
2013:10.1070/pu1994v037n06abeh000031
1984:
1940:
1899:
1880:
1837:
1810:
1769:
1758:from the original on 2022-01-25
1716:
1059:is approximately â19.3, with a
921:
839:ChandrasekharâEddington dispute
833:ChandrasekharâEddington dispute
636:, the limit is of the order of
2808:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.191
2183:"On "Relativistic Degeneracy""
1360:
1299:
1258:
1226:
1218:. 26 January 2014 – via
1208:
992:gravitational potential energy
739:. In 1930, Stoner derived the
513:
489:
1:
3891:X-ray pulsar-based navigation
3870:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
2099:, Vol. 39, p. 297-312, (2008)
1202:
1192:SchönbergâChandrasekhar limit
986:, leading to the emission of
974:are formed by the capture of
97:). The limit was named after
860:behaving in this absurd way!
110:electron degeneracy pressure
7:
3860:Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer
3703:Gamma-ray burst progenitors
3368:Quasi-periodic oscillations
3144:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
2134:On the Theory of Stars, in
1175:
1162:neutron degeneracy pressure
695:relativistic many-particle
70:) is the maximum mass of a
10:
4092:
3916:Most massive neutron stars
3657:Quasi-periodic oscillation
3363:Electron-degenerate matter
3034:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/69
2665:10.1088/0954-3899/31/6/004
2517:Astronomy and Astrophysics
2494:10.1103/revmodphys.74.1015
2329:Eddington, Arthur (1935).
2122:Fluid Flows to Black Holes
1656:Chandrasekhar, S. (1931).
1535:Chandrasekhar, S. (1935).
1489:Chandrasekhar, S. (1931).
1074:
966:. (For very massive, low-
836:
795:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
702:
208:, relieving the pressure.
123:
99:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
3926:
3883:
3875:Chandra X-ray Observatory
3850:
3824:
3695:
3597:
3539:
3503:
3482:
3414:
3376:
3345:
3293:Cataclysmic variable star
3251:
3157:
3121:
3004:The Astrophysical Journal
2474:Reviews of Modern Physics
2390:Eddington, A. S. (1940).
2288:Eddington, A. S. (1935).
2243:The battle of black holes
2181:Eddington, A. S. (1935).
1831:10.1080/14786440108564713
1465:10.1080/14786443109461710
1426:10.1007/s10838-018-9435-y
186:Pauli exclusion principle
3642:Neutron-star oscillation
3531:Rotating radio transient
2761:Birth and Death of Stars
1407:Illari, Phyllis (2019).
1081:In April 2003, the
1063:of no more than 0.3. A
184:effect arising from the
3320:Super soft X-ray source
2800:2000ARA&A..38..191H
2718:10.1126/science.1090720
2529:1996A&A...313..810K
2417:10.1093/mnras/100.8.582
2208:10.1093/mnras/95.3.194a
1338:10.1126/science.1136259
1114:type Ia supernovae
1083:Supernova Legacy Survey
1019:. This fate may befall
962:, or, speculatively, a
544:reduced Planck constant
154:Ultrarelativistic limit
3896:Tempo software program
2883:(Press release). LBL.
2763:, University of Oregon
2561:arXiv astro-ph/0409447
2356:10.1098/rspa.1935.0190
1949:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
1933:10.1093/mnras/92.7.651
1906:Stoner, E. C. (1932).
1889:Philosophical Magazine
1846:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
1819:Philosophical Magazine
1803:10.1093/mnras/87.2.114
1776:Fowler, R. H. (1926).
1685:10.1093/mnras/91.5.456
1562:10.1093/mnras/95.3.207
1453:Philosophical Magazine
911:
862:
717:FermiâDirac statistics
681:
562:gravitational constant
529:
157:
106:gravitational collapse
3911:List of neutron stars
3906:The Magnificent Seven
2582:Astrophysical Journal
2554:Astrophysical Journal
2315:10.1093/mnras/96.1.20
1732:Astrophysical Journal
1602:Astrophysical Journal
1495:Astrophysical Journal
1095:University of Toronto
916:William Alfred Fowler
906:
857:
725:Edmund Clifton Stoner
707:In 1926, the British
682:
530:
131:
3811:ThorneâĆ»ytkow object
799:hydrostatic equation
697:Schrödinger equation
640:
398:
309:, depending only on
104:White dwarfs resist
3762:Neutron star merger
3622:Chandrasekhar limit
3589:HulseâTaylor pulsar
3516:Soft gamma repeater
3233:Extreme helium star
3129:Chandrasekhar limit
3026:2012ApJ...744...69H
2968:10.1038/nature05103
2960:2006Natur.443..308H
2849:2006Natur.443..283B
2710:2004Sci...304..536L
2657:2005JPhG...31S.651S
2604:2003ApJ...591..288H
2486:2002RvMP...74.1015W
2408:1940MNRAS.100..582E
2347:1935RSPSA.152..253E
2306:1935MNRAS..96...20E
2276:1935Obs....58..257.
2199:1935MNRAS..95..194E
2169:1935Obs....58...33.
2067:1934Obs....57..373C
2005:1994PhyU...37..609Y
1961:1928ZPhy...50..234F
1924:1932MNRAS..92..651S
1858:1929ZPhy...56..851A
1794:1926MNRAS..87..114F
1744:1987ApJ...323..140L
1676:1931MNRAS..91..456C
1624:1996ApJ...457..834T
1553:1935MNRAS..95..207C
1507:1931ApJ....74...81C
1330:2007Sci...315..825M
1283:2003febh.book.....B
1103:Champagne Supernova
1077:Champagne Supernova
1048:absolute magnitudes
898:Empire of the Stars
674:
659:
612:LaneâEmden equation
589:is the mass of the
431:
21:Chandrasekhar limit
3806:Pulsar wind nebula
3784:Stellar black hole
3308:Intermediate polar
3204:Stellar black hole
2755:2020-02-14 at the
2566:2007-08-19 at the
2548:2007-08-19 at the
2431:Fundamental Theory
2270:: 257â265 . 1935.
2248:2006-10-11 at the
2124:, pp. 49-50 (2011)
2104:2022-01-25 at the
2039:1999-10-08 at the
1969:10.1007/BF01328867
1866:10.1007/BF01340146
1852:(11â12): 851â856.
1709:2010-12-15 at the
1583:2017-05-08 at the
1372:www.britannica.com
1321:astro-ph/0702351v1
1061:standard deviation
1013:Type Ia supernovae
990:. The decrease in
982:in the process of
894:fundamental theory
677:
660:
645:
525:
417:
282:special relativity
182:quantum-mechanical
158:
108:primarily through
3954:
3953:
3735:Supernova remnant
3525:Ultra-long period
3442:
3441:
3337:Carbon detonation
3170:Type Ia supernova
3139:Stellar evolution
3072:DePaul University
2944:(7109): 308â311.
2913:(Press release).
2843:(7109): 283â284.
2759:, Astronomy 122:
2694:(5670): 536â542.
1778:"On Dense Matter"
1314:(5813): 825â828.
1292:978-981-238-250-4
1251:978-0-521-37976-2
1041:carbon detonation
940:stellar evolution
803:equation of state
788:degenerate matter
748:equation of state
675:
667:
652:
523:
509:
499:
480:
466:
446:
440:
408:
388:equation of state
213:equation of state
167:white dwarf stars
163:stellar evolution
4083:
4076:Stellar dynamics
4043:
4042:
4031:
4030:
4029:
4019:
4018:
4017:
4007:
4006:
4005:
3995:
3994:
3983:
3982:
3981:
3971:
3970:
3962:
3944:
3943:
3934:
3933:
3708:Asteroseismology
3610:Fast radio burst
3469:
3462:
3455:
3446:
3445:
3432:
3431:
3422:
3421:
3384:Planetary nebula
3108:
3101:
3094:
3085:
3084:
3046:
3045:
3019:
2999:
2988:
2987:
2953:
2951:astro-ph/0609616
2933:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2860:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2793:
2791:astro-ph/0006305
2773:
2764:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2703:
2701:astro-ph/0405262
2683:
2677:
2676:
2650:
2648:astro-ph/0412215
2641:(6): S651âS657.
2630:
2624:
2623:
2597:
2595:astro-ph/0212469
2577:
2571:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2480:(4): 1015â1071.
2469:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2358:
2341:(876): 253â272.
2326:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2259:
2253:
2224:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2152:
2146:
2140:Phys. Z. Sowjet.
2132:
2126:
2117:
2108:
2092:
2086:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2050:
2044:
2031:
2025:
2024:
1988:
1982:
1980:
1955:(3â4): 234â248.
1944:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1729:
1720:
1714:
1699:
1690:
1689:
1687:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1617:
1615:astro-ph/9510136
1597:
1588:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1532:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1486:
1477:
1476:
1448:
1439:
1438:
1428:
1404:
1395:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1323:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1272:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1212:
1182:Bekenstein bound
1140:showed it had a
1107:standard candles
1065:1-sigma interval
1058:
1000:
984:electron capture
902:Arthur I. Miller
883:
879:
848:Arthur Eddington
822:Virginia Trimble
810:Wilhelm Anderson
767:
757:
755:
738:
736:
729:Wilhelm Anderson
686:
684:
683:
678:
676:
673:
668:
665:
658:
653:
650:
644:
631:
630:
629:
609:
607:
606:
588:
576:molecular weight
573:
559:
550:
541:
534:
532:
531:
526:
524:
522:
521:
520:
511:
510:
507:
501:
500:
497:
484:
482:
481:
473:
471:
467:
462:
454:
447:
442:
441:
433:
430:
425:
415:
410:
409:
406:
378:
369:
360:
356:
340:
336:
317:
308:
299:
275:
273:
272:
269:
266:
255:
242:
234:
230:
206:electron capture
151:
145:
136:
118:thermal pressure
96:
94:
69:
68:
65:
64:
61:
58:
55:
52:
49:
46:
43:
40:
37:
34:
31:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4080:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4037:
4027:
4025:
4015:
4013:
4003:
4001:
3989:
3979:
3977:
3965:
3957:
3955:
3950:
3922:
3879:
3852:
3846:
3820:
3691:
3627:Gamma-ray burst
3617:Bondi accretion
3593:
3535:
3521:Anomalous X-ray
3499:
3478:
3473:
3443:
3438:
3410:
3372:
3341:
3253:
3247:
3238:Subdwarf B star
3153:
3117:
3112:
3054:
3052:Further reading
3049:
3000:
2991:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2918:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2890:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2858:10.1038/443283a
2827:
2823:
2774:
2767:
2757:Wayback Machine
2745:
2741:
2684:
2680:
2631:
2627:
2578:
2574:
2568:Wayback Machine
2550:Wayback Machine
2540:
2536:
2513:
2509:
2470:
2461:
2452:
2450:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2388:
2384:
2376:
2372:
2327:
2323:
2286:
2282:
2264:The Observatory
2261:
2260:
2256:
2250:Wayback Machine
2225:
2216:
2179:
2175:
2163:: 33â41. 1935.
2157:The Observatory
2154:
2153:
2149:
2133:
2129:
2118:
2111:
2106:Wayback Machine
2093:
2089:
2084:440, 148 (2006)
2078:
2074:
2055:The Observatory
2051:
2047:
2041:Wayback Machine
2032:
2028:
1993:Physics-Uspekhi
1989:
1985:
1945:
1941:
1904:
1900:
1885:
1881:
1842:
1838:
1815:
1811:
1774:
1770:
1761:
1759:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1711:Wayback Machine
1700:
1693:
1654:
1647:
1598:
1591:
1585:Wayback Machine
1574:
1570:
1533:
1524:
1487:
1480:
1459:(70): 592â596.
1449:
1442:
1405:
1398:
1389:
1385:
1376:
1374:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1240:, eds. (1989).
1231:
1227:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1178:
1150:
1079:
1073:
1057:
1051:
995:
924:
881:
875:
865:
841:
835:
765:
759:
753:
751:
741:internal energy
734:
732:
712:Ralph H. Fowler
705:
669:
664:
654:
649:
643:
641:
638:
637:
621:
619:
618:
605:
602:
601:
600:
596:
587:
581:
574:is the average
572:
566:
557:
548:
539:
516:
512:
506:
502:
496:
492:
488:
483:
472:
455:
453:
449:
448:
432:
426:
421:
416:
414:
405:
401:
399:
396:
395:
377:
371:
368:
362:
358:
352:
342:
338:
332:
322:
316:
310:
307:
301:
295:
285:
270:
267:
264:
263:
261:
254:
248:
240:
232:
226:
216:
156:
149:
147:
143:
141:
134:
126:
92:
90:
87:
84:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4089:
4079:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4048:
4047:
4035:
4023:
4011:
3999:
3987:
3975:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3938:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3856:
3854:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3781:
3780:
3779:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3710:
3705:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3637:Neutron matter
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3549:
3543:
3541:
3540:Binary pulsars
3537:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3518:
3507:
3505:
3504:Single pulsars
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3479:
3472:
3471:
3464:
3457:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3426:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3290:
3288:Symbiotic nova
3285:
3280:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3257:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3167:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3111:
3110:
3103:
3096:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3075:
3063:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3047:
2989:
2928:
2911:spacedaily.com
2898:
2872:
2821:
2765:
2739:
2678:
2625:
2612:10.1086/375341
2588:(1): 288â300.
2572:
2559:, pp. L49âL52
2534:
2507:
2459:
2448:NobelPrize.org
2435:
2423:
2402:(8): 582â594.
2382:
2370:
2321:
2280:
2254:
2237:; reviewed at
2214:
2193:(3): 194â206.
2173:
2147:
2127:
2109:
2087:
2072:
2045:
2026:
1999:(6): 609â612.
1983:
1939:
1918:(7): 651â661.
1898:
1879:
1836:
1809:
1788:(2): 114â122.
1768:
1752:10.1086/165813
1715:
1691:
1670:(5): 456â466.
1645:
1632:10.1086/176778
1589:
1568:
1547:(3): 207â225.
1522:
1516:10.1086/143324
1478:
1440:
1396:
1383:
1359:
1298:
1291:
1257:
1250:
1234:Hawking, S. W.
1225:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1174:
1149:
1146:
1075:Main article:
1072:
1069:
1055:
1037:nuclear fusion
923:
920:
890:Wolfgang Pauli
873:
845:astrophysicist
837:Main article:
834:
831:
763:
704:
701:
672:
663:
657:
648:
615:
614:
603:
594:
585:
579:
570:
564:
555:
553:speed of light
546:
519:
515:
505:
495:
491:
487:
479:
476:
470:
465:
461:
458:
452:
445:
439:
436:
429:
424:
420:
413:
404:
375:
366:
350:
330:
314:
305:
293:
252:
224:
148:
142:
133:
125:
122:
112:, compared to
85:
82:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4088:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4071:Neutron stars
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4034:
4024:
4022:
4012:
4010:
4000:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3986:
3976:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3947:
3939:
3937:
3929:
3928:
3925:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3882:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3853:investigation
3849:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3837:Centaurus X-3
3835:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3823:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3801:Pulsar planet
3799:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3789:Related links
3787:
3786:
3785:
3782:
3778:
3777:Related links
3775:
3774:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3741:
3740:Related links
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3728:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
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3648:
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3643:
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3603:
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3596:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3562:X-ray burster
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3529:
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3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
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3382:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3344:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3327:Binary pulsar
3325:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3243:Helium planet
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3209:Related links
3207:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3197:Related links
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3149:Mira variable
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3104:
3102:
3097:
3095:
3090:
3089:
3086:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3044:. Article 69.
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2952:
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2916:
2912:
2908:
2902:
2886:
2882:
2876:
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2864:
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2846:
2842:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2825:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2743:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2682:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2538:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2503:
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2479:
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2468:
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2439:
2432:
2427:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
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2379:
2374:
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2352:
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2336:
2332:
2325:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2235:0-618-34151-X
2232:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2076:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1825:(41): 63â70.
1824:
1820:
1813:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1757:
1753:
1749:
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1741:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1719:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1704:
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1696:
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1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
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1659:
1652:
1650:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1594:
1586:
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1579:
1578:
1572:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
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1542:
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1529:
1527:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
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1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1445:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1401:
1393:
1387:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1261:
1253:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1033:compressional
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1008:
1004:
999:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
948:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
919:
917:
910:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
878:
872:
868:
861:
856:
853:
849:
846:
840:
830:
828:
823:
819:
818:Freeman Dyson
815:
811:
806:
804:
800:
796:
791:
789:
785:
784:Yakov Frenkel
782:
779:
775:
771:
762:
749:
746:
742:
730:
726:
722:
718:
713:
710:
700:
698:
692:
690:
670:
661:
655:
646:
635:
628:
624:
613:
599:
595:
592:
584:
580:
577:
569:
565:
563:
556:
554:
547:
545:
538:
537:
536:
517:
503:
493:
485:
477:
474:
468:
463:
459:
456:
450:
443:
437:
434:
427:
422:
418:
411:
402:
393:
390:for an ideal
389:
385:
380:
374:
365:
355:
349:
345:
335:
329:
325:
319:
313:
304:
298:
292:
288:
283:
277:
259:
251:
246:
238:
229:
223:
219:
214:
209:
207:
203:
202:energy levels
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
171:neutron stars
168:
164:
155:
140:
130:
121:
119:
115:
114:main sequence
111:
107:
102:
100:
88:
79:
76:
73:
67:
22:
4066:White dwarfs
4061:Astrophysics
4033:Solar System
3713:Compact star
3687:Urca process
3677:Timing noise
3662:Relativistic
3621:
3557:X-ray binary
3552:X-ray pulsar
3476:Neutron star
3358:Urca process
3332:Helium flash
3315:X-ray binary
3216:Compact star
3182:Neutron star
3134:PG 1159 star
3128:
3066:
3058:
3010:(1): 76â79.
3007:
3003:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2919:. Retrieved
2910:
2901:
2889:. Retrieved
2875:
2840:
2834:
2824:
2781:
2777:
2760:
2748:
2742:
2691:
2687:
2681:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2585:
2581:
2575:
2556:
2553:
2537:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2477:
2473:
2451:. Retrieved
2447:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2377:
2373:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2297:
2293:
2283:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2239:The Guardian
2238:
2226:
2190:
2186:
2176:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2145:(1932), 285.
2142:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2121:
2096:
2090:
2081:
2075:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2029:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1915:
1911:
1901:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1822:
1818:
1812:
1785:
1781:
1771:
1760:. Retrieved
1735:
1731:
1718:
1702:
1667:
1661:
1605:
1601:
1576:
1571:
1544:
1540:
1498:
1494:
1456:
1452:
1419:(1): 63â84.
1416:
1412:
1391:
1386:
1375:. Retrieved
1371:
1362:
1311:
1307:
1301:
1268:
1260:
1241:
1228:
1210:
1166:neutron star
1151:
1142:polarization
1134:solar masses
1118:white dwarfs
1111:
1080:
1052:
1045:
1011:
956:neutron star
952:solar masses
949:
925:
922:Applications
912:
907:
897:
884:. Although
876:
870:
866:
863:
858:
842:
814:E. C. Stoner
807:
792:
760:
706:
693:
626:
622:
616:
597:
582:
567:
381:
372:
363:
353:
347:
343:
333:
327:
323:
320:
311:
302:
296:
290:
286:
278:
249:
245:mass density
227:
221:
217:
215:of the form
210:
179:
159:
103:
20:
18:
4021:Outer space
4009:Spaceflight
3772:White dwarf
3757:Microquasar
3723:Exotic star
3652:Pulsar kick
3574:Millisecond
3490:Radio-quiet
3298:AM CVn star
3226:Exotic star
3165:Black dwarf
3115:White dwarf
2784:: 191â230.
2523:: 810â814.
2061:: 373â377.
1738:: 140â144.
1608:: 834â843.
1091:light years
1087:SNLS-03D3bb
1017:white dwarf
968:metallicity
934:of lighter
852:black holes
634:Planck mass
175:black holes
75:white dwarf
4055:Categories
3901:Astropulse
3816:QCD matter
3796:Radio star
3767:Quark-nova
3718:Quark star
3667:Rp-process
3598:Properties
3346:Properties
3278:Dwarf nova
3221:Quark star
3175:Candidates
2921:13 January
2891:13 January
2453:2023-10-03
1895:: 944â963.
1762:2019-09-04
1377:2024-07-13
1238:Israel, W.
1203:References
1170:black hole
1154:supernovae
1029:giant star
1001:(100
964:quark star
960:black hole
888:, Fowler,
886:Niels Bohr
827:Lev Landau
756:10 kg
737:10 kg
608:â 2.018236
357:for large
337:for small
95:10 kg
3985:Astronomy
3851:Satellite
3825:Discovery
3747:Hypernova
3730:Supernova
3672:Starquake
3353:Pulsating
3283:Micronova
3252:In binary
3122:Formation
3042:119264873
3017:1106.3510
2673:118886040
2300:: 20â21.
2021:122454024
1977:120252049
1874:122576829
1501:: 81â82.
1473:119906976
1435:0925-4560
1138:SN 2009dc
1130:SN 2009dc
1126:SN 2007if
1122:SN 2006gz
988:neutrinos
976:electrons
781:physicist
721:Fermi gas
709:physicist
494:μ
457:ℏ
438:π
419:ω
392:Fermi gas
260:of index
258:polytrope
190:electrons
139:Fermi gas
3936:Category
3752:Kilonova
3579:Be/X-ray
3511:Magnetar
3434:Category
3192:Magnetar
2976:16988705
2915:Archived
2885:Archived
2816:10210550
2753:Archived
2734:10769030
2726:15105490
2620:59065632
2564:Archived
2546:Archived
2502:55932331
2246:Archived
2102:Archived
2037:Archived
1756:Archived
1707:Archived
1640:12451588
1581:Archived
1354:16408991
1346:17289993
1176:See also
996:10
972:neutrons
936:elements
770:pressure
719:. This
591:hydrogen
237:pressure
231:, where
194:fermions
188:. Since
86:☉
4045:Science
3973:Physics
3959:Portals
3946:Commons
3696:Related
3647:Optical
3605:Blitzar
3584:Spin-up
3377:Related
3266:Remnant
3254:systems
3074:, 1995.
3022:Bibcode
2984:4419069
2956:Bibcode
2867:1698869
2845:Bibcode
2796:Bibcode
2706:Bibcode
2688:Science
2653:Bibcode
2600:Bibcode
2525:Bibcode
2482:Bibcode
2404:Bibcode
2343:Bibcode
2302:Bibcode
2272:Bibcode
2195:Bibcode
2165:Bibcode
2063:Bibcode
2001:Bibcode
1957:Bibcode
1920:Bibcode
1854:Bibcode
1790:Bibcode
1740:Bibcode
1672:Bibcode
1620:Bibcode
1549:Bibcode
1503:Bibcode
1326:Bibcode
1310:(PDF).
1308:Science
1279:Bibcode
1160:, then
980:protons
774:density
745:density
703:History
632:is the
620:√
560:is the
551:is the
542:is the
535:where:
384:nuclear
274:
262:
243:is the
235:is the
124:Physics
3632:Glitch
3547:Binary
3495:Pulsar
3396:RAMBOs
3187:Pulsar
3040:
2982:
2974:
2938:Nature
2865:
2836:Nature
2814:
2732:
2724:
2671:
2618:
2500:
2363:
2233:
2082:Nature
2019:
1975:
1872:
1638:
1471:
1433:
1352:
1344:
1289:
1248:
1128:, and
1025:oxygen
1021:carbon
932:nuclei
928:fusion
778:Soviet
247:, and
152:
150:
144:
135:
72:stable
3997:Stars
3884:Other
3832:LGM-1
3483:Types
3303:Polar
3038:S2CID
3012:arXiv
2980:S2CID
2946:arXiv
2812:S2CID
2786:arXiv
2730:S2CID
2696:arXiv
2669:S2CID
2643:arXiv
2616:S2CID
2590:arXiv
2498:S2CID
2365:96515
2361:JSTOR
2017:S2CID
1973:S2CID
1870:S2CID
1728:(PDF)
1636:S2CID
1610:arXiv
1469:S2CID
1350:S2CID
1316:arXiv
766:= 2.5
758:(for
407:limit
367:limit
306:limit
91:2.765
3567:List
3424:List
3389:List
3271:List
3261:Nova
3158:Fate
2972:PMID
2923:2007
2893:2007
2863:PMID
2722:PMID
2231:ISBN
1431:ISSN
1342:PMID
1287:ISBN
1246:ISBN
1220:NDTV
1003:foes
944:iron
812:and
752:2.19
733:1.37
593:atom
341:and
198:band
192:are
78:star
19:The
3030:doi
3008:744
2964:doi
2942:443
2853:doi
2841:443
2804:doi
2714:doi
2692:304
2661:doi
2608:doi
2586:591
2557:615
2552:,
2521:313
2490:doi
2412:doi
2400:100
2351:doi
2339:152
2310:doi
2203:doi
2009:doi
1965:doi
1928:doi
1862:doi
1827:doi
1798:doi
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