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livestock deaths, even though the Navajo economy, which was dependent on the sale of mutton was harmed. The company said in a statement issued by an attorney, "We just don't know of any substance to those claims. Some people aren't going to be satisfied no matter how thoroughly you show it." Navajo Tribal
Council's vice president Frank Paul said of the worst spill in US history, "Somehow, United Nuclear Corporation was permitted to locate a tailings pond and a dam on an unstable geologic formation. Somehow, UNC was allowed to design an unsafe tailings dam not in conformance to its own design criteria. Somehow, UNC was permitted to inadequately deal with warning cracks that had appeared over two years prior to the date the dam failed. Somehow, UNC was permitted to continue a temporary dam for six months beyond its design life. Somehow, UNC was permitted to have a tailings dam without either an adequate contingency plan or sufficient men and material in place to deal with a spill. Somehow, UNC was permitted to deal with the spill by doing almost nothing."
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radionuclides in Church Rock cattle compared to livestock from non-mining areas. The study's authors advised that contamination would not pose a risk as long as residents did not depend on livestock for food over long periods of time, but local
Navajos did. A few Navajo children were sent to Los Alamos to be checked for radiation exposure, but no long-term monitoring was undertaken, prompting a local writer to comment that the IHS spent more effort studying livestock than the people affected. No ongoing epidemiological studies have been done at Church Rock. Studies have shown since the 1950s that the Navajo have had significantly higher rates for some
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contaminants, yellow salt crystals precipitated onto the arroyo bed. These salts, containing metals and radionuclides, were washed away during subsequent rainstorms. Approximately one month after the spill, the Puerco River had regained normal levels of salinity, acidity, and radioactivity at low flow levels, with contaminants being detectable only after heavy rains. The EPA reported no long-term effects of the spill, but noted that contaminant levels from uranium mine effluents and natural sources were "environmentally significant".
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3.5 million short tons (3.2 Mt). The 35-foot (11 m) high embankment was constructed on a deposit of collapsible clayey, silty sand, one hundred feet (30 m) deep. United
Nuclear used a new design, recommended by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, that used earth rather than tailings themselves as building material. The holding pond was not lined, a violation of the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978. This allowed tailings solution to seep into the ground, weakening the foundation of the dam and
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93 million US gallons (350,000 m) of acidic, radioactive tailings solution flowed into
Pipeline Arroyo, a tributary of the Puerco River. Warnings of an impending spill had been ignored by the state and by United Nuclear Corporation. Though the uranium mill only bordered the Navajo Nation, the tailings spilled onto the Navajo Nation as they flowed down the Puerco River.
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has said that this is "an overstatement," and that "there have been a number of other events that have been more significant in terms of radiological impact. The event was more significant from an environmental perspective than from a human one." Nevertheless, the incident remains the "largest single
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In 2003 the
Churchrock Chapter of the Navajo Nation began the Church Rock Uranium Monitoring Project to assess environmental impacts of abandoned uranium mines, and build capacity to conduct community-based research with policy implications. Its May 2007 report found radiation many times higher than
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along the Puerco River and said that the wells "are not expected to show any contamination, if at all, for several years." The Navajo Nation spent $ 100,000 on clean water, and in 1981, the New Mexico and federal governments stopped providing water, which they had delivered by truck since the spill.
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of the foundation beneath the dam wall, and the report commissioned by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission corroborated this conclusion. Critical variations in tailings pond operation practice from approved procedures contributed further to the dam failure. United Nuclear's Chief Operating Officer, J.
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Prior to the spill, local residents used the riverside for recreation and herb-gathering, and children often waded in the Puerco River. Residents who waded in the river after the spill went to the hospital complaining of burning feet and were misdiagnosed with heat stroke. Burns acquired by some of
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Shortly after the breach, below the dam radioactivity levels of river water were 7000 times that of the allowable level of drinking water. United
Nuclear initially claimed that only one curie of radioactivity had been released in the spill, but that figure was later revised upward by the New Mexico
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left New Mexico to handle the dam failure until
October 12, 1979, when it was notified that the state would permit the uranium mill to resume operation that week. The NRC then suspended United Nuclear's operating license until it could be determined that the embankment was stable. After fewer than
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near the river that residents drank and used to water livestock. 1,700 people lost access to clean water after the spill. United
Nuclear Corporation distributed 600 gallon-jugs of clean water, but the affected area required more than 30,000 US gallons (110,000 L; 25,000 imp gal) of
639:
United
Nuclear dispatched small crews with shovels and 55-US-gallon (210 L; 46 imp gal) drums to begin cleanup, but expanded the workforce after complaints from local residents and pressure from the state. The crews removed three inches (76 mm) of sediment from the river bed,
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testified before Congress that at least three federal and state agencies had "ample opportunity" to predict that the dam's failure was likely. At the same Congressional hearing, the United States Army Corps of Engineers testified that had the dam been built according to legal specifications, the
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the embankment. A sand beach was constructed to protect the face of the embankment from the tailings solution, but it was not properly maintained. The liquid in the holding pond eventually rose two feet (0.61 m) higher than the dam's designed limit, past the point where the sand beach could
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At around 5:30 am on July 16, 1979, a previously identified crack opened into a 20-foot-breach (6.1 m) in the south cell of United Nuclear Corporation's Church Rock temporary uranium mill tailings disposal pond, and 1,100 short tons (1,000 t) of solid radioactive mill waste and about
696:
In 1994 the EPA extended its efforts with a study of all known uranium mines on the Navajo Nation. The EPA and United Nuclear removed 175,500 cubic feet (4,970 m) of radium-contaminated soil surrounding five buildings, some residential, in 2007. The soil was moved to an off-site disposal
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Although the New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division said the spill's "short-term and long-term impacts on people and the environment were quite limited", ponds of uranium-contaminated water lined the Puerco River and seeped into wells. United Nuclear denied claims that the spill caused
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The dam formed the southern wall of one of the mill's three holding ponds, which were used to evaporate tailings solution until the remaining solid waste could be buried. From 1967 to 1982, the mill produced an average of 4,000 short tons (3,600 t) of tailings every day, for a total of
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retrieving about 3,500 barrels (560 m) of waste materials over the course of three months, but this amount was estimated as only 1% of the solid waste spilled. Groundwater remained contaminated by the spilled tailings solution, and rain transported leftover pollutants downstream into
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An epidemiological study conducted by the NMEID in 1989 concluded that "the health risk to the public from eating exposed cattle is minimal, unless large amounts of this tissue, especially liver and kidney, are ingested." An Indian Health Service study found significantly higher levels of
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As the highly acidic spill traveled downstream, alkaline soils and clays neutralized the acid and adsorbed many of the contaminants. The contaminated sediments were gradually dispersed by the river and diluted by "clean" sediment. In parts of the river system with higher concentrations of
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and remained for more than a month after the spill, despite cleanup efforts by the New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division. The NMEID ordered United Nuclear to control tailings seepage from the mill in 1979, and the company implemented a limited seepage collective program in 1981.
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Mill Tailings Dam Break At Church Rock, New Mexico: Oversight Hearing Before the Subcommittee On Energy And the Environment of the Committee On Interior And Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, First Session ... Hearing Held In Washington, D.C., October 22,
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The Navajo Nation appealed to the governor to request that the president declare the site a federal disaster area, but he refused, reducing the aid available to local residents. United Nuclear continued operation of the uranium mill until 1982, when it closed because of the
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slurry but took little or no other action, despite the consultant's urging for regular inspections of the dam. Further cracking was noted in October 1978. Neither the facility owner nor the State Engineer were formally notified of the cracks, though Arizona representative
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those who came into contact with the contaminated water developed serious infections and required amputations. Herds of sheep and cattle died after drinking the contaminated water, and children played in pools of contaminated water. The spill contaminated shallow
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and the Environmental Improvement Division of New Mexico warned local residents over the radio and with signs written only in English not to drink from, water livestock at, or enter the Puerco River. Many Navajo people in the area speak only
315:, possibly because it occurred in a very rural area not served by major media. The spill also happened in Native American country, among a community who reportedly did not have their concerns addressed by medical authorities.
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and chemical constituents were found to be contaminating local groundwater. The EPA conducted a remedial investigation from 1984 to 1987, and in the NRC approved United Nuclear's closure and reclamation plan in 1988.
434:. The contaminated water from the Church Rock spill traveled 80 miles (130 km) downstream, through Gallup, New Mexico, and reached as far as Navajo County, Arizona. The flood backed up sewers, affected nearby
987:
Lauri Wirt (1994), "Radioactivity in the Environment: A Case Study of the Puerco and Little Colorado River Basins, Arizona and New Mexico." Tucson, AZ: U.S. Geological Survey Water Investigations Report 94-4192.
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1961:
Technical Report on Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials from Uranium Mining Volume 2: Investigation of Potential Health, Geographic, And Environmental Issues of Abandoned Uranium
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and rendered the Puerco unusable to local residents, mostly Navajo peoples who used the river's water for drinking, irrigation, and livestock. They were not warned for days of the toxic dangers from the spill.
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four months of downtime following the dam failure, the mill resumed operations on November 2, 1979. This resumption further contaminated the groundwater and resulted in the mill site's placement on the EPA's
529:
A diagrammed cross section of the breach from the report commissioned by the NRC. The "point" in the bedrock that UNC said acted as a fulcrum in the dam's breach is visible beneath the embankment.
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Report of the Church Rock Uranium Monitoring Project 2003-2007, Churchrock Chapter, Navajo Nation, Southwest Research and Information Center and Navajo Education and Scholarship Foundation
481:, to request disaster assistance from the US government and have the site declared a disaster area, but he refused, an action that limited disaster relief assistance to the Navajo Nation.
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produced an acidic slurry of ground waste rock and fluid (tailings) that was pumped to the tailings disposal area. The breach released more than 1,100 short tons (1,000 t) of solid
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employee noticed the breach and suspended further discharge of tailings solution to the holding pond. By 8:00, a temporary dike had stopped the flow of residual tailings solution.
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water daily. The three community wells serving Church Rock had already been closed, one because of high radium levels and the other two for high levels of iron and bacteria. The
1614:
644:. New Mexico ordered United Nuclear to monitor pools left behind by the spill along the Puerco River, but United Nuclear measured only uranium levels, ignoring the presence of
2436:
873:
Brugge, D.; DeLemos, J.L.; Bui, C. (2007), "The Sequoyah Corporation Fuels Release and the Church Rock Spill: Unpublicized Nuclear Releases in American Indian Communities",
322:
of the Navajo Nation began the Church Rock Uranium Monitoring Project to assess environmental impacts of abandoned uranium mines; it found significant radiation from both
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Lapham, SC, JB Millard, and JM Samet. "Health implications of radionuclide levels in cattle raised near U mining and milling facilities in Ambrosia Lake, New Mexico.
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residents downstream in accordance with a state contingency plan, but not until a few days after the spill. The Navajo Nation asked the governor of New Mexico,
91:
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breached its dam. The accident remains the largest release of radioactive material in U.S. history, having released more radioactivity than the
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Horizontal and vertical cracks formed along the southern part of the embankment, allowing the acidic tailings solution to penetrate and
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In December 1977, independent consultants spotted cracks in the dam wall. Three months later, United Nuclear sealed the cracks with
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The mill, which operated from June 1977 to May 1982, was located on privately owned land about 17 miles (27 km) northeast of
1108:
1892:"The Sequoyah Corporation Fuels Release and the Church Rock Spill: Unpublicized Nuclear Releases in American Indian Communities"
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2314:
1968:, Washington, DC: EPA, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air Radiation Protection Division, April 2008, pp. Appendix IV, p. 7
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In 2008, the US Congress authorized a five-year plan for cleanup of contaminated uranium sites on the Navajo reservation.
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than the national average, associated with contamination from the uranium mines and the exposure of workers to radiation.
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1072:
1016:
662:
1721:
2466:
1675:
1548:
Grammer, Elisa J. (1981), "The Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978 and NRC's Agreement State Program",
1533:
United States. Congress. House. Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment.
1475:
806:
533:
1427:
2128:
Pinderhughes, Raquel (1996), "The Impact of Race on Environmental Quality: An Empirical and Theoretical Discussion",
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292:. In addition to being radioactive and acidic, the spill contained toxic metals and sulfates. The spill contaminated
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1959:
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681:
509:
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https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-12/documents/engineering_evaluation_-_cost_analysis_20090530.pdf
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in 1983. United Nuclear made a $ 525,000 out-of-court settlement with the Navajo Nation a year after the spill.
311:, limiting aid to affected residents. The nuclear contamination event received less media coverage than that of
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US Congress, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment.
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1946:
1383:"Effects of uranium mining discharges on water quality in the Puerco River basin, Arizona and New Mexico"
69:
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A sign placed by the New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division discouraging use of the Puerco River.
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The states of Arizona and New Mexico failed to make their residents immediately aware of the dangers of
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Review Comments and Recommendations to Geotechnical Investigational Reports - Church Rock Tailings Dam
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Environmental Improvement Division. In all, 46 curies (1.7 TBq) of radioactivity were released.
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included the Church Rock tailings storage site, where "groundwater migration is not under control."
2367:
J. S. Smith, Jr., and J. H. Fisher, "Three Mile Island: The Silent Disaster," J. Amer. Med. Assoc.
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and 94 million US gallons (360,000 m) of acidic, radioactive tailings solution into the
264:, and was bordered to the north and southwest by Navajo Nation Tribal Trust lands. The milling of
2302:
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Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis: Northeast Church Rock (NECR) Mine Site, Gallup, New Mexico
1043:"Environmental message: Artist's work focuses on energy industry's effects on indigenous people"
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1343:
1338:
Giusti, Brendan (July 16, 2009), "Radiation Spill in Church Rock Still Haunts 30 Years Later",
1311:
301:
285:
1191:
Second Five-Year Review Report for the United Nuclear Corporation. Ground Water Operable Unit
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458:
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The 20-foot (6.1 m) breach in the tailings dam formed around 5:30 a.m. on July 16, 1979.
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2104:
Uranium Exposure and Public Health in New Mexico and the Navajo Nation: a literature summary
1779:
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737:
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323:
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8:
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Churchrock Chapter, Navajo Nation; Southwest Research and Information Center (May 2007).
1843:
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1611:"Church Rock, NM: Living with North America's Worst Nuclear Disaster for 39 Years · NIRS"
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release" of radioactive materials into the environment in US history as of October 2020.
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2016:
2008:
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through Pipeline Arroyo. An estimated 1.36 short tons (1.23 t) of uranium and 46
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2020:
1921:
1471:
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1229:
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1128:
902:
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269:
1006:"The Church Rock Uranium Mill Tailings Spill: A Health and Environmental Assessment"
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1911:
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989:
673:
474:
281:
2359:
2004:
1428:"What Price Progress? Uranium Production on Indian Lands in the San Juan Basin"
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background levels remaining in the area, from both natural and mining sources.
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beneath the embankment, which he said acted as a fulcrum and weakened the dam.
2170:
Gault, Ramona (September 13, 1989), "Navajos inherity a legacy of radiation",
2084:
Gunter, Linda (September 2009), "Remembering the Forgotten Nuclear Accident",
1394:
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1005:
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Extent of seepage-impacted groundwater, weakening South Cell wall foundations
308:
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Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America's Experience with Atomic Radiation
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1222:
Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America’s Experience with Atomic Radiation
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273:
2057:
1638:"Poison in the earth, 1979 Church Rock spill a symbol for uranium dangers"
1696:"Superfund Site: United Nuclear Corp. Church Rock, NM Cleanup Activities"
1147:
645:
293:
265:
1561:
1451:
466:, an Athabaskan language spoken by 150,000 people on the Navajo Nation.
2149:
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234:
79:
2196:. Southwest Research and Information Center. p. 5. Archived from
2012:
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27:
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Brugge, Doug; Benally, Timothy; Yazzie-Lewis, Esther, eds. (2006).
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of New Mexico that the principal cause of failure was differential
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415:
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379:
242:
2402:
Webisodes: Clean-up of uranium contamination at Navajo Reservation
2398:
2121:
1004:
Millard, Jere; Gallagher; Baggett; Cary, Steven (September 1983).
567:
David Hann, blamed the failure of dam on the pointed shape of the
2315:
Felicia Fonseca, "Navajo woman helps prompt uranium mine cleanup"
1593:"The Largest Nuclear Accident in U.S. History Has Been Forgotten"
1073:"New attention to Church Rock uranium spill comes 30 years later"
669:
641:
610:
568:
383:
371:
367:
921:"As Cold War abuses linger, Navajo Nation faces new mining push"
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refused the Navajo Nation's request that the site be declared a
2394:
The Energy Library: "United Nuclear Corporation Superfund Site"
2382:
2077:
999:
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628:
473:. United Nuclear Corporation employees were dispatched to warn
411:
403:
375:
2190:
Report of the Church Rock Uranium Monitoring Project 2003-2007
2110:. Albuquerque, NM: Southwest Research and Information Center.
1991:
Nelkin, Dorothy (1981), "Native Americans and Nuclear Power",
1490:
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1212:
1150:"EPA Superfund Program: UNITED NUCLEAR CORP., CHURCH ROCK, NM"
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2271:. 2016-02-16. Archived from the original on October 18, 2016
1972:
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United Nuclear neutralized the acidity of the tailings with
438:, and left stagnating, contaminated pools on the riverside.
2067:
2065:
1116:, Window Rock, Navajo Nation (Arizona), USA, archived from
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contaminants traveled 80 miles (130 km) downstream to
2094:
1349:
1310:. New Mexico Office of the State Historian. Archived from
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1603:
1585:
1381:
van Metre, Peter C.; Gray, John R. (September 16, 1991).
950:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 16 September 1998
488:
Under the "agreement state" legislative framework of the
2062:
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from 1979 to 1982. In 1983, the site was entered on the
2303:"Addressing Uranium Contamination in the Navajo Nation"
1883:
1387:
Hydrohgical Sciences-Journal des Sciences Hyàroïogiques
355:
2250:
EPA Superfund Record of Decision: United Nuclear Corp.
1756:, San Francisco: EPA Region 9, May 30, 2009, p. 6
1688:
1463:
1358:'Larger Than Life: New Mexico in the Twentieth Century
1152:. EPA. Archived from the original on December 24, 2016
759:"Navajos mark 20th anniversary of Church Rock spill",
981:
2437:
Nuclear accidents and incidents in the United States
2216:"UNC Resources At Odds With New Mexico Over Uranium"
382:, it also contained various other metals, including
1803:. Albuquerque, New Mexico: Army Corps of Engineers.
2253:, Church Rock, New Mexico: EPA, September 30, 1988
1942:Blowing in the Wind: The Navajo Nation and Uranium
1890:Brugge, Doug; deLemos, Jamie L.; Bui, Cat (2007).
838:Mill Tailings Dam Break at Church Rock, New Mexico
799:Yellow Dirt: A Poisoned Land and a People Betrayed
504:The accident released more radioactivity than the
358:of 1.2 and a gross alpha particle activity of 128
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1889:
1218:
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16:Radioactive spill in New Mexico on July 16, 1979
1702:. United States Environmental Protection Agency
1502:
1500:
1148:United States Environmental Protection Agency.
840:, 96th Cong, 1st Sess (October 22, 1979):19–24.
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990:https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1994/4192/report.pdf
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974:United Nuclear Corporation (McKinley County)
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2321:, 5 September 2011, accessed 5 October 2011
2034:"The Puerco River: Where Did the Water Go?"
1850:. Vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 10–12.
1807:
1722:"NRC seeks input on legacy uranium cleanup"
1669:
1667:
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1572:
1570:
1308:"Church Rock Tailings Spill: July 16, 1979"
1279:The Failure of the Church Rock Tailings Dam
1219:Wasserman, Harvey; Solomon, Norman (1982).
792:
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784:
782:
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778:
776:
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490:Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act
2360:"Four Corners: A National Sacrifice Area?"
2038:Southwest Research and Information Center.
1799:Roth, Colonel Bernard J (9 October 1979).
1484:
1274:
1184:
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1180:
1133:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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832:
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2497:Environmental racism in the United States
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1978:
1915:
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1538:Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1980.
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1275:Nelson, John D.; Kane, Joseph D. (1980).
1270:
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1098:
945:"United Nuclear Final Five Year Review -"
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508:. The spill has been called "the largest
1939:Brown, Jovana J.; Lambert, Lori (2010),
1844:"The High Cost of Uranium in Navajoland"
1841:
1835:
1816:"Uranium Spill Described as Preventable"
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366:) per liter. In addition to radioactive
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1993:Science, Technology, & Human Values
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688:investigations and cleanup efforts, as
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2457:History of McKinley County, New Mexico
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1990:
1984:
1599:from the original on October 17, 2020.
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1305:
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1107:Shuey, Chris; et al. (May 2007),
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919:Quinones, Manuel (December 13, 2011),
749:
326:and mining sources in the area. As of
2265:"Cleaning Up Abandoned Uranium Mines"
2169:
2100:
1952:
1932:
1870:"Pediatrician says spill underplayed"
1854:from the original on October 9, 1999.
1777:Wasserman, Harry and Norman Solomon,
1674:Mantonya, Kurt T. (January 1, 1999),
1508:"Uranium Spill Still Worries Navajos"
1425:
1408:
1296:
1106:
1040:
652:. The pools contained high levels of
556:United States Army Corps of Engineers
2447:Water pollution in the United States
2442:Nuclear history of the United States
2226:from the original on August 28, 2017
2214:Dougherty, John (October 10, 1983).
2117:from the original on August 3, 2018.
1858:
1798:
1787:
1648:from the original on August 14, 2009
1467:The Navajo People and Uranium Mining
727:The Navajo People and Uranium Mining
714:Uranium mining and the Navajo people
558:concluded in its report to Governor
2482:1979 disasters in the United States
2432:Uranium mining on the Navajo Nation
2336:"Destroying Indigenous Populations"
1868:Robertson, Bill (October 4, 1979).
1814:Ward, Sinclair (October 23, 1979),
1784:New York: Dell Publishing Co, 1980.
1752:
1617:from the original on August 9, 2024
13:
2327:
1732:from the original on April 7, 2022
1581:. New York: Routledge. p. 27.
1243:from the original on July 20, 2023
1041:Gomez, Adrian (29 December 2017).
457:Several days after the spill, the
430:, and also high concentrations of
14:
2508:
2487:Dam failures in the United States
2417:Radiation accidents and incidents
2375:
2127:
1896:American Journal of Public Health
1636:Shebala, Marley (July 23, 2009).
1022:from the original on May 30, 2019
912:
876:American Journal of Public Health
618:advised the tribe to repair five
588:failure would not have occurred.
2422:Radioactively contaminated areas
2381:
1201:, September 2003, archived from
1071:Dingmann, Tracy (16 July 2009).
134:
127:
35:
2317:, Associated Press, carried in
1013:Environmental Protection Agency
682:Environmental Protection Agency
2388:Church Rock Uranium Mill spill
1682:University of Nebraska-Lincoln
337:
233:occurred in the U.S. state of
231:Church Rock uranium mill spill
1:
2452:Superfund sites in New Mexico
2334:Jamail, Dahr (20 June 2009).
1360:. UNM Press. pp. 82–83.
1356:Szasz, Ferenc Morton (2006).
1286:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1228:. New York: Dell Publishing.
743:
514:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
494:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1470:. University of New Mexico.
354:The tailings solution had a
148:2,133 m (6,998 ft)
7:
2305:, Superfund - Region 9, EPA
2083:
1947:The Evergreen State College
1842:Johansen, Bruce E. (1997).
1576:
801:. Free Press. p. 149.
707:
445:
41:United Nuclear Corporation
10:
2513:
2492:United Nuclear Corporation
2052:, 1989, 56(3) pp. 327-40.
2005:10.1177/016224398100600201
1726:www.world-nuclear-news.org
1432:American Indian Law Review
1355:
1077:The New Mexico Independent
733:Sequoyah Fuels Corporation
634:
591:
512:in U.S. history," but the
506:Three Mile Island accident
452:United Nuclear Corporation
255:Three Mile Island accident
239:United Nuclear Corporation
184:United Nuclear Corporation
2467:1979 industrial disasters
2288:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2130:Sociological Perspectives
1813:
1395:10.1080/02626669209492612
1169:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
520:
318:In 2003, the Church Rock
220:
210:
202:
194:
189:
177:
169:
161:
156:
122:
85:
75:
65:
55:
50:
34:
26:
21:
2400:The Return of Navajo Boy
1908:10.2105/AJPH.2006.103044
1577:Kuletz, Valerie (1998).
1550:Natural Resources Lawyer
1306:Rangel, Valerie (2010).
977:, EPA, November 21, 2012
889:10.2105/ajph.2006.103044
797:Pasternak, Judy (2010).
720:The Return of Navajo Boy
678:National Priorities List
663:declining uranium market
499:National Priorities List
332:National Priorities List
45:mill site after clean-up
2477:1979 in the environment
237:on July 16, 1979, when
222:List of Superfund sites
2050:Health Physics Journal
1344:Farmington, New Mexico
601:
538:
530:
351:
302:Governor of New Mexico
286:Navajo County, Arizona
270:radioactive mill waste
107:35.65083°N 108.50639°W
2427:Tailings dam failures
2346:on September 19, 2010
2101:Shuey, Chris (2007).
1877:New Mexico Daily Lobo
616:Indian Health Service
599:
554:protect the dam. The
536:
528:
459:Indian Health Service
349:
309:federal disaster area
257:four months earlier.
245:disposal pond at its
173:Metals, radionuclides
2462:Mining in New Mexico
2390:at Wikimedia Commons
2203:on December 5, 2015.
2032:Chris Shuey (1986).
1677:Contamination Nation
1426:Young, Lise (1981),
738:Environmental racism
510:radioactive accident
112:35.65083; -108.50639
2358:Christopher McLeod
2220:The Washington Post
1981:, pp. 149–150.
1821:The Washington Post
1595:. August 12, 2019.
103: /
2472:1979 in New Mexico
1579:The Tainted Desert
1513:The New York Times
1492:Gallup Independent
1123:on August 15, 2024
1047:www.abqjournal.com
602:
539:
531:
352:
262:Gallup, New Mexico
60:Gallup, New Mexico
2386:Media related to
2363:bullfrogfilms.com
2319:Houston Chronicle
1613:. July 16, 2018.
1494:, August 14, 1980
1367:978-0-8263-3883-9
1314:on April 25, 2011
765:Prescott, Arizona
761:The Daily Courier
546:the groundwater.
313:Three Mile Island
227:
226:
198:December 30, 1982
2504:
2385:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2342:. Archived from
2322:
2312:
2306:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2287:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2245:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2195:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2109:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2060:
2046:
2040:
2030:
2024:
2023:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1919:
1902:(9): 1595–1600.
1887:
1881:
1880:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1855:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1796:
1785:
1775:
1762:
1757:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1671:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1574:
1565:
1564:
1545:
1539:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1504:
1495:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1444:10.2307/20068184
1423:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1335:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1303:
1294:
1293:
1283:
1272:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1242:
1227:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1196:
1186:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1132:
1124:
1122:
1115:
1104:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1083:on 21 April 2012
1079:. Archived from
1068:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1058:
1049:. Archived from
1038:
1032:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1021:
1010:
1001:
992:
985:
979:
978:
969:
960:
959:
957:
955:
949:
941:
935:
934:
933:
931:
916:
910:
909:
900:
870:
841:
834:
821:
820:
794:
769:
768:
756:
138:
137:
131:
118:
117:
115:
114:
113:
108:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
39:
19:
18:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2407:
2406:
2378:
2349:
2347:
2330:
2328:Further reading
2325:
2313:
2309:
2301:
2297:
2281:
2280:
2274:
2272:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2247:
2246:
2239:
2229:
2227:
2212:
2208:
2200:
2193:
2185:
2181:
2168:
2164:
2142:10.2307/1389310
2126:
2122:
2114:
2107:
2099:
2095:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2063:
2047:
2043:
2031:
2027:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1965:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1937:
1933:
1888:
1884:
1872:
1866:
1859:
1848:Akwesasne Notes
1840:
1836:
1827:
1825:
1812:
1808:
1797:
1788:
1776:
1765:
1751:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1720:
1719:
1715:
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1693:
1689:
1672:
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1651:
1649:
1634:
1630:
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1618:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1575:
1568:
1546:
1542:
1532:
1528:
1519:
1517:
1516:, July 21, 1983
1506:
1505:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1462:
1458:
1424:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1354:
1350:
1340:The Daily Times
1336:
1327:
1317:
1315:
1304:
1297:
1273:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1225:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1178:
1162:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1146:
1142:
1126:
1125:
1120:
1113:
1105:
1096:
1086:
1084:
1069:
1065:
1056:
1054:
1053:on May 28, 2023
1039:
1035:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1008:
1002:
995:
986:
982:
971:
970:
963:
953:
951:
947:
943:
942:
938:
929:
927:
917:
913:
883:(9): 1595–600,
871:
844:
835:
824:
809:
795:
772:
767:, July 18, 1999
758:
757:
750:
746:
710:
637:
594:
585:Morris K. Udall
523:
475:Navajo-speaking
448:
340:
288:, and onto the
216:August 29, 1998
212:
179:
152:
151:
150:
149:
146:
145:
144:
143:
142:UNC Church Rock
139:
111:
109:
105:
102:
97:
94:
92:
90:
89:
46:
22:UNC Church Rock
17:
12:
11:
5:
2510:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
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2444:
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2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
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2404:
2396:
2391:
2377:
2376:External links
2374:
2373:
2372:
2365:
2356:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2307:
2295:
2256:
2237:
2206:
2179:
2173:In These Times
2162:
2120:
2093:
2090:, pp. 6–7
2076:
2074:, p. 151.
2072:Pasternak 2010
2061:
2041:
2025:
1983:
1979:Pasternak 2010
1971:
1951:
1931:
1882:
1857:
1834:
1806:
1786:
1763:
1742:
1713:
1700:Superfund Home
1687:
1659:
1628:
1602:
1584:
1566:
1556:(3): 469–522,
1540:
1526:
1496:
1483:
1477:978-0826337795
1476:
1456:
1407:
1373:
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1348:
1325:
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1254:
1211:
1176:
1140:
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993:
980:
961:
936:
911:
842:
822:
808:978-1416594826
807:
770:
747:
745:
742:
741:
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735:
730:
723:
716:
709:
706:
636:
633:
593:
590:
522:
519:
450:At 6:00 am, a
447:
444:
339:
336:
225:
224:
218:
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214:
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207:
206:August 8, 1983
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31:
24:
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9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2509:
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2414:
2412:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2371:, 1656 (1981)
2370:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2345:
2341:
2340:truth-out.org
2337:
2332:
2331:
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2139:
2136:(2): 231–48,
2135:
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2073:
2068:
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2055:
2051:
2045:
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2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1980:
1975:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1909:
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1878:
1871:
1864:
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1849:
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1810:
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1717:
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1679:
1678:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1652:September 21,
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1621:September 21,
1616:
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1400:September 21,
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1247:September 21,
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1223:
1215:
1208:on 2011-05-31
1204:
1200:
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1111:
1103:
1101:
1099:
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1074:
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1026:September 21,
1018:
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1007:
1000:
998:
991:
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831:
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793:
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789:
787:
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781:
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766:
762:
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748:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
728:
724:
722:
721:
717:
715:
712:
711:
705:
702:
698:
694:
691:
690:radionuclides
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
666:
664:
658:
655:
654:sulfuric acid
651:
647:
643:
632:
630:
624:
621:
620:shallow wells
617:
612:
606:
598:
589:
586:
581:
577:
572:
570:
565:
561:
557:
552:
547:
545:
544:contaminating
535:
527:
518:
515:
511:
507:
502:
500:
495:
491:
486:
482:
480:
476:
472:
467:
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460:
455:
453:
443:
439:
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429:
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417:
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401:
397:
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389:
385:
381:
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373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
348:
344:
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
306:
303:
298:
295:
291:
290:Navajo Nation
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
258:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
223:
219:
215:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
188:
185:
182:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
155:
130:
121:
116:
88:
84:
81:
78:
74:
71:
68:
64:
61:
58:
54:
49:
44:
38:
33:
29:
25:
20:
2399:
2368:
2362:
2348:. Retrieved
2344:the original
2339:
2318:
2310:
2298:
2273:. Retrieved
2268:
2259:
2249:
2228:. Retrieved
2219:
2209:
2198:the original
2189:
2182:
2171:
2165:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2103:
2096:
2085:
2079:
2049:
2044:
2037:
2028:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1974:
1960:
1954:
1941:
1934:
1899:
1895:
1885:
1876:
1847:
1837:
1826:, retrieved
1824:, p. A5
1819:
1809:
1800:
1778:
1753:
1734:. Retrieved
1725:
1716:
1704:. Retrieved
1699:
1690:
1684:, p. 96
1676:
1650:. Retrieved
1642:Navajo Times
1641:
1631:
1619:. Retrieved
1605:
1587:
1578:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1534:
1529:
1518:, retrieved
1511:
1491:
1486:
1466:
1459:
1435:
1431:
1398:. Retrieved
1386:
1376:
1357:
1351:
1339:
1316:. Retrieved
1312:the original
1288:– via
1278:
1245:. Retrieved
1221:
1214:
1203:the original
1190:
1154:. Retrieved
1143:
1118:the original
1109:
1085:. Retrieved
1081:the original
1076:
1066:
1055:. Retrieved
1051:the original
1046:
1036:
1024:. Retrieved
1012:
983:
973:
952:. Retrieved
939:
930:December 28,
928:, retrieved
925:E&E News
924:
914:
880:
874:
837:
798:
760:
725:
718:
703:
699:
695:
667:
659:
638:
625:
607:
603:
573:
548:
540:
503:
487:
483:
468:
456:
449:
440:
353:
341:
317:
299:
274:Puerco River
259:
247:uranium mill
230:
228:
211:Construction
170:Contaminants
165:NMD030443303
1999:(2): 2–13,
1828:December 9,
1520:December 9,
1438:(1): 1–50,
1318:December 9,
338:Dam failure
294:groundwater
266:uranium ore
251:Church Rock
178:Responsible
157:Information
110: /
98:108°30′23″W
86:Coordinates
43:Church Rock
2411:Categories
2275:2020-03-11
2087:Z Magazine
1736:2020-03-11
1706:7 November
1290:Wikisource
1156:2016-04-26
1057:2020-03-11
744:References
697:facility.
564:settlement
560:Bruce King
479:Bruce King
400:molybdenum
362:(4.7
360:nanocuries
330:, the EPA
305:Bruce King
235:New Mexico
162:CERCLIS ID
95:35°39′03″N
80:New Mexico
2230:March 11,
2176:, Chicago
2158:146919626
2021:144137896
817:464593180
686:Superfund
576:bentonite
471:radiation
396:manganese
392:magnesium
388:aluminium
213:completed
51:Geography
28:Superfund
2284:cite web
2224:Archived
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1238:Archived
1165:cite web
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907:17666688
708:See also
611:aquifers
580:kerosene
446:Response
436:aquifers
432:sulfates
416:vanadium
408:selenium
380:polonium
243:tailings
195:Proposed
190:Progress
70:McKinley
2350:27 June
2269:epa.gov
2150:1389310
2058:2917862
1917:1963288
1234:7977200
954:22 June
898:1963288
680:of the
670:ammonia
642:Arizona
635:Cleanup
629:cancers
592:Effects
569:bedrock
384:cadmium
372:thorium
368:uranium
324:natural
320:Chapter
180:parties
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521:Causes
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426:, and
412:sodium
404:nickel
376:radium
278:curies
203:Listed
66:County
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2154:S2CID
2146:JSTOR
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2009:JSTOR
1966:(PDF)
1962:Mines
1873:(PDF)
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1536:1979.
1448:JSTOR
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282:alpha
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2290:link
2232:2020
2054:PMID
1922:PMID
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1654:2024
1623:2024
1522:2012
1472:ISBN
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1362:ISBN
1320:2012
1249:2024
1230:OCLC
1171:link
1135:link
1089:2019
1028:2024
956:2020
932:2012
903:PMID
813:OCLC
803:ISBN
674:lime
672:and
648:and
578:and
464:Diné
428:lead
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420:zinc
378:and
328:2016
300:The
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