107:. In its basic form, the experimenter gives the participant a word, and the participant responds with the first memory they think of associated with that word. This method has generally estimated the age of offset at about three to five but can vary. There are several objections to the cue method. One memory is recorded per cue word, so it can be difficult to know whether this memory is their earliest memory or the first memory that popped to mind. It may be a problem if participants are not asked to record the earliest memory they can recall which relates to the cue. If the experimenter asks the participant to specifically use childhood memories or the earliest memories associated with a cue, the age estimate can be two to eight years. Even with this measure, cued recall is only useful for bringing to mind memories formed several months after the introduction of that word into the participant's vocabulary. One study performed by Bauer and Larkina (2013) used cued recall by asking children and adults to state a personal memory related to the word and then state the earliest time that it occurred. The researchers found that the younger children need more prompts or cues. For children and adults, the earliest memory retrieval was around three years old.
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childhood memory means one has forgotten the event, there is a difference between availability and accessibility. The availability of a memory is its intactness and existence within memory storage, while the accessibility of a memory is dictated by the context in which one attempts to recall it. Therefore, cues may influence which memories are accessible at any given time, even though there may be many more available memories that are not accessed. Some other research suggests that people's earliest memories date back to the ages of 3 or 4 years. Usher and
Neisser reported that some events, like the birth of a sibling and a planned hospitalization, can be readily remembered if they occurred at age 2. The bits and pieces of such memories that were obtained in their research may not be indicative of genuine episodic memory. An alternative hypothesis is that these apparent memories are the result of educated guesses, general knowledge of what must have been, or external information acquired after the age of 2.
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As the hippocampus is known to be vital to memory processes, there are obvious implications for childhood amnesia. Animal research has shown that the age of high neurogenesis is in the developmental period when persistent memories are least likely to be formed. It has been proposed that hippocampal neurogenesis degrades existing memories. This may be due to increased competition between the new and existing neurons, followed by the replacement of synapses in preexisting memory circuits. This theory has been supported in mouse models in which increasing neurogenesis levels also increased forgetting. Additionally, decreasing neurogenesis after new memory formation resulted in decreased forgetting. Are 'lost' infant memories permanently erased (i.e., storage failure) or do they become progressively inaccessible with time (i.e., retrieval failure)? Consistent with a deficit in memory retrieval,
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superior nonverbal memory compared to children with less advanced language skills. If children lack language, they are unable to describe memories from infancy because they do not have the words and knowledge to explain them. Adults and children can often remember memories from around three or four years of age which is during a time of rapid language development. Before language develops, children often only hold preverbal memories and may use symbols to represent them. Therefore, once language develops, one can actively describe their memories with words. The context that one is in when they encode or retrieve memories is different for adults and infants because language is not present during infancy.
414:(sexual appetite) which develops from early childhood experiences. Freud's trauma theory, originally named "Seduction Theory" posits that childhood amnesia was the result of the mind's attempt to repress memories of traumatic events (i.e. sexual abuse by caretakers) that occurred in the psychosexual development of every child. This supposedly led to the repression of the majority of memories from the first years of life when children were supposedly obsessed with exploring their sexuality. Notably, Freud himself abandoned this theory in the late 1800s. Freudian theory, including his explanation for childhood amnesia, has been criticized for extensive use of
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Several studies have shown that simply discussing events with children, in general, could lead to more easily retrievable memories. There has also been researching that suggests the degree to which a child discusses events with adults shapes autobiographical recollection. This has implications for gender and cultural differences. Autobiographical memory begins to emerge as parents engage in memory talk with their children and encourage them to think about why a certain event happened. Memory talk allows children to develop memory systems in order to categorize generic versus unique events.
177:. Children's recall is 50% accurate for events that happened before the age of two whereas adults remember near to nothing before that age. By age two, children can retrieve memories after several weeks, indicating that these memories could become relatively enduring and could explain why some people have memories from this young. Children also show an ability to nonverbally recall events that occurred before they had the vocabulary to describe them, whereas adults do not. Findings such as these prompted research into when and why people lose these previously accessible memories.
33:(memories of situations or events) before the age of three to four years. It may also refer to the scarcity or fragmentation of memories recollected from early childhood, particularly occurring between the ages of 3 and 6. On average, this fragmented period wanes off at around 4.7 years. Around 5–6 years of age in particular is thought to be when autobiographical memory seems to stabilize and be on par with adults. The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have an effect on encoding and storing early memories.
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memory system such as the hippocampus and amygdala. Adults who were abused or traumatized in childhood form their earliest memories about 2–3 years after the general population. In addition, they demonstrate considerable problems with visual, pictorial, and facial memory storage and retrieval compared to non-traumatized individuals. This implies that trauma can disrupt the formation of early childhood memories, but does not necessarily give evidence for Freud's theory of repression.
355:. Memories from early childhood (around age three) are susceptible to false suggestion, making them less trustworthy. These should be treated with caution, especially if they have severe consequences. Imagining details of a false event can encourage the generation of false memories. Studies have shown that people who merely imagine a childhood event are more likely to believe that it happened to them compared to events they did not imagine. This term has been coined
142:. Psychologists have debated the age of adults' earliest memories. Most modern data suggests somewhere between the ages 3 and 4 on average. Some research shows that the offset of childhood amnesia (earliest age of recall) is 2 years of age for hospitalization and sibling birth and 3 years of age for death or change in houses. Thus, some memories are available from earlier in childhood than previous research has suggested.
439:, which is typically associated with the hippocampus. Research has found that later memories in childhood have more propositional and emotional content than earlier memories and are rated as more meaningful and vivid. It has been suggested that differences in the emotions experienced by infants and adults may be a cause of childhood amnesia. Whether highly emotional events can stimulate and improve reliable recall (
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amnesia. Children around the age of two to three have been found to remember things that occurred when they were only one to two years old. This discovery that three-year-olds can retrieve memories from earlier in their life implies that all necessary neurological structures are in place to recall episodic information over the short-term, but evidently not over the long-term into adulthood. The finding that all
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more early memory focus on their individual selves. Men have been found more likely than women to mention negative memories. Contrarily, studies have shown that girls are more likely to remember traumatic and transitional events, whereas boys more often remember play events. Early recollections have also been found to be more accurate in their reflections of friendliness for men and
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development than it is in adulthood, both in humans and other animals. Researchers have hypothesized that increased GABA activity in development has an effect on memory retrieval later in life. Past studies have shown that GABA aids in the forgetting of fear memories in infancy and that it may be a general mechanism for regulating infant memory retrieval.
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since sons are prized far over daughters in China, parents may have more elaborate, evaluative, and emotional reminiscent styles with boys than with girls. Among
American subjects, it has been found that Black women have later memories than Black males or White females. Black women also tend to report a low proportion of personal experience which is
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their earliest memories, and allow the participant to respond freely. There is no significant difference when people are instructed to recall their earliest memories with cued recall compared to free recall. It is thought that a major benefit of free recall is that every question gets answered which may, in turn, elicit memories from an earlier age.
342:, wherein traumatic memories are stored, intact, in the memory in order to 'protect' the subject and are able to be 'recovered' with full accompanying narrative. Since priming can occur at a younger age than episodic recall, children in abusive situations may form implicit memory connections of violence even when no true episodic recall exists.
484:, a section of the hippocampus, has been observed to primarily develop in the postnatal stages of development. It is theorized that this part of the hippocampus plays a large role in the ability to form and retrieve memories. The ability to store and recall memories gradually increases along with the postnatal development of the dentate gyrus.
146:(isolated moments without context, often remembered as images, behaviors, or emotions) from around age 3, whereas event memories are usually recalled from slightly later. This is similar to research showing the difference between personal recollections and known events. Known memories change to more personal recollections at approximately 4
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fragmented – the nonverbal components were lost. Contrary findings indicate that elementary aged children remember a greater amount of accurate details about events than they had reported at a younger age and that 6- to 9-year-old children tend to have verbally accessible memories from very early childhood. Research on
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between the development of language in children, and the earliest age at which they can obtain childhood memories (around the age 3–4). Performance on both verbal and nonverbal memory tasks shows that children with more advanced language abilities can report more during a verbal interview and exhibit
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Previously, it was assumed that neurogenesis, or the continued production of neurons, ended after development. Recent findings have shown that there are high levels of neurogenesis in the hippocampus in early childhood which taper out into adulthood, although neurogenesis continues to persist slowly.
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According to a study by West and Bauer, their research suggests that earlier memories tend to have less emotional content than later memories, and to be less personally meaningful, unique, or intense. Earlier memories also do not tend to differ greatly in perspective. Certain life events do result in
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The incomplete development of language in young children is thought to be a critical cause of childhood amnesia as infants do not yet have the language capacity necessary to encode autobiographical memories. The typical schedule of language development seems to support this theory . There appears to
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is also thought by some to have a strong effect on encoding and storing early memories. As toddlers grow, a developing sense of the self begins to emerge as they realize that they are a person with unique and defining characteristics and have individual thoughts and feelings separate from others. As
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While the
Freudian psychosexual theory is debated, there are some insights to be made into the effect of childhood emotional abuse on memory. Examining the effects of emotional trauma and childhood amnesia shows that stressful experiences do in fact disrupt memory and can damage central parts of the
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In the exhaustive recall method, participants are asked to record all the memories they can access before a specific age. This method, like free recall, relies on participants to come up with memories without cues. Exhaustive recall yields a better understanding than others on the number of memories
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Free recall refers to the specific paradigm in the psychological study of memory where participants study a list of items on a specific trial and are then prompted to recall the items in any order. Free recall, in regard to childhood amnesia, is the process by which experimenters ask individuals for
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By stimulating neurons used in 'forgotten' fear conditioning in infant mice, Guskjolen et al. found retrieval of the fear response was possible by optogenetic reactivation of the neuronal ensembles that encoded the memory drive. This retrieval lasted for up to three months, suggesting the infantile
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Various findings have shown that events such as hospitalization and the birth of a sibling are correlated with an earlier offset of childhood amnesia, which may be because they were more emotionally memorable. Other seemingly emotional memories such as the death of a family member or having to move
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and implicitly trained earlier before they can remember facts or autobiographical events. Adults can generally recall events from 3–4 years old, with those that have primarily experiential memories beginning around 4.7 years old. Adults who experienced traumatic or abusive early childhoods report a
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The research done in rat models indicates that failures in memory retrieval are to blame for infantile amnesia. In a study on rats, it was found that one single "reminder" before a test was enough to reduce forgetting in infant rats. A similar study was done on infants, showing that a behavior that
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Language allows children to organize personal past and present experiences and share these memories with others. This exchange of dialogue makes children aware of their personal past and encourages them to think about their cognitive self and how past activities have affected them in the present.
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events to create an autobiographical self. Young children do not seem to have a sense of a continuous self over time until they develop awareness for themselves as an individual human being. Some research suggests this awareness is thought to form around the age of 4 or 5, as children in this time
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While the neurological explanation does account for blanks in very young children's memories, it does not give a full explanation for childhood amnesia because it fails to account for the years after the age of four. It also fails to address the issue that children themselves do not show childhood
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Very few adults have memories from before 3.5 years old. Those who do report memories from before this age usually cannot tell the difference between personal memory of the event and simple knowledge of it, which may have come from other sources. One study found that participants were more able to
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The phenomenon of infantile amnesia is not specific to humans. This initially was researched in rat models and found that younger rats forget a conditioned avoidance response to a shock-paired compartment faster than older rats did. These findings have also been replicated in a number of different
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The social-cultural developmental perspective states that both language and culture play a role in the development of a child's autobiographical memory. An important aspect of this theory considers the difference between parents who discuss memories at length with their children in an elaborative
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This acknowledged link of the past to the present and the concept of continuous-time and therefore a continuous self is also helped by memory talk with adults. Through elaboration and repetition of events experienced, adults help children to encode memories as a part of their personal past and it
529:, a class of psychiatric medication which increase GABA expression, have been found to produce anterograde amnesia, or a failure to encode memories after taking the medication. Subjects taking benzodiazepines are found to perform worse on learning and memory tasks compared to drug-naïve subjects.
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Research into the neural substrates of infantile amnesia using animal models has found that the major inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) may be involved in the regulation of retrieval of infantile memories in adults. GABA activity is known to be higher in early childhood
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Some studies have discovered that emotional experiences are connected with faster retrieval times, leading to the belief that emotional events have heightened accessibility in our memories. If an event is particularly surprising, it receives prioritized processing in the brain, most likely due to
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nature of Asian cultures. The lack of an age discrepancy between
Chinese males and New Zealand European individuals serves to cast doubt on this theory. Additionally, studies on the Black American population, which is considered a more collectivist society, have not indicated later first memories
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participants. This effect was due to
Chinese females, whose average age at first memory was 6.1 years. This indicates that Chinese women have later first memories than Chinese men, which differs from the general finding that women report earlier first memories than men. It has been suggested that
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with daughters than with sons, which has been shown to result in more richly detailed childhood memories. Women across cultures tend to have more information-dense memories than men, and women tend to refer to others more than themselves in their earliest memories. Men, on the other hand, exhibit
215:. Of course, a main criticism of animal models is that development and cognition in animals and humans are starkly different. Researchers have attempted to address this by creating timelines for animal development based on changes in learning and memory abilities, brain development, and hormones.
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Some research has demonstrated that children can remember events from before the age of three, but that these memories may decline as children get older. Psychologists differ in defining the onset of childhood amnesia. Some define it as the age from which a first memory can be retrieved. This is
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reactivation of neuronal ensembles that encoded the memory drive memory recall in adulthood. In addition, memories are consolidated via transferral from the hippocampus to the cortex. This transferral occurs preferably during periods of elevated excitability in the hippocampus i.e. during ripple
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and shows that merely imagining an event can make it seem more plausible that it really happened. Using the same paradigm, people that are shown a doctored photograph of themselves as a child in an event that never occurred can create false memories of the event by imagining the event over time.
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Māori adults report significantly earlier memories than either Pākehā or
Chinese individuals. The traditional emphasis on the past in Māori culture may have led to an earlier understanding of the nature of time, and to the retrieval of earlier memories. Māori are also more likely than Pākehā or
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Some suggest that as children age, they lose the ability to recall preverbal memories. One explanation for this maintains that after developing linguistic skills, memories that were not encoded verbally get lost within the mind. This theory also explains why many individuals' early memories are
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The number of early childhood memories a person can recall depends on many factors, including the emotion associated with the event, their age at the time of the remembered event and the age at the time they are asked to recall an early memory. Although it is often assumed that not recalling a
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Many factors affect memory in humans, including gender and culture. Differences in early memory between these groups can tell us about potential causes and implications of childhood amnesia. Importantly, the individual differences described below tell us that elaborative parenting styles and
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approach appears to support findings of memory loss in relation to amnesiacs and others who have experienced damage to the hippocampus. They cannot efficiently store or recall memories from past events, but still exhibit perceptual and cognitive skills and can still learn new information. The
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Some research suggests that until around the age of 4, children cannot form context-rich memories. Although more evidence is needed, the relative lack of episodic memories of early childhood may be linked to maturation of prefrontal cortex. It also suggest adults can access fragment memories
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species experience profound forgetting of episodic information formed during infancy suggests that human-centric explanations of infantile amnesia are inherently incomplete. A comprehensive understanding of infantile amnesia will require a neurobiological explanation of why infants forget.
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do not affect offset, possibly because the events were not as meaningful to the child. Some memories are therefore available from earlier in childhood than others, which has led to the conclusion that very emotional events can be encoded and recalled earlier than non-emotional events.
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processes allows older children to remember more, younger children also have great memory capacity. Infants can remember the actions of sequences, the objects used to produce them, and the order in which the actions unfold, suggesting that they possess the precursors necessary for
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style, and those who do not. Children of parents who discuss memories with them in an elaborative style report a greater number of memories than children who do not discuss their memories. Memories are described in greater detail. This has implications for cultural differences.
76:, presented by his adult patients. Freud asked his patients to recall their earliest memories and found that they had difficulty remembering events from before the age of six to eight. Freud coined the term "infantile" or "childhood amnesia" and discussed this phenomenon in his
553:. This transferral occurs preferably during periods of elevated activity in the hippocampus. This increase in experience-associated activity does not occur up to a certain age, suggesting that this inability to transfer information might be a mechanism for infantile amnesia.
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emphasis of cultural history when teaching children may result in recollection of earlier childhood memories. This suggests that childhood amnesia offset is modifiable by parenting and teaching styles and is therefore not exclusively predetermined or entirely biological.
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This increased ability for children to remember their early years does not start to fade until children reach double digits. By the age of eleven, children exhibit young adult levels of childhood amnesia. These findings may indicate that there is some aspect of the
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states that if a past event was particularly frightening or upsetting, one is apt to avoid a similar situation in the future, especially if it is endangering to one's well-being. In addition, the more significant an event, the bigger impact it has and the more
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The method of memory retrieval can influence what can be recalled. Specifically, whether an individual is prompted to remember a specific event, given more general guidelines, or asked to recall any memory possible, the cue method generates different results.
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The amygdala (which is primarily concerned with emotions and emotional content of memories) and the hippocampus (which concerns primarily autobiographical memories) are generally independent, but emotions and the amygdala are known to play a role in
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Studies also show that when mothers include emotional context when reminiscing with their children, the child is likely to grow up with a more secure attachment style, as well as show higher levels of emotional understanding and a stronger sense of
516:(as opposed to vertical or pursuit eye movements) have been associated with an earlier offset of childhood amnesia, leading to the conclusion that interactions between the two hemispheres correlate with increased memory for early childhood events.
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surviving from early childhood but can be demanding for the subjects who often have to spend many hours trying to remember events from their childhood. No major differences among word cued, interview, focused and exhaustive recall have been found.
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species with different learning paradigms. The importance of animal model research should not be understated as these studies have informed neurobiological findings about childhood amnesia and would be impossible to ethically conduct in humans.
480:, two key structures in the neuroanatomy of memory, do not develop into mature structures until around the age of three or four. These structures are known to be associated with the formation of autobiographical memories. Specifically, the
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oscillations. Ripple oscillations represent increased hippocampo-cortical communication. This increase in experience-associated activity does not occur up to a certain age suggesting that this might be a mechanism for infantile amnesia.
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Researchers who have used maternal narrative style as a predictor for early childhood memory recall have found that children whose mothers frequently and elaborately reminisced events with the child were able to recall earlier first
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was typically forgotten in a few days could be remembered if the subject was exposed to the reinforcer before a test. These studies indicate that these memories are not being completely lost, but are simply not being retrieved.
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clearer and earlier memories. Adults find it easier to remember personal, rather than public, event memories from early childhood. This means a person would remember getting a dog, but not the appearance of
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with being older at the age of first memory. It may be that White parents are more likely to use directives to elaborately reminisce than Black parents are with daughters in Black
American culture.
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longer period of childhood amnesia, ending around 5–7 years old. One possible cause for this is stress-related injury to the brain, as trauma damages memory centers and negatively impacts recall.
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Guskjolen, A., Kenney, J. W., de la Parra, J., Yeung, B. R. A., Josselyn, S. A., & Frankland, P. W. (2018). Recovery of “lost” infant memories in mice. Current
Biology, 28(14), 2283-2290.
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Kim JH, Richardson R (December 2007). "Immediate post-reminder injection of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) agonist midazolam attenuates reactivation of forgotten fear in the infant rat".
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in their daily lives and disclose a range of personal information to others. Characteristics of early recollections are reflective of friendliness for males and dominance for females.
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Akers KG, Martinez-Canabal A, Restivo L, Yiu AP, De
Cristofaro A, Hsiang HL, et al. (May 2014). "Hippocampal neurogenesis regulates forgetting during adulthood and infancy".
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than non-collectivist cultures. It has been shown that children from
Western cultures tell more elaborate, detailed, and emotional narratives than children from Eastern cultures.
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Because infantile amnesia has been observed in animals, the occurrence cannot be explained just by cognition specific to humans such as reading and writing or an understanding of
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Povinelli DJ, Landry AM, Theall LA, Clark BR, Castille CM (November 1999). "Development of young children's understanding that the recent past is causally bound to the present".
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There are reasons to believe that different associations within the cerebral hemisphere have an effect on remembering events from a very early period in a person's life.
82:. To date, no experimental studies have found any evidence to support Freud's ideas. In 1972, Campbell and Spear published a seminal review about childhood amnesia in
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they gain a sense of the self, they can begin to organize autobiographical experiences and retain memories of past events. This is also known as the development of a
52:. Five years later, Henri and Henri published a survey showing that the average age of the respondents' earliest recollections was three years and one month. In 1904
496:(MTL), which contains the hippocampus, has been found to specifically have a defining impact on the ability to encode and maintain memories from early childhood.
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Greco C, Rovee-Collier C, Hayne H, Griesler P, Earley L (1986-10-01). "Ontogeny of early event memory: I. Forgetting and retrieval by 2- and 3-month-olds".
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Feigley DA, Spear NE (December 1970). "Effect of age and punishment condition on long-term retention by the rat of active- and passive-avoidance learning".
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Bauer PJ, Burch MM, Scholin SE, Güler OE (October 2007). "Using cue words to investigate the distribution of autobiographical memories in childhood".
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Bauer P, Wenner J, Dropik P, Wewerka S (August 2000). "Parameters of remembering and forgetting in the transition from infancy to early childhood".
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Bauer PJ, Larkina M (April 2014). "Childhood amnesia in the making: different distributions of autobiographical memories in children and adults".
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Christman SD, Propper RE, Brown TJ (May 2006). "Increased interhemispheric interaction is associated with earlier offset of childhood amnesia".
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events from before the age of two. They also recommend that these memories not be entirely discounted, due to the heinous nature of the crimes.
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Childhood amnesia was first formally reported by psychologist Caroline Miles in her article "A study of individual psychology", in 1895 by the
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Therefore, this implies that it would be possible for false memories to be generated in and/or fed by a court case. This concern has led the
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Strange D, Wade K, Hayne H (2008). "Creating false memories for events that occurred before versus after the offset of childhood amnesia".
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244:. Women's earlier first memories may be accounted for by the fact that mothers generally have more elaborative, evaluative, and emotional
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recapping the research conducted to understand this topic from neurological and behavioral perspectives in both human and animal models.
68:- but without any science-based evidence of any kind - he postulated that early life events were repressed due to their inappropriately
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remember memories correctly that occurred around the age of 10, whereas memories from before the age of 3 are more often confused with
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Van Abbema DL, Bauer PJ (November 2005). "Autobiographical memory in middle childhood: recollections of the recent and distant past".
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period can understand that recent past events affect the present, while 3-year-old children still seem unable to grasp this concept.
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Changes in encoding, storage and retrieval of memories during early childhood are all important when considering childhood amnesia.
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Newcombe N, Drummey A, Fox N, Lai E, Ottinger-Alberts W (2000). "embering Early Childhood: How Much, How, and Why (or Why Not)".
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West TA, Bauer PJ (May 1999). "Assumptions of infantile amnesia: are there differences between early and later memories?".
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Clevelend E, Reese E (2008). "Children remember early childhood: Long-term recall across the offset of childhood amnesia".
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seems to indicate that childhood amnesia is not only due to the development of language or any other human proper faculty.
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Simcock G, Hayne H (May 2002). "Breaking the barrier? Children fail to translate their preverbal memories into language".
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Loftus EF (June 1993). "Desperately seeking memories of the first few years of childhood: the reality of early memories".
3758:"Blanks for the Memories: What's Your Earliest Childhood Recollection? Scientists Delve Into Brain Circuitry for Answers"
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Peterson C, Grant VV, Boland LD (August 2005). "Childhood amnesia in children and adolescents: their earliest memories".
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Eacott MJ, Crawley RA (March 1998). "The offset of childhood amnesia: memory for events that occurred before age 3".
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which refers to a child's acceptance that they have beliefs, knowledge, and thoughts that no one else has access to.
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Cordón IM, Pipe ME, Sayfan L, Melinder A, Goodman GS (2004). "Memory for traumatic experiences in early childhood".
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Fiona J, Harlene H (18 July 2007). "Eliciting adults' earliest memories: Does it matter how we ask the question?".
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Simcock G, Hayne H (September 2003). "Age-related changes in verbal and nonverbal memory during early childhood".
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Jack F, Hayne H (August 2007). "Eliciting adults' earliest memories: does it matter how we ask the question?".
716:(Third ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc. as Allyn & Bacon. pp. 272–276, 295–296, 339–346.
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This evidence for delayed and impaired recall of trauma due to the trauma itself is contrary to the concept of
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Usher JA, Neisser U (June 1993). "Childhood amnesia and the beginnings of memory for four early life events".
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Madsen HB, Kim JH (February 2016). "Ontogeny of memory: An update on 40 years of work on infantile amnesia".
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offered one of the most famous and controversial descriptions and explanations of childhood amnesia. Using
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Phelps EA (April 2004). "Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex".
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Fivush R, Nelson K (September 2004). "Culture and language in the emergence of autobiographical memory".
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nature. He asserted that childhood or infantile amnesia was a precursor to the 'hysterical amnesia', or
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Tustin K, Hayne H (September 2010). "Defining the boundary: age-related changes in childhood amnesia".
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Fivush R, Schwarzmueller A (1999). "Children remember childhood: implications for childhood amnesia".
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1175:"Oh where, oh where have those early memories gone? A developmental perspective on childhood amnesia"
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2125:"Adults' earliest memories as a function of age, gender, and education in a large stratified sample"
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3381:"Emergence of preconfigured and plastic time-compressed sequences in early postnatal development"
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2639:"A picture is worth a thousand lies: using false photographs to create false childhood memories"
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Patihis L, Merckelbach H, Lynn SJ, Lilienfeld SO, Loftus EF (November 2019).
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2501:"The Return of the Repressed: The Persistent and Problematic Claims of Long-Forgotten Trauma"
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These factors all contribute to the child developing stronger autobiographical memory skills.
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Ming GL, Song H (2005-01-01). "Adult neurogenesis in the mammalian central nervous system".
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Bruce D, Wilcox-O'Hearn LA, Robinson JA, Phillips-Grant K, Francis L, Smith MC (June 2005).
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amnesia was underlaid by a biological failure to access, rather than encode, said memories.
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Children can form memories at younger ages than adults can recall. While the efficiency of
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2598:"Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred"
419:
3725:"Infantile amnesia across the years: a 2-year follow-up of children's earliest memories"
3453:
3436:
Guskjolen A, Kenney JW, de la Parra J, Yeung BA, Josselyn SA, Frankland PW (July 2018).
3396:
3326:
2733:"Maternal Reminiscing Style and Children's Developing Understanding of Self and Emotion"
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Gutchess AH, Indeck A (2009-01-01). "Cultural influences on memory". In Chiao JY (ed.).
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Bauer PJ (April 2006). "Constructing a past in infancy: a neuro-developmental account".
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2680:"Introduction: New perspectives on childhood memory: introduction to the special issue"
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Mullen MK (July 1994). "Earliest recollections of childhood: a demographic analysis".
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739:"The emergence of autobiographical memory: A social cultural developmental theory"
37:
usually the third birthday, but it can range from three to four years in general.
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Hayne H (2004). "Infant memory development: Implications for childhood amnesia".
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The developmental explanation asserts that young children have a good concept of
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69:
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30:
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Davis N, Gross J, Hayne H (2008). "Defining the boundary of childhood amnesia".
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information but lack the retrieval processes necessary to link past and present
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2358:"Culture, gender, and the first memories of black and white American students"
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Chinese individuals to indicate a family story as a source for their memory.
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processes of adolescence, that prompts the development of childhood amnesia.
61:
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1634:
Fivush R, Gray JT, Fromhoff FA (1987). "Two-year-olds talk about the past".
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829:
Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Cognitive Processes
809:
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369:
245:
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873:
10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199810)12:5<455::AID-ACP534>3.0.CO;2-H
4569:
4440:
4394:
1301:. New York: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Company.
978:
596:
546:
534:
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development of the infant brain, preventing the creation of long term or
307:
266:
236:
Generally, when a sex discrepancy is found in the age at first memories,
3027:
Bauer P (June 2007). "Recall in infancy: A neurodevelopmental account".
2374:
2357:
2070:"Ontogeny of memory: An update on 40 years of work on infantile amnesia"
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traits. People who reveal a more detailed memory are more likely to be
241:
190:
3374:
3372:
1508:
Rubin DC (July 2000). "The distribution of early childhood memories".
1465:
Morrison CM, Conway MA (July 2010). "First words and first memories".
3840:
2143:
2019:
1109:
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902:
501:
3707:
801:
4329:
3369:
2992:
Squire LR, Stark CE, Clark RE (2004). "The medial temporal lobe".
785:
4042:
282:
265:
participants had later first memories than New Zealand European (
711:
545:
In addition, memories are consolidated via transferral from the
422:, and his observations that allow for multiple interpretations.
3778:
3435:
3312:
2169:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 178. pp. 137–150.
2040:
411:
410:
which suggest that people's personality traits stem from their
468:
One possible explanation for childhood amnesia is the lack of
2780:
Israëls H, Schatzman M (March 1993). "The seduction theory".
2498:
2235:"Cross-cultural and gender differences in childhood amnesia"
2167:
Cultural Neuroscience: Cultural Influences on Brain Function
3055:
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Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
965:
Joseph R (2003). "Emotional Trauma and Childhood Amnesia".
211:
3492:
2595:
1594:
1592:
285:
individuals have significantly later first memories than
3627:
2829:
2637:
Wade KA, Garry M, Read JD, Lindsay DS (September 2002).
2596:
Garry M, Manning CG, Loftus EF, Sherman SJ (June 1996).
2068:
Madsen, Heather Bronwyn; Kim, Jee Hyun (February 2016).
1839:
1835:
1833:
662:"Childhood Amnesia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
306:
Individuals' first memories significantly reflect their
289:
individuals were originally thought to be caused by the
2429:"The first memory as a predictor of personality traits"
2232:
128:
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2122:
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1332:
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852:
850:
848:
714:
Cognitive Psychology: Applying the Science of the Mind
3061:
2397:
2395:
2393:
1830:
1717:"Fragment memories mark the end of childhood amnesia"
1669:
16:
Inability of adults to recall memories from childhood
2636:
2589:
2123:
Kingo OS, Berntsen D, Krøjgaard P (September 2013).
1955:
1953:
858:
3722:
3694:Hayne H, Jack F (March 2011). "Childhood amnesia".
2901:
2548:
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2544:
2233:MacDonald S, Uesiliana K, Hayne H (November 2000).
2008:
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology
1913:
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3696:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science
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2991:
2904:"Is there a special Flashbulb-Memory mechanism?"
2852:
2779:
2552:
2541:
1900:
827:. In Lerner RM, Overton WF, Molenaar PC (eds.).
3656:
2895:
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1996:
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712:Robinson-Riegler B, Robinson-Riegler G (2012).
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2164:
1708:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1464:
1369:
1124:
947:
888:
322:Even when childhood events are not remembered
3794:
3185:Roth T, Roehrs T, Wittig R, Zorick F (1984).
3139:
2825:
2823:
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2819:
2630:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
1460:
1458:
1426:
1422:
1420:
3570:
3438:"Recovery of "Lost" Infant Memories in Mice"
3429:
3378:
3271:"Infantile amnesia: a neurogenic hypothesis"
2953:"Infantile amnesia: a neurogenic hypothesis"
2303:
2209:
2005:
1863:
1801:
1501:
1388:
1310:
1308:
1189:
1161:
1095:
1047:
736:
707:
705:
703:
701:
3925:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
3521:
3486:
3029:Current Directions in Psychological Science
2911:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
2830:Gleitman H, Fridlund A, Reisberg D (2007).
1672:Current Directions in Psychological Science
1654:
1563:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
1429:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
1391:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
1328:
1326:
1098:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
1001:Current Directions in Psychological Science
918:
699:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
683:
681:
375:
364:to advise caution in accepting memories of
3801:
3787:
2816:
2684:Remembering and Forgetting Early Childhood
2677:
2355:
2340:
1627:
1455:
1417:
994:"Memory for the Events of Early Childhood"
3693:
3584:
3461:
3412:
3365:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.059
3286:
3269:Josselyn SA, Frankland PW (August 2012).
3210:
3153:
3096:
2968:
2951:Josselyn SA, Frankland PW (August 2012).
2748:
2654:
2613:
2524:
2475:
2373:
2174:
2067:
1732:
1683:
1598:
1529:
1305:
1214:
1144:
783:
222:
3723:Peterson C, Warren KL, Short MM (2011).
3233:
3191:British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
2452:"Traumatic stress: effects on the brain"
1323:
1299:Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory
1288:
1286:
1284:
678:
398:
393:
2449:
2423:
2401:
1317:Three essays on the theory of sexuality
79:Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
4771:
3527:
3248:10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.051804.101459
3006:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144130
2902:McCloskey M, Wible C, Cohen N (1988).
2858:
2730:
1560:
991:
964:
3782:
3308:
3306:
3026:
2726:
2724:
2678:Wang, Qi; Gülgöz, Sami (2020-05-21),
2505:Perspectives on Psychological Science
1755:
1507:
1314:
1292:
1281:
1267:. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
1172:
1130:
3755:
1257:
822:
784:Hayne, Harlene; Jack, Fiona (2011).
129:Accessible and inaccessible memories
89:
3379:Farooq U, Dragoi G (January 2019).
2985:
13:
3620:
3303:
3203:10.1111/j.1365-2125.1984.tb02581.x
2721:
2456:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
586:becomes essential to their being.
182:
159:
56:noted the phenomenon in his book,
14:
4805:
4206:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
2643:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
2602:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
638:Prenatal and perinatal psychology
4751:
4739:
3808:
3741:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01597.x
3041:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00492.x
2433:Journal of Individual Psychology
2407:Journal of Individual Psychology
2356:Fitzgerald JM (September 2010).
2318:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00722.x
1347:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01999.x
317:
200:
103:Many studies use cued recall to
26:, is the inability of adults to
3357:
3262:
3227:
3178:
3133:
3090:
2944:
2861:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
2773:
2671:
2492:
2468:10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/jbremner
2443:
2158:
2116:
2061:
2043:Infant Behavior and Development
2034:
1554:
1479:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.03.011
1251:
1041:
985:
737:Nelson, K.; Fivush, R. (2004).
519:
257:Ethnicity, culture, and society
4416:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
4289:Memory and social interactions
816:
777:
730:
654:
556:
406:is famous for his theories of
301:
50:American Journal of Psychology
1:
3236:Annual Review of Neuroscience
2994:Annual Review of Neuroscience
2185:10.1016/s0079-6123(09)17809-3
1648:10.1016/S0885-2014(87)80015-1
648:
119:
4125:Retrieval-induced forgetting
3542:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90004-3
3187:"Benzodiazepines and memory"
3164:10.1037/0735-7044.121.6.1328
2737:Clinical Social Work Journal
2731:Fivush, Robyn (2006-11-28).
2450:Bremner JD (December 2006).
2055:10.1016/0163-6383(86)90017-2
1758:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1179:Psychological Science Agenda
891:Applied Cognitive Psychology
861:Applied Cognitive Psychology
463:
261:MacDonald et al. found that
7:
3595:10.1037/0033-295X.111.2.486
3507:10.1037/0012-1649.35.6.1426
2923:10.1037/0096-3445.117.2.171
2686:, Routledge, pp. 1–5,
1575:10.1037/0096-3445.122.2.274
1403:10.1037/0096-3445.122.2.155
967:Consciousness & Emotion
755:10.1037/0033-295X.111.2.486
611:
589:
443:) is still highly debated.
240:have earlier memories than
10:
4810:
4463:Levels of Processing model
4388:World Memory Championships
4221:Lost in the mall technique
4068:dissociative (psychogenic)
3099:Behavioural Brain Research
3076:10.1037/0894-4105.20.3.336
2873:10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.015
2836:W. W. Norton & Company
2794:10.1177/0957154x9300401302
2074:Behavioural Brain Research
1816:10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.805
1770:10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.009
1441:10.1037/0096-3445.127.1.22
447:evolutionary reasons. The
429:
345:
330:remembered. Humans can be
43:
4734:
4689:
4658:
4517:
4510:
4403:
4375:
4307:
4264:
4236:
4196:
4138:
4033:
3939:
3914:
3866:
3859:
3816:
3671:10.1080/09658210802077082
3463:10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.059
3111:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.030
2750:10.1007/s10615-006-0065-1
2567:10.1080/09658210802059049
2254:10.1080/09658210050156822
2086:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.030
1974:10.1080/09658210444000430
1928:10.1080/09658210444000278
1229:10.1080/09658210701467087
1062:10.1080/09658210701467087
841:– via Google Books.
831:. John Wiley & Sons.
823:Howe ML (31 March 2015).
474:autobiographical memories
353:false images and memories
4501:The Seven Sins of Memory
4446:Intermediate-term memory
4251:Indirect tests of memory
4228:Recovered-memory therapy
4178:Misattribution of memory
3642:10.1016/j.dr.2003.09.003
3495:Developmental Psychology
2834:(7 ed.). New York:
2517:10.1177/1745691619862306
1804:Developmental Psychology
1319:. London: Hogarth Press.
1155:10.1016/j.dr.2003.09.007
992:Eacott MJ (April 1999).
921:Developmental Psychology
623:Developmental psychology
408:psychosexual development
376:Maternal Narrative Style
276:independently correlated
4188:Source-monitoring error
3763:The Wall Street Journal
3405:10.1126/science.aav0502
3335:10.1126/science.1248903
3142:Behavioral Neuroscience
2692:10.4324/9781003030102-1
1878:10.1111/1467-9280.00442
1694:10.1111/1467-8721.00060
1613:10.1080/096582199387913
1522:10.1080/096582100406810
1013:10.1111/1467-8721.00011
790:WIREs Cognitive Science
449:evolutionary psychology
175:autobiographical memory
110:
98:
4595:George Armitage Miller
4555:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
3756:Beck M (31 May 2011).
2362:Memory & Cognition
1721:Memory & Cognition
514:saccadic eye movements
476:. The hippocampus and
231:
223:Individual differences
84:Psychological Sciences
4758:Philosophy portal
4746:Psychology portal
4610:Henry L. Roediger III
4211:False memory syndrome
4183:Misinformation effect
4163:Imagination inflation
3288:10.1101/lm.021311.110
3275:Learning & Memory
2970:10.1101/lm.021311.110
2957:Learning & Memory
2782:History of Psychiatry
2306:Psychological Science
1866:Psychological Science
1636:Cognitive Development
1335:Psychological Science
666:www.sciencedirect.com
561:The development of a
399:Freud's trauma theory
394:Proposed explanations
357:imagination inflation
66:psychoanalytic theory
4115:Motivated forgetting
3630:Developmental Review
3573:Psychological Review
3448:(14): 2283–2290.e3.
3197:(Suppl 1): 45S–49S.
2132:Psychology and Aging
1133:Developmental Review
979:10.1075/ce.4.2.02jos
825:"Memory Development"
743:Psychological Review
628:Dissociative amnesia
618:Cognitive psychology
494:Medial Temporal Lobe
340:'repressed' memories
4625:Arthur P. Shimamura
4525:Richard C. Atkinson
4342:Effects of exercise
4216:Memory implantation
4100:Interference theory
4016:Selective retention
3996:Meaningful learning
3454:2018CBio...28E2283G
3397:2019Sci...363..168F
3327:2014Sci...344..598A
2375:10.3758/MC.38.6.785
786:"Childhood amnesia"
492:development of the
420:scientific research
4722:Andriy Slyusarchuk
4545:Hermann Ebbinghaus
4451:Involuntary memory
4352:Memory improvement
4337:Effects of alcohol
4299:Transactive memory
4277:Politics of memory
4246:Exceptional memory
2656:10.3758/BF03196318
2615:10.3758/BF03212420
1734:10.3758/bf03195324
441:flashbulb memories
416:anecdotal evidence
4766:
4765:
4730:
4729:
4717:Cosmos Rossellius
4565:Marcia K. Johnson
4436:Exosomatic memory
4421:Context-dependent
4411:Absent-mindedness
4294:Memory conformity
4272:Collective memory
4173:Memory conformity
4110:Memory inhibition
4029:
4028:
4021:Tip of the tongue
3729:Child Development
3391:(6423): 168–173.
3321:(6184): 598–602.
2845:978-0-393-97768-4
2701:978-1-003-03010-2
1274:978-0-13-008631-0
723:978-0-205-17674-8
643:Reminiscence bump
478:prefrontal cortex
246:reminiscent style
105:retrieve memories
90:Methods of recall
31:episodic memories
24:infantile amnesia
20:Childhood amnesia
4801:
4756:
4755:
4754:
4744:
4743:
4742:
4697:Jonathan Hancock
4650:Robert Stickgold
4620:Richard Shiffrin
4575:Elizabeth Loftus
4515:
4514:
4431:Childhood memory
4238:Research methods
4120:Repressed memory
4095:Forgetting curve
4083:transient global
3954:Autobiographical
3864:
3863:
3803:
3796:
3789:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3752:
3735:(4): 1092–1105.
3719:
3690:
3653:
3615:
3614:
3588:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3501:(6): 1426–1439.
3490:
3484:
3483:
3465:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3416:
3376:
3367:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3310:
3301:
3300:
3290:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3214:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3157:
3148:(6): 1328–1332.
3137:
3131:
3130:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2972:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2933:. Archived from
2908:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2827:
2814:
2813:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2752:
2728:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2617:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2550:
2539:
2538:
2528:
2511:(6): 1072–1095.
2496:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2399:
2388:
2387:
2377:
2353:
2338:
2337:
2301:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2278:
2272:. Archived from
2239:
2230:
2207:
2206:
2178:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2144:10.1037/a0031356
2129:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2020:10.1037/h0030234
2003:
1994:
1993:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1911:
1898:
1897:
1861:
1850:
1849:
1837:
1828:
1827:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1736:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1687:
1667:
1652:
1651:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1596:
1587:
1586:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1533:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1462:
1453:
1452:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1386:
1367:
1366:
1330:
1321:
1320:
1315:Freud S (1953).
1312:
1303:
1302:
1293:Freud S (1910).
1290:
1279:
1278:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1212:
1187:
1186:
1173:Bauer P (2004).
1170:
1159:
1158:
1148:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1110:10.1037/a0033307
1093:
1082:
1081:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1029:
1023:. Archived from
998:
989:
983:
982:
962:
945:
944:
933:10.1037/a0020105
927:(5): 1049–1061.
916:
907:
906:
903:10.1002/acp.1359
886:
877:
876:
856:
843:
842:
820:
814:
813:
781:
775:
774:
734:
728:
727:
709:
676:
675:
673:
672:
658:
510:Mixed-handedness
370:sexually abusive
277:
155:
154:
150:
4809:
4808:
4804:
4803:
4802:
4800:
4799:
4798:
4769:
4768:
4767:
4762:
4752:
4750:
4740:
4738:
4726:
4707:Dominic O'Brien
4685:
4654:
4635:Susumu Tonegawa
4615:Daniel Schacter
4590:Eleanor Maguire
4580:Geoffrey Loftus
4535:Stephen J. Ceci
4530:Robert A. Bjork
4506:
4425:state-dependent
4399:
4371:
4303:
4284:Cultural memory
4260:
4256:Memory disorder
4232:
4192:
4134:
4025:
3935:
3910:
3855:
3812:
3807:
3777:
3768:
3766:
3708:10.1002/wcs.107
3623:
3621:Further reading
3618:
3586:10.1.1.335.6967
3569:
3565:
3526:
3522:
3491:
3487:
3442:Current Biology
3434:
3430:
3377:
3370:
3362:
3358:
3311:
3304:
3267:
3263:
3232:
3228:
3183:
3179:
3155:10.1.1.560.7099
3138:
3134:
3095:
3091:
3064:Neuropsychology
3060:
3056:
3025:
3021:
2990:
2986:
2949:
2945:
2937:
2906:
2900:
2896:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2828:
2817:
2778:
2774:
2729:
2722:
2714:
2712:
2702:
2676:
2672:
2635:
2631:
2594:
2590:
2551:
2542:
2497:
2493:
2448:
2444:
2422:
2418:
2400:
2391:
2354:
2341:
2302:
2291:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2237:
2231:
2210:
2195:
2176:10.1.1.493.6194
2163:
2159:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2066:
2062:
2039:
2035:
2004:
1997:
1958:
1951:
1912:
1901:
1862:
1853:
1838:
1831:
1800:
1793:
1754:
1750:
1713:
1709:
1685:10.1.1.417.7509
1668:
1655:
1632:
1628:
1597:
1590:
1559:
1555:
1506:
1502:
1463:
1456:
1425:
1418:
1387:
1370:
1341:(10): 910–916.
1331:
1324:
1313:
1306:
1291:
1282:
1275:
1256:
1252:
1213:
1190:
1171:
1162:
1146:10.1.1.132.3284
1129:
1125:
1094:
1085:
1046:
1042:
1033:
1031:
1027:
996:
990:
986:
963:
948:
917:
910:
887:
880:
857:
846:
839:
821:
817:
802:10.1002/wcs.107
782:
778:
735:
731:
724:
710:
679:
670:
668:
660:
659:
655:
651:
614:
592:
559:
527:Benzodiazepines
522:
466:
437:memory encoding
432:
401:
396:
378:
348:
320:
304:
275:
259:
234:
225:
203:
195:neurobiological
162:
160:Fading memories
152:
148:
147:
131:
122:
113:
101:
92:
54:G. Stanley Hall
46:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4807:
4797:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4748:
4735:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4702:Paul R. McHugh
4699:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4662:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4560:Ivan Izquierdo
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4521:
4519:
4512:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4497:
4487:
4486:
4485:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4418:
4413:
4407:
4405:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4379:
4377:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4317:
4311:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4242:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4230:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4213:
4208:
4202:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4158:Hindsight bias
4155:
4150:
4144:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4105:Memory erasure
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4063:post-traumatic
4060:
4055:
4050:
4039:
4037:
4031:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
4001:Personal-event
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3956:
3951:
3945:
3943:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3931:Working memory
3928:
3920:
3918:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3908:
3903:
3901:Motor learning
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3872:
3870:
3861:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3820:
3818:
3817:Basic concepts
3814:
3813:
3806:
3805:
3798:
3791:
3783:
3776:
3775:
3753:
3720:
3702:(2): 136–145.
3691:
3665:(5): 465–474.
3654:
3636:(1): 101–132.
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3579:(2): 486–511.
3563:
3520:
3485:
3428:
3368:
3356:
3302:
3281:(9): 423–433.
3261:
3226:
3177:
3132:
3105:(Pt A): 4–14.
3089:
3070:(3): 336–345.
3054:
3035:(3): 142–146.
3019:
2984:
2963:(9): 423–433.
2943:
2940:on 2011-07-20.
2917:(2): 171–181.
2894:
2867:(2): 198–202.
2851:
2844:
2815:
2772:
2720:
2700:
2670:
2649:(3): 597–603.
2629:
2608:(2): 208–214.
2588:
2561:(5): 475–484.
2540:
2491:
2462:(4): 445–461.
2442:
2416:
2389:
2368:(6): 785–796.
2339:
2312:(9): 573–577.
2289:
2248:(6): 365–376.
2208:
2193:
2157:
2138:(3): 646–653.
2115:
2080:(Pt A): 4–14.
2060:
2049:(4): 441–460.
2033:
2014:(3): 515–526.
1995:
1968:(8): 829–845.
1949:
1922:(6): 622–637.
1899:
1872:(3): 225–231.
1851:
1829:
1810:(5): 805–814.
1791:
1764:(4): 175–181.
1748:
1727:(4): 567–576.
1707:
1653:
1642:(4): 393–409.
1626:
1607:(3): 257–278.
1588:
1569:(2): 274–277.
1553:
1516:(4): 265–269.
1500:
1454:
1416:
1397:(2): 155–165.
1368:
1322:
1304:
1280:
1273:
1250:
1223:(6): 647–663.
1188:
1160:
1123:
1104:(2): 597–611.
1083:
1056:(6): 647–663.
1040:
984:
973:(2): 151–179.
946:
908:
897:(1): 127–142.
878:
867:(5): 455–473.
844:
837:
815:
796:(2): 136–145.
776:
749:(2): 486–511.
729:
722:
677:
652:
650:
647:
646:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
613:
610:
591:
588:
568:theory of mind
563:cognitive self
558:
555:
521:
518:
512:and bilateral
465:
462:
431:
428:
400:
397:
395:
392:
377:
374:
347:
344:
326:, they can be
319:
316:
303:
300:
281:Findings that
258:
255:
233:
230:
224:
221:
202:
199:
193:brain, or the
161:
158:
156:years of age.
140:Halley's Comet
130:
127:
121:
118:
112:
109:
100:
97:
91:
88:
45:
42:
22:, also called
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4806:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4784:Memory biases
4782:
4780:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4759:
4749:
4747:
4737:
4736:
4733:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4681:Clive Wearing
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4645:Endel Tulving
4643:
4641:
4640:Anne Treisman
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4600:Brenda Milner
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4585:James McGaugh
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4550:Sigmund Freud
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4516:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4495:
4494:retrospective
4491:
4488:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4473:Muscle memory
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4402:
4396:
4393:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4320:Art of memory
4318:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4235:
4229:
4226:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4195:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4168:Memory biases
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4148:Confabulation
4146:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4140:Memory errors
4137:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4058:post-hypnotic
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4011:Rote learning
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3986:Hyperthymesia
3984:
3982:
3979:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3949:Active recall
3947:
3946:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3913:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3865:
3862:
3858:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3846:Consolidation
3844:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3799:
3797:
3792:
3790:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3625:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
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3257:
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2833:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2811:
2807:
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2799:
2795:
2791:
2788:(13): 23–59.
2787:
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2756:
2751:
2746:
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2738:
2734:
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2495:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2439:(2): 136–149.
2438:
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2404:
2398:
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2298:
2296:
2294:
2279:on 2010-05-25
2275:
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2196:
2194:9780444533616
2190:
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2182:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
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2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2002:
2000:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1954:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
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1817:
1813:
1809:
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1511:
1504:
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1234:
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1184:
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1176:
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1152:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1030:on 2015-11-06
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
995:
988:
980:
976:
972:
968:
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959:
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951:
942:
938:
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926:
922:
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913:
904:
900:
896:
892:
885:
883:
874:
870:
866:
862:
855:
853:
851:
849:
840:
838:9781118953846
834:
830:
826:
819:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
780:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
733:
725:
719:
715:
708:
706:
704:
702:
700:
698:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
667:
663:
657:
653:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
615:
609:
605:
601:
598:
587:
583:
580:
576:
571:
569:
564:
554:
552:
548:
543:
539:
536:
530:
528:
517:
515:
511:
506:
503:
497:
495:
490:
489:physiological
485:
483:
482:dentate gyrus
479:
475:
471:
461:
457:
456:it receives.
455:
450:
444:
442:
438:
427:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
404:Sigmund Freud
391:
390:
387:
383:
373:
371:
367:
363:
358:
354:
343:
341:
336:
333:
329:
325:
318:Forgetfulness
315:
313:
309:
299:
295:
292:
288:
284:
279:
272:
268:
264:
254:
252:
247:
243:
239:
229:
220:
216:
214:
213:
207:
201:Animal models
198:
196:
192:
186:
184:
183:animal models
178:
176:
171:
167:
157:
143:
141:
135:
126:
117:
108:
106:
96:
87:
85:
81:
80:
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:Sigmund Freud
59:
55:
51:
41:
38:
34:
32:
29:
25:
21:
4712:Ben Pridmore
4630:Larry Squire
4540:Susan Clancy
4499:
4383:Memory sport
4308:Other topics
4198:False memory
4153:Cryptomnesia
4130:Weapon focus
4090:Decay theory
4052:
3851:Neuroanatomy
3810:Human memory
3767:. Retrieved
3761:
3732:
3728:
3699:
3695:
3662:
3658:
3633:
3629:
3576:
3572:
3566:
3536:(1): 55–79.
3533:
3529:
3523:
3498:
3494:
3488:
3445:
3441:
3431:
3388:
3384:
3359:
3318:
3314:
3278:
3274:
3264:
3239:
3235:
3229:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3067:
3063:
3057:
3032:
3028:
3022:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2960:
2956:
2946:
2935:the original
2914:
2910:
2897:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2831:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2743:(1): 37–46.
2740:
2736:
2713:, retrieved
2683:
2673:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2558:
2554:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2436:
2432:
2419:
2410:
2406:
2365:
2361:
2309:
2305:
2281:. Retrieved
2274:the original
2245:
2241:
2166:
2160:
2135:
2131:
2118:
2077:
2073:
2063:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2011:
2007:
1965:
1961:
1919:
1915:
1869:
1865:
1845:
1841:
1807:
1803:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1724:
1720:
1710:
1678:(2): 55–58.
1675:
1671:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1604:
1600:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1473:(1): 23–32.
1470:
1466:
1435:(1): 22–33.
1432:
1428:
1394:
1390:
1338:
1334:
1316:
1298:
1263:
1253:
1220:
1216:
1182:
1178:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1101:
1097:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1032:. Retrieved
1025:the original
1007:(2): 46–48.
1004:
1000:
987:
970:
966:
924:
920:
894:
890:
864:
860:
828:
818:
793:
789:
779:
746:
742:
732:
713:
669:. Retrieved
665:
656:
633:Neurobiology
606:
602:
595:be a direct
593:
584:
572:
560:
544:
540:
531:
523:
520:Neurobiology
507:
498:
486:
470:neurological
467:
458:
445:
433:
424:
418:rather than
402:
389:
386:
382:
379:
349:
337:
324:episodically
321:
305:
296:
291:collectivist
280:
260:
235:
226:
217:
210:
208:
204:
187:
179:
163:
144:
136:
132:
123:
114:
102:
93:
83:
77:
57:
49:
47:
39:
35:
23:
19:
18:
4570:Eric Kandel
4518:Researchers
4490:Prospective
4441:Free recall
4395:Shas Pollak
4048:anterograde
3964:Declarative
3242:: 223–250.
3000:: 279–306.
1848:(4): v–204.
1531:10161/10139
1264:Adolescence
597:correlation
557:Development
547:hippocampus
535:optogenetic
308:personality
302:Personality
253:for women.
60:. In 1910,
4773:Categories
4605:Lynn Nadel
4483:intertrial
4468:Metamemory
4456:flashbacks
4376:In society
4073:retrograde
4035:Forgetting
4006:Procedural
3916:Short-term
3886:Eyewitness
2832:Psychology
2715:2022-06-07
2283:2009-09-14
1034:2016-02-17
671:2023-03-04
649:References
366:physically
328:implicitly
191:adolescent
120:Exhaustive
74:repression
4794:Nostalgia
4789:Childhood
4357:Nutrition
4265:In groups
4078:selective
4053:childhood
3981:Flashbulb
3941:Long-term
3841:Attention
3687:205665179
3650:0273-2297
3581:CiteSeerX
3530:Cognition
3150:CiteSeerX
3049:145381061
2931:0096-3445
2767:145333318
2759:0091-1674
2710:219501051
2425:Barrett D
2403:Barrett D
2171:CiteSeerX
2094:0166-4328
1680:CiteSeerX
1467:Cognition
1141:CiteSeerX
1139:: 33–73.
502:altricial
464:Neurology
454:rehearsal
381:memories.
251:dominance
4659:Patients
4330:mnemonic
4325:chunking
3991:Implicit
3974:Semantic
3969:Episodic
3959:Explicit
3824:Encoding
3769:11 March
3749:21557741
3716:26302005
3679:18569676
3611:18912310
3603:15065919
3558:40892911
3515:10563732
3480:51602223
3472:29983316
3423:30630930
3343:24812394
3297:22904373
3256:16022595
3172:18085885
3127:30878407
3119:26190765
3084:16719626
3014:15217334
2979:22904373
2889:13888599
2881:15082325
2802:11612951
2665:12412902
2624:24213869
2583:43084237
2575:18569677
2535:31584864
2486:17290802
2427:(1980).
2413:: 92–98.
2384:20852241
2334:12384439
2326:15327626
2270:25373074
2262:11145068
2203:19874966
2152:23421324
2110:30878407
2102:26190765
1990:41414931
1982:16298891
1944:28074951
1936:16076676
1894:40069463
1886:12009042
1824:12952395
1786:18845770
1778:16537115
1743:16248322
1702:18780584
1621:10659077
1540:10932795
1487:20363469
1363:34100638
1355:17894609
1261:(1904).
1237:17654279
1118:23937179
1070:17654279
1021:17155352
941:20822222
810:26302005
771:18912310
763:15065919
612:See also
590:Language
579:episodic
575:semantic
287:American
166:encoding
28:retrieve
4779:Amnesia
4478:Priming
4404:Related
4347:Emotion
4043:Amnesia
3881:Eidetic
3868:Sensory
3829:Storage
3550:7924199
3450:Bibcode
3414:6794005
3393:Bibcode
3385:Science
3351:3616561
3323:Bibcode
3315:Science
3221:6151849
3212:1463341
2810:5158634
2526:6826861
2477:3181836
2028:5514687
1583:8315402
1548:1259926
1495:6068018
1449:9503650
1411:8315398
1259:Hall GS
1245:5775522
1078:5775522
549:to the
430:Emotion
346:Falsity
263:Chinese
238:females
170:storage
151:⁄
44:History
4511:People
4496:memory
4427:memory
4367:Trauma
3906:Visual
3896:Iconic
3891:Haptic
3876:Echoic
3834:Recall
3747:
3714:
3685:
3677:
3659:Memory
3648:
3609:
3601:
3583:
3556:
3548:
3513:
3478:
3470:
3421:
3411:
3349:
3341:
3295:
3254:
3219:
3209:
3170:
3152:
3125:
3117:
3082:
3047:
3012:
2977:
2929:
2887:
2879:
2842:
2808:
2800:
2765:
2757:
2708:
2698:
2663:
2622:
2581:
2573:
2555:Memory
2533:
2523:
2484:
2474:
2382:
2332:
2324:
2268:
2260:
2242:Memory
2201:
2191:
2173:
2150:
2108:
2100:
2092:
2026:
1988:
1980:
1962:Memory
1942:
1934:
1916:Memory
1892:
1884:
1822:
1784:
1776:
1741:
1700:
1682:
1619:
1601:Memory
1581:
1546:
1538:
1510:Memory
1493:
1485:
1447:
1409:
1361:
1353:
1271:
1243:
1235:
1217:Memory
1143:
1116:
1076:
1068:
1050:Memory
1019:
939:
835:
808:
769:
761:
720:
551:cortex
412:libido
332:primed
283:Korean
267:Pākehā
70:sexual
4690:Other
4362:Sleep
4315:Aging
3860:Types
3683:S2CID
3607:S2CID
3554:S2CID
3476:S2CID
3347:S2CID
3123:S2CID
3045:S2CID
2938:(PDF)
2907:(PDF)
2885:S2CID
2806:S2CID
2763:S2CID
2706:S2CID
2579:S2CID
2330:S2CID
2277:(PDF)
2266:S2CID
2238:(PDF)
2128:(PDF)
2106:S2CID
1986:S2CID
1940:S2CID
1890:S2CID
1782:S2CID
1698:S2CID
1544:S2CID
1491:S2CID
1359:S2CID
1241:S2CID
1185:(12).
1074:S2CID
1028:(PDF)
1017:S2CID
997:(PDF)
767:S2CID
385:self.
271:Māori
269:) or
242:males
4492:and
4423:and
3771:2017
3745:PMID
3712:PMID
3675:PMID
3646:ISSN
3599:PMID
3546:PMID
3511:PMID
3468:PMID
3419:PMID
3339:PMID
3293:PMID
3252:PMID
3217:PMID
3168:PMID
3115:PMID
3080:PMID
3010:PMID
2975:PMID
2927:ISSN
2877:PMID
2840:ISBN
2798:PMID
2755:ISSN
2696:ISBN
2661:PMID
2620:PMID
2571:PMID
2531:PMID
2482:PMID
2380:PMID
2322:PMID
2258:PMID
2199:PMID
2189:ISBN
2148:PMID
2098:PMID
2090:ISSN
2024:PMID
1978:PMID
1932:PMID
1882:PMID
1820:PMID
1774:PMID
1739:PMID
1617:PMID
1579:PMID
1536:PMID
1483:PMID
1445:PMID
1407:PMID
1351:PMID
1295:"II"
1269:ISBN
1233:PMID
1114:PMID
1066:PMID
937:PMID
833:ISBN
806:PMID
759:PMID
718:ISBN
487:The
368:and
312:open
212:self
168:and
111:Free
99:Cued
3737:doi
3704:doi
3667:doi
3638:doi
3591:doi
3577:111
3538:doi
3503:doi
3458:doi
3409:PMC
3401:doi
3389:363
3331:doi
3319:344
3283:doi
3244:doi
3207:PMC
3199:doi
3160:doi
3146:121
3107:doi
3103:298
3072:doi
3037:doi
3002:doi
2965:doi
2919:doi
2915:117
2869:doi
2790:doi
2745:doi
2688:doi
2651:doi
2610:doi
2563:doi
2521:PMC
2513:doi
2472:PMC
2464:doi
2370:doi
2314:doi
2250:doi
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