1202:"There is considerable confidence that climate models provide credible quantitative estimates of future climate change, particularly at continental scales and above. This confidence comes from the foundation of the models in accepted physical principles and from their ability to reproduce observed features of current climate and past climate changes. Confidence in model estimates is higher for some climate variables (e.g., temperature) than for others (e.g., precipitation). Over several decades of development, models have consistently provided a robust and unambiguous picture of significant climate warming in response to increasing greenhouse gases."
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922:(which must be reduced by the fourth power of the ratio of cloud absolute temperature to average surface absolute temperature) and an average cloud temperature of about 258 K (−15 °C; 5 °F). Taking all this properly into account results in an effective earth emissivity of about 0.64 (earth average temperature 285 K (12 °C; 53 °F)).
942:, which may be readily extended to an arbitrary number of atmospheric layers. The surface and atmospheric layer(s) are each characterized by a corresponding temperature and emissivity value, but no thickness. Applying radiative equilibrium (i.e conservation of energy) at the interfaces between layers produces a set of coupled equations which are solvable.
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states, the constituent and dimensional complexities of the system needed to be reduced. A simple quantitative model that balanced incoming/outgoing energy was first developed for the atmosphere in the late 19th century. Other EBMs similarly seek an economical description of surface temperatures by
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The calculated emissivity can be compared to available data. Terrestrial surface emissivities are all in the range of 0.96 to 0.99 (except for some small desert areas which may be as low as 0.7). Clouds, however, which cover about half of the planet's surface, have an average emissivity of about 0.5
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view while highly limited is still useful in that the laws of physics are applicable in a bulk fashion to unknown objects, or in an appropriate lumped manner if some major properties of the object are known. For example, astronomers know that most planets in our own solar system feature some kind
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or climate model is a method of replacing processes that are too small-scale or complex to be physically represented in the model by a simplified process. This can be contrasted with other processes—e.g., large-scale flow of the atmosphere—that are explicitly resolved within the models. Associated
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Techniques that could lead to energy savings, include for example: "reducing floating point precision computation; developing machine learning algorithms to avoid unnecessary computations; and creating a new generation of scalable numerical algorithms that would enable higher throughput in terms of
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operating at the highest spatial and temporal resolution currently feasible. Models of intermediate complexity bridge the gap. One example is the
Climber-3 model. Its atmosphere is a 2.5-dimensional statistical-dynamical model with 7.5° × 22.5° resolution and time step of half a day; the ocean is
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Box 2.3. 'Models' are typically numerical simulations of real-world systems, calibrated and validated using observations from experiments or analogies, and then run using input data representing future climate. Models can also include largely descriptive narratives of possible futures, such as
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Simple box models, i.e. box model with a small number of boxes whose properties (e.g. their volume) do not change with time, are often useful to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of a species. More complex box models are usually solved using numerical
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Radiative-convective models have advantages over simpler models and also lay a foundation for more complex models. They can estimate both surface temperature and the temperature variation with elevation in a more realistic manner. They also simulate the observed decline in upper atmospheric
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Big climate models are essential but they are not perfect. Attention still needs to be given to the real world (what is happening and why). The global models are essential to assimilate all the observations, especially from space (satellites) and produce comprehensive analyses of what is
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report discussed how the large and diverse U.S. climate modeling enterprise could evolve to become more unified. Efficiencies could be gained by developing a common software infrastructure shared by all U.S. climate researchers, and holding an annual climate modeling forum, the report found.
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in the model's atmosphere gave a roughly 2 °C rise in global temperature. Several other kinds of computer models gave similar results: it was impossible to make a model that gave something resembling the actual climate and not have the temperature rise when the
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is a main determinant of the emissivity of Earth's atmosphere. It both influences the flows of radiation and is influenced by convective flows of heat in a manner that is consistent with its equilibrium concentration and temperature as a function of elevation (i.e.
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averaged. This model has the advantage of allowing a rational dependence of local albedo and emissivity on temperature – the poles can be allowed to be icy and the equator warm – but the lack of true dynamics means that horizontal transports have to be specified.
1177:. The latest update (version 3.1) of the standalone CAM was issued on 1 February 2006. In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, resulting in more realistic forecasts. Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models, such as the
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of Earth's combined surface and atmosphere (including clouds). It is a quantity between 0 and 1 that is calculated from the equilibrium to be about 0.61. For the zero-dimensional treatment it is equivalent to an average value over all viewing
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This very simple model is quite instructive. For example, it shows the temperature sensitivity to changes in the solar constant, Earth albedo, or effective Earth emissivity. The effective emissivity also gauges the strength of the atmospheric
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AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate models and internalise as many processes as possible. However, they are still under development and uncertainties remain. They may be coupled to models of other processes, such as the
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Simulation of the climate system in full 3-D space and time was impractical prior to the establishment of large computational facilities starting in the 1960s. In order to begin to understand which factors may have changed Earth's
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is therefore uniform. However, the abundance of a species within a given box may vary as a function of time due to the input to (or loss from) the box or due to the production, consumption or decay of this species within the box.
1300:. Radiative parameterizations are important to both atmospheric and oceanic modeling alike. Atmospheric emissions from different sources within individual grid boxes also need to be parameterized to determine their impact on
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In 1956, Norman
Phillips developed a mathematical model that realistically depicted monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere. This was the first successful climate model. Several groups then began working to create
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happening, and then they can be used to make predictions/projections. Simple models have a role to play that is widely abused and fails to recognize the simplifications such as not including a water cycle.
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transfer model treats the Earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy. This can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models) and horizontally. More complex models are the coupled atmosphere–ocean–
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Other parameters are sometimes included to simulate localized effects in other dimensions and to address the factors that move energy about Earth. For example, the effect of ice-albedo feedback on global
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distribution). This has been shown by refining the zero dimension model in the vertical to a one-dimensional radiative-convective model which considers two processes of energy transport:
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516:. A variety of these and other reduced system models can be useful for specialized tasks that supplement GCMs, particularly to bridge gaps between simulation and understanding.
452:, ARPEGE-Climat) combine the two models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the
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1381:"AR5 Synthesis Report - Climate Change 2014. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change"
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Depending on the nature of questions asked and the pertinent time scales, there are, on the one extreme, conceptual, more inductive models, and, on the other extreme,
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Layered models produce temperatures that better estimate those observed for Earth's surface and atmospheric levels. They likewise further illustrate the radiative
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350:. To "run" a model, scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid, apply the basic equations, and evaluate the results. Atmospheric models calculate
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1977:"METEO 469: From Meteorology to Mitigation - Understanding Global Warming - Lesson 5 - Modelling of the Climate System - One-Layer Energy Balance Model"
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processes which underlie the greenhouse effect. Quantification of this phenomenon using a version of the one-layer model was first published by
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Dimensionless models have also been constructed with functionally separated atmospheric layers from the surface. The simplest of these is the
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The zero-dimensional model may be expanded to consider the energy transported horizontally in the atmosphere. This kind of model may well be
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508:. Some models account for effects of ocean, land, or ice features on the surface budget. Others include interactions with parts of the
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used in the simplified processes. Examples include the descent rate of raindrops, convective clouds, simplifications of the atmospheric
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114:. Climate models can also be qualitative (i.e. not numerical) models and contain narratives, largely descriptive, of possible futures.
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1143:. The first general circulation climate model combined oceanic and atmospheric processes and was developed in the late 1960s at the
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This article is about the theories and mathematics of climate modeling. For computer-driven prediction of Earth's climate, see
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482:. These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical, chemical and sometimes biological equations.
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in the climate system and has been considered foundational for the energy balance models since its publication in 1969.
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Sarmiento, J.L.; Toggweiler, J.R. (1984). "A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2".
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had developed the
Community Atmosphere Model (CAM), which can be run by itself or as the atmospheric component of the
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Proceedings of the
Eleventh Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 2001 Atlanta, Georgia
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North, Gerald R.; Stevens, Mark J. (2006), "Energy-balance climate models", in Kiehl, J. T.; Ramanathan, V. (eds.),
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upwelling and downwelling radiative transfer through atmospheric layers that both absorb and emit infrared radiation
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Proceedings of the Eighth
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 1998 Tucson, Arizona
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1821:"An Improved Land Surface Emissivity Parameter for Land Surface Models Using Global Remote Sensing Observations"
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Essential features of EBMs include their relative conceptual simplicity and their ability to sometimes produce
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2097:"Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model"
2075:"Pubs.GISS: Wang and Stone 1980: Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional..."
1980:
918:, since it is the ratio of the thermal emissions escaping to space versus those emanating from the surface.
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the right hand side represents the total outgoing longwave power (in Watts) from Earth, calculated from the
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Universities: Relevant departments include atmospheric sciences, meteorology, climatology, and geography.
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198:. Scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply the basic equations to those grids.
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There are three major types of institution where climate models are developed, implemented and used:
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1899:"Microwave and IR Radiometry for Estimation of Atmospheric Radiation Balance and Sea Ice Formation"
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Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by
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those used in scenario construction. Quantitative and descriptive models are often used together.
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upward transport of heat by air and vapor convection, which is especially important in the lower
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Box models are used extensively to model environmental systems or ecosystems and in studies of
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consumes 29 MW. It can simulate a year’s worth of climate at cloud resolving scales in a day.
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Held, Isaac M. (2005). "The gap between simulation and understanding in climate modelling".
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The IPCC stated in 2010 it has increased confidence in forecasts coming from climate models:
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within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points. These are coupled with
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1983:
College of
Mineral and Earth Sciences - Department of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences
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and radiant exchange. In addition, other types of models can be interlinked. For example
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the left hand side represents the total incoming shortwave power (in Watts) from the Sun
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2010:"Thermal Equilibrium of the Atmosphere with a Given Distribution of Relative Humidity"
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Polvani, L. M.; Clement, A. C.; Medeiros, B.; Benedict, J. J.; Simpson, I. R. (2017).
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1927:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Single-Layer Atmosphere Model"
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2189:"A Global Climatic Model Based on the Energy Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System"
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1952:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Multi-Layer Atmosphere Model"
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1252:(billion billion – i.e., a quintillion – calculations per second). For example, the
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the left hand side represents the incoming shortwave energy flux from the Sun in W·m
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the right hand side represents the outgoing longwave energy flux from Earth in W·m.
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T.R. Shippert; S.A. Clough; P.D. Brown; W.L. Smith; R.O. Knuteson; S.A. Ackerman.
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Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or
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has been investigated using a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model.
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Primary research GCM developed by NASA/GISS (Goddard
Institute for Space Studies)
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1514:"On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground"
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that gave a roughly accurate representation of the current climate. Doubling CO
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from the Sun as well as outgoing energy from Earth. An imbalance results in a
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Zero-dimensional models consider Earth as a point in space, analogous to the
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The remaining variable parameters which are specific to the planet include
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can be factored out, giving a nildimensional equation for the equilibrium
175:. This allows researchers to predict the interactions between climate and
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the Earth's atmosphere or oceans. Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs (AGCM and
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National meteorological services: Most national weather services have a
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1219:(WMO), coordinates research activities on climate modelling worldwide.
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National and international research laboratories: Examples include the
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2228:
J. Graham Cogley (1990). "Twenty-five years of physical climatology".
2156:"The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth"
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1592:, Wiley Series in Atmospheric Physics and Remote Sensing, Wiley-VCH,
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Climate models divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply
2593:"Impact of vegetation properties on U. S. summer weather prediction"
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as boundary conditions. Coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs (AOGCMs, e.g.
159:. These types of models solve the full equations for mass transfer,
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2819:"Cloud-resolving climate model meets world's fastest supercomputer"
2318:"The general circulation of the atmosphere: a numerical experiment"
2255:
1726:"Scientists Watch Dark Side of the Moon to Monitor Earth's Climate"
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1422:
Trenberth, Kevin E. (2022). "Chapter 1: Earth and
Climate System".
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within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points.
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CarbonBrief, Guest post by
Belcher, Boucher, Sutton, 21 March 2019
2794:"Frontier to Meet 20MW Exascale Power Target Set by DARPA in 2008"
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Cloud-resolving climate models are nowadays run on high intensity
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The
Emergence of Numerical Weather Prediction: Richardson's Dream
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constraint to individual columns of the Earth-atmosphere system.
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By 1975, Manabe and Wetherald had developed a three-dimensional
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125:. The incoming energy from the Sun is in the form of short wave
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1641:"When less is more: opening the door to simpler climate models"
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628:{\displaystyle (1-a)S\pi r^{2}=4\pi r^{2}\epsilon \sigma T^{4}}
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402:). These equations are the basis for computer programs used to
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2531:"Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0)"
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Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
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Why results from the next generation of climate models matter
1492:"NOAA 200th Top Tens: Breakthroughs: The First Climate Model"
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106:. Scientists use climate models to study the dynamics of the
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Concentration on the Climate of a General Circulation Model"
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of solid/liquid surface surrounded by a gaseous atmosphere.
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Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models
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10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0003:teodtc>2.0.co;2
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10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0392:AGCMBO>2.0.CO;2
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10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0545:EOIAFO>2.0.CO;2
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10.1175/1520-0469(1967)024<0241:TEOTAW>2.0.CO;2
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that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of
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to each grid. The equations are based on the basic laws of
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amounts of other non-condensible greenhouse gases such as
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Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
2757:"Earth System Modeling Must Become More Energy Efficient"
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Yongkang Xue & Michael J. Fennessey (20 March 1996).
1356:
Verification and validation of computer simulation models
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or an astronomer's view of very distant objects. This
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Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere and impose
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Climate models vary in complexity. For example, a simple
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Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement
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electromagnetic energy. These processes are part of the
137:. The outgoing energy is in the form of long wave (far)
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A.G. Gorelik; V. Sterljadkin; E. Kadygrov; A. Koldaev.
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Earth systems models of intermediate complexity (EMICs)
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1425:
The Changing Flow of Energy Through the Climate System
5324:
4171:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2881:
CCCma model info and interface to retrieve model data
2877:(GCM) with a user-friendly interface for PCs and Macs
2326:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
1244:
which have a high power consumption and thus cause CO
889:
857:
829:
754:
720:
691:
558:
1670:"Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance"
1056:) with a 3.75° × 3.75° grid and 24 vertical levels.
926:
Models with separated surface and atmospheric layers
316:
230:
that occurs on different timescales due to shifting
1068:Schematic of a simple box model used to illustrate
2725:A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling
2695:A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling
2528:
2315:
2186:
1870:"Spectral Cloud Emissivities from LBLRTM/AERI QME"
895:
863:
835:
797:
737:
697:
627:
2723:"U.S. National Research Council Report-in-Brief,
1179:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
985:temperature and rise in surface temperature when
294:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
110:and to make projections of future climate and of
5360:
4371:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2227:
1511:
2571:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2538:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2435:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2004:
1614:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1149:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
674:is Earth's radius—approximately 6.371×10 m
486:
378:(GCM) is a type of climate model. It employs a
2094:
1778:"Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System"
1587:
1043:Earth systems model of intermediate complexity
956:
246:better accounts for long term effects such as
5083:
4485:
3106:History of climate change policy and politics
2901:
2529:William D. Collins; et al. (June 2004).
2266:
1518:Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
798:{\displaystyle (1-a)S=4\epsilon \sigma T^{4}}
29:Quantitative methods used to simulate climate
2000:
1998:
1545:
421:GCMs and global climate models are used for
242:of change may also be applied. Including an
3223:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
2393:
2359:
2153:
1206:
5090:
5076:
4492:
4478:
4452:
4440:
3897:
2908:
2894:
1428:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1235:
1194:Increase of forecasts confidence over time
1004:
541:Model with combined surface and atmosphere
519:
382:of the general circulation of a planetary
4192:
3998:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
3131:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2768:
2621:
2488:
2212:
2171:
2120:
2033:
1995:
1652:
1588:North, Gerald R.; Kwang-Yul, Kim (2017),
1563:
1541:
1539:
1421:
1284:with these parameterizations are various
724:
5097:
3702:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
2859:NCAR/UCAR Community Climate System Model
2693:"U.S. National Research Council Report,
1818:
1507:
1505:
1171:National Center for Atmospheric Research
1072:in geochemical cycles, showing a source
1063:
929:
329:
274:National Center for Atmospheric Research
117:Climate models take account of incoming
49:
39:For broader coverage of this topic, see
4058:National Adaptation Programme of Action
3847:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
2875:Original NASA/GISS global climate model
2221:
1915:from the original on 25 September 2006.
1886:from the original on 25 September 2006.
682:is the mathematical constant (3.141...)
14:
5361:
5258:Construction and management simulation
3707:Economics of climate change mitigation
3670:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
3183:
3011:Scientific consensus on climate change
2791:
2366:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
2008:; Wetherald, Richard T. (1 May 1967).
1536:
5071:
4597:
4509:
4473:
4366:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
4191:
3896:
3632:
3182:
3094:
2975:
2927:
2889:
2750:
2748:
2661:"Climate Models and Their Evaluation"
1667:
1502:
1260:simulated years per wall clock day."
1145:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
1029:). This work also showed the role of
476:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
457:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
282:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
5369:Numerical climate and weather models
5294:List of computer simulation software
4785:Regional and mesoscale oceanographic
4388:Representative Concentration Pathway
3329:Tipping points in the climate system
3005:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
2754:
1756:"Climate Change: Global Temperature"
1611:
1550:, Cambridge University, p. 52,
1378:
1294:atmospheric radiative transfer codes
1185:model, are being used as inputs for
1132:Atmospheric model § Climate modeling
934:One-layer EBM with blackbody surface
302:Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
4598:
4159:Nationally determined contributions
3869:Individual action on climate change
3074:World energy supply and consumption
2567:"CAM3.0 COMMUNITY ATMOSPHERE MODEL"
2469:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
2459:Manabe S.; Wetherald R. T. (1975).
2014:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
1017:Early examples include research of
24:
4727:Regional and mesoscale atmospheric
4298:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
2915:
2745:
1714:from the original on 22 July 2018.
1668:Goode, P. R.; et al. (2001).
1271:Parametrization (climate modeling)
1263:
394:terms for various energy sources (
25:
5385:
4225:Satellite temperature measurement
3830:forestry for carbon sequestration
3111:History of climate change science
2865:Do it yourself climate prediction
2839:
2316:Norman A. Phillips (April 1956).
1857:from the original on 4 June 2007.
1802:"Seawater Samples - Emissivities"
1351:Tropical cyclone prediction model
1325:Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
1217:World Meteorological Organization
1125:History of climate change science
940:zero-dimensional, one-layer model
317:General circulation models (GCMs)
5346:
5334:
4451:
4439:
4428:
4427:
4415:
4076:Climate Change Performance Index
3455:Destruction of cultural heritage
1269:This section is an excerpt from
1213:World Climate Research Programme
1130:This section is an excerpt from
653:The constant parameters include
410:) are key components along with
322:This section is an excerpt from
5222:Integrated assessment modelling
4551:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4546:Tropical cyclone forecast model
4510:
4215:Instrumental temperature record
4166:Sustainable Development Goal 13
2811:
2785:
2715:
2685:
2653:
2601:Journal of Geophysical Research
2584:
2559:
2522:
2497:
2461:"The Effects of Doubling the CO
2452:
2427:
2248:
2180:
2147:
2129:
2095:Wang, W.C.; P.H. Stone (1980).
2088:
2067:
2042:
1969:
1944:
1919:
1890:
1861:
1819:Jin M, Liang S (15 June 2006).
1812:
1794:
1770:
1748:
1732:. 17 April 2001. Archived from
1718:
1661:
1632:
1463:. NOAA 200th Celebration. 2007.
1254:Frontier exascale supercomputer
4283:Climate variability and change
3633:
3314:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
2193:Journal of Applied Meteorology
1605:
1581:
1548:Frontiers in Climate Modelling
1484:
1467:
1415:
1372:
1224:U.S. National Research Council
1175:Community Climate System Model
767:
755:
710:—approximately 5.67×10 J·K·m·s
571:
559:
334:Climate models are systems of
290:Los Alamos National Laboratory
228:climate variability and change
182:Climate models are systems of
13:
1:
4393:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
3928:Climate emergency declaration
1981:Pennsylvania State University
1590:Energy Balance Climate Models
1366:
1248:emissions. They require
1169:By the early 1980s, the U.S.
1167:concentration was increased.
1059:
876:, measured as about 288
234:and the much larger combined
5191:Hydrological transport model
5145:Protein structure prediction
5140:Modelling biological systems
4951:Land surface parametrization
4541:Numerical weather prediction
4376:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
3602:Middle East and North Africa
2928:
2242:10.1016/0921-8181(90)90001-S
1783:. NASA. 2013. Archived from
1556:10.1017/CBO9780511535857.004
1341:Numerical Weather Prediction
487:Energy balance models (EBMs)
304:in Hamburg, Germany, or the
7:
5135:Metabolic network modelling
3450:Depopulation of settlements
3095:
2230:Global and Planetary Change
2187:William D. Sellers (1969).
2173:10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109
1308:
957:Radiative-convective models
874:average surface temperature
738:{\displaystyle \pi \,r^{2}}
545:A very simple model of the
338:based on the basic laws of
186:based on the basic laws of
10:
5390:
5248:Business process modelling
4210:Global surface temperature
4101:Popular culture depictions
4013:Ecosystem-based adaptation
3743:Carbon capture and storage
3665:Carbon offsets and credits
2976:
2853:Climate models on the web:
2404:Cambridge University Press
1730:American Geophysical Union
1268:
1147:, a component of the U.S.
1141:general circulation models
1129:
1122:
1118:
1111:. They are instances of a
1049:general circulation models
1040:
390:on a rotating sphere with
321:
38:
31:
5281:
5235:
5209:
5153:
5120:Chemical process modeling
5105:
5037:
4992:
4976:
4950:
4919:
4833:
4784:
4726:
4664:
4608:
4604:
4593:
4576:Meteorological reanalysis
4516:
4505:
4422:Climate change portal
4409:
4348:
4315:Extreme event attribution
4233:
4202:
4198:
4187:
4131:
4066:
3988:
3938:School Strike for Climate
3910:
3906:
3892:
3861:
3817:Climate-smart agriculture
3778:
3735:
3645:
3641:
3628:
3552:
3405:
3352:
3195:
3191:
3178:
3101:
3090:
3019:
2988:
2984:
2971:
2954:Climate change adaptation
2949:Climate change mitigation
2944:Effects of climate change
2934:
2923:
2439:"The First Climate Model"
1956:American Chemical Society
1931:American Chemical Society
1530:10.1080/14786449608620846
1512:Svante Arrhenius (1896).
1478:27 September 2007 at the
1461:"The First Climate Model"
1230:
896:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
708:Stefan–Boltzmann constant
376:general circulation model
324:General circulation model
127:electromagnetic radiation
34:General circulation model
5166:Chemical transport model
5130:Infectious disease model
4561:Upper-atmospheric models
4556:Chemical transport model
4325:Global warming potential
4132:International agreements
3779:Preserving and enhancing
3213:Arctic methane emissions
3135:Years in climate change
3042:Greenhouse gas emissions
2939:Causes of climate change
2792:Trader, Tiffany (2021).
2396:"The ENIAC Integrations"
1346:Static atmospheric model
1320:Chemical transport model
1207:Coordination of research
438:sea surface temperatures
236:volume and heat capacity
90:. These drivers are the
4571:Model output statistics
4356:Climate change scenario
4008:Disaster risk reduction
3660:Carbon emission trading
3470:U.S. insurance industry
3440:Civilizational collapse
3287:sea surface temperature
2137:"Energy Balance Models"
1626:10.1175/BAMS-86-11-1609
1236:Electricity consumption
1113:multi-compartment model
1005:Higher-dimension models
698:{\displaystyle \sigma }
520:Zero-dimensional models
388:Navier–Stokes equations
253:
4834:Atmospheric dispersion
4349:Research and modelling
4033:Nature-based solutions
3853:Nature-based solutions
3795:Carbon dioxide removal
3712:Fossil fuel divestment
3697:Climate risk insurance
3607:Small island countries
3218:Arctic sea ice decline
2755:Loft, Richard (2020).
2347:10.1002/qj.49708235202
2050:"Syukuro Manabe Facts"
1403:Cite journal requires
1315:Atmospheric reanalysis
1215:(WCRP), hosted by the
1204:
1084:
935:
897:
865:
837:
799:
739:
699:
629:
499:conservation of energy
386:or ocean. It uses the
371:
336:differential equations
238:of the global ocean.
184:differential equations
133:and short-wave (near)
71:
56:differential equations
5299:Mathematical modeling
5243:Biopsychosocial model
4310:Earth's energy budget
4193:Background and theory
4081:Climate crisis (term)
3753:Fossil fuel phase-out
3647:Economics and finance
3612:by individual country
3554:By country and region
3529:Security and conflict
3524:Psychological impacts
3203:Abrupt climate change
3126:Charles David Keeling
2959:By country and region
1434:10.1017/9781108979030
1336:Climateprediction.net
1331:Climate Data Exchange
1200:
1067:
933:
898:
866:
848:, measured to be 0.3.
838:
800:
740:
700:
630:
547:radiative equilibrium
480:Princeton, New Jersey
333:
286:Princeton, New Jersey
157:global climate models
123:change in temperature
80:climate system models
53:
5253:Catastrophe modeling
5099:Scientific modelling
5052:Scientific modelling
4566:Ensemble forecasting
4139:Glasgow Climate Pact
3800:Carbon sequestration
3365:Mass mortality event
2770:10.1029/2020EO147051
2673:on 22 September 2010
2547:on 26 September 2019
2394:Peter Lynch (2006).
2360:John D. Cox (2002).
2154:M.I. Budyko (1969).
1790:on 18 February 2013.
1697:10.1029/2000GL012580
1654:10.1029/2017EO079417
1156:global climate model
1027:Budyko-Sellers model
906:effective emissivity
887:
855:
827:
752:
718:
689:
647:Stefan–Boltzmann law
556:
506:analytical solutions
425:, understanding the
5196:Modular Ocean Model
5057:Computer simulation
4526:Oceanographic model
4278:Climate sensitivity
4053:The Adaptation Fund
3509:Infectious diseases
3406:Social and economic
2614:1996JGR...101.7419X
2481:1975JAtS...32....3M
2339:1956QJRMS..82..123P
2287:1984Natur.308..621S
2205:1969JApMe...8..392S
2113:1980JAtS...37..545W
2026:1967JAtS...24..241M
1840:2006JCli...19.2867J
1736:on 27 February 2009
1689:2001GeoRL..28.1671G
1054:Modular Ocean Model
999:climate sensitivity
844:is Earth's average
423:weather forecasting
165:Earth System Models
84:mathematical models
5289:Data visualization
5273:Input–output model
5186:Hydrological model
5176:Geologic modelling
5042:Mathematical model
4977:Cryospheric models
4920:Chemical transport
3849:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
3821:Forest management
3805:Direct air capture
3770:Sustainable energy
3727:Net zero emissions
3722:Low-carbon economy
3717:Green Climate Fund
3504:Indigenous peoples
3397:Plant biodiversity
3185:Effects and issues
2733:on 18 October 2012
2505:"CAM 3.1 Download"
1848:10.1175/JCLI3720.1
1677:Geophys. Res. Lett
1361:CICE sea ice model
1298:cloud microphysics
1290:radiative transfer
1250:exascale computing
1085:
1025:who worked on the
1023:William D. Sellers
936:
893:
861:
833:
795:
735:
695:
625:
429:, and forecasting
380:mathematical model
372:
200:Atmospheric models
72:
5322:
5321:
5201:Wildfire modeling
5181:Groundwater model
5161:Atmospheric model
5065:
5064:
5047:Statistical model
5033:
5032:
5029:
5028:
4589:
4588:
4531:Cryospheric model
4521:Atmospheric model
4467:
4466:
4405:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4340:Radiative forcing
4183:
4182:
4179:
4178:
4003:Adaptive capacity
3888:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3748:Energy transition
3624:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3334:Tropical cyclones
3260:Urban heat island
3174:
3173:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3047:Carbon accounting
3001:Greenhouse effect
2967:
2966:
2703:on 3 October 2012
2632:10.1029/95JD02169
2509:www.cesm.ucar.edu
2413:978-0-521-85729-1
2377:978-0-471-38108-2
1620:(11): 1609–1614.
1599:978-3-527-41132-0
1443:978-1-108-97903-0
1327:(ARM) (in the US)
1105:ocean circulation
1031:positive feedback
967:relative humidity
916:greenhouse effect
864:{\displaystyle T}
836:{\displaystyle a}
364:relative humidity
278:Boulder, Colorado
216:relative humidity
143:greenhouse effect
41:Atmospheric model
16:(Redirected from
5381:
5374:Climate modeling
5351:
5350:
5339:
5338:
5330:
5314:Visual analytics
5309:Systems thinking
5227:Population model
5092:
5085:
5078:
5069:
5068:
4606:
4605:
4595:
4594:
4507:
4506:
4494:
4487:
4480:
4471:
4470:
4455:
4454:
4443:
4442:
4431:
4430:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4383:Paleoclimatology
4200:
4199:
4189:
4188:
3950:Ecological grief
3933:Climate movement
3908:
3907:
3894:
3893:
3874:Plant-based diet
3765:Renewable energy
3643:
3642:
3630:
3629:
3465:Economic impacts
3387:Invasive species
3243:Coastal flooding
3193:
3192:
3180:
3179:
3116:Svante Arrhenius
3092:
3091:
3062:from agriculture
3052:Carbon footprint
3037:Greenhouse gases
2986:
2985:
2973:
2972:
2925:
2924:
2910:
2903:
2896:
2887:
2886:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2752:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2729:. Archived from
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2699:. Archived from
2689:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2672:
2666:. Archived from
2665:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2640:
2634:. Archived from
2625:
2597:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2546:
2540:. Archived from
2535:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2391:
2382:
2381:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2333:(352): 123–154.
2322:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2295:10.1038/308621a0
2281:(5960): 621–24.
2270:
2264:
2263:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2236:(3–4): 213–216.
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2084:on 30 July 2012.
2080:. Archived from
2071:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1903:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1874:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1825:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1782:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1567:
1565:2060/19810008165
1543:
1534:
1533:
1524:(251): 237–276.
1509:
1500:
1499:
1488:
1482:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1448:
1447:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1391:
1385:
1376:
1292:on the basis of
1277:Parameterization
1093:chemical species
993:are included.
951:Svante Arrhenius
902:
900:
899:
894:
870:
868:
867:
862:
842:
840:
839:
834:
804:
802:
801:
796:
794:
793:
744:
742:
741:
736:
734:
733:
704:
702:
701:
696:
634:
632:
631:
626:
624:
623:
608:
607:
589:
588:
549:of the Earth is
240:External drivers
173:land use changes
21:
18:Climate modeling
5389:
5388:
5384:
5383:
5382:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5345:
5333:
5325:
5323:
5318:
5277:
5231:
5217:Energy modeling
5205:
5149:
5125:Ecosystem model
5101:
5096:
5066:
5061:
5025:
4988:
4972:
4946:
4915:
4829:
4780:
4722:
4660:
4600:
4599:Specific models
4585:
4581:Parametrization
4512:
4501:
4498:
4468:
4463:
4416:
4414:
4397:
4344:
4335:Orbital forcing
4229:
4194:
4175:
4149:Paris Agreement
4127:
4123:Warming stripes
4062:
4028:Managed retreat
4023:Loss and damage
3984:
3918:Business action
3902:
3880:
3857:
3780:
3774:
3731:
3692:Climate finance
3637:
3616:
3548:
3401:
3377:Extinction risk
3353:Flora and fauna
3348:
3309:Permafrost thaw
3304:Ozone depletion
3233:Extreme weather
3187:
3170:
3097:
3078:
3015:
2980:
2963:
2930:
2919:
2914:
2842:
2837:
2827:
2825:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2800:
2790:
2786:
2753:
2746:
2736:
2734:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2706:
2704:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2642:
2641:on 10 July 2010
2638:
2595:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2573:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2533:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2464:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2441:
2437:(22 May 2008).
2432:
2428:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2406:. p. 208.
2392:
2385:
2378:
2358:
2354:
2320:
2314:
2310:
2271:
2267:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2226:
2222:
2185:
2181:
2152:
2148:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2093:
2089:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2056:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2006:Manabe, Syukuro
2003:
1996:
1986:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1933:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1912:
1901:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1872:
1866:
1862:
1854:
1834:(12): 2867–81.
1823:
1817:
1813:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1761:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1737:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1711:
1672:
1666:
1662:
1637:
1633:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1544:
1537:
1510:
1503:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1480:Wayback Machine
1472:
1468:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1444:
1420:
1416:
1404:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1274:
1266:
1264:Parametrization
1247:
1242:super-computers
1238:
1233:
1209:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1166:
1161:
1135:
1127:
1121:
1062:
1045:
1039:
1007:
959:
928:
888:
885:
884:
880:as of year 2020
856:
853:
852:
828:
825:
824:
789:
785:
753:
750:
749:
729:
725:
719:
716:
715:
690:
687:
686:
619:
615:
603:
599:
584:
580:
557:
554:
553:
543:
522:
489:
484:
483:
327:
319:
308:(LSCE), France.
256:
244:ice-sheet model
161:energy transfer
48:
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5387:
5377:
5376:
5371:
5356:
5355:
5353:Global warming
5343:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5304:Systems theory
5301:
5296:
5291:
5285:
5283:
5282:Related topics
5279:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5270:
5268:Economic model
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5239:
5237:
5233:
5232:
5230:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5213:
5211:
5210:Sustainability
5207:
5206:
5204:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5157:
5155:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5115:Cellular model
5111:
5109:
5103:
5102:
5095:
5094:
5087:
5080:
5072:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
5000:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4986:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4954:
4952:
4948:
4947:
4945:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4923:
4921:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4837:
4835:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4786:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4762:
4759:
4754:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4730:
4728:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4720:
4717:
4712:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4668:
4666:
4665:Global weather
4662:
4661:
4659:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4602:
4601:
4591:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4496:
4489:
4482:
4474:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4461:
4449:
4437:
4425:
4410:
4407:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4379:
4378:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4301:
4300:
4290:
4288:Cloud feedback
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4243:
4237:
4235:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4206:
4204:
4196:
4195:
4185:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4146:
4144:Kyoto Protocol
4141:
4135:
4133:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4125:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4098:
4096:Media coverage
4093:
4088:
4086:Climate spiral
4083:
4078:
4072:
4070:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3994:
3992:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3975:Public opinion
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3941:
3940:
3930:
3925:
3923:Climate action
3920:
3914:
3912:
3904:
3903:
3890:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3865:
3863:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3850:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3835:REDD and REDD+
3832:
3827:
3819:
3814:
3812:Carbon farming
3809:
3808:
3807:
3802:
3792:
3786:
3784:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3745:
3739:
3737:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3639:
3638:
3626:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3558:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3544:Water security
3541:
3539:Water scarcity
3536:
3534:Urban flooding
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3382:Forest dieback
3379:
3374:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3319:Sea level rise
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3292:stratification
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3197:
3189:
3188:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3057:Carbon leakage
3054:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3008:
2998:
2996:Climate system
2992:
2990:
2982:
2981:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2921:
2920:
2917:Climate change
2913:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2878:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2850:
2849:
2841:
2840:External links
2838:
2836:
2835:
2810:
2784:
2744:
2714:
2684:
2652:
2623:10.1.1.453.551
2583:
2558:
2521:
2496:
2462:
2451:
2426:
2412:
2383:
2376:
2363:Storm Watchers
2352:
2308:
2265:
2260:pik-potsdam.de
2247:
2220:
2199:(3): 392–400.
2179:
2166:(5): 611–619.
2146:
2128:
2087:
2066:
2054:nobelprize.org
2041:
2020:(3): 241–259.
1994:
1968:
1943:
1918:
1889:
1860:
1811:
1793:
1769:
1747:
1717:
1660:
1631:
1604:
1598:
1580:
1574:
1535:
1501:
1483:
1466:
1449:
1442:
1414:
1405:|journal=
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1317:
1310:
1307:
1275:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1245:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1208:
1205:
1195:
1192:
1187:climate change
1164:
1159:
1136:
1128:
1120:
1117:
1080:and reservoir
1061:
1058:
1041:Main article:
1038:
1035:
1019:Mikhail Budyko
1006:
1003:
991:carbon dioxide
982:
981:
974:
958:
955:
953:in year 1896.
927:
924:
911:
910:
892:
881:
860:
849:
832:
817:
816:
813:
806:
805:
792:
788:
784:
781:
778:
775:
772:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
732:
728:
723:
712:
711:
694:
683:
675:
667:
664:solar constant
651:
650:
643:
636:
635:
622:
618:
614:
611:
606:
602:
598:
595:
592:
587:
583:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
542:
539:
521:
518:
488:
485:
468:Syukuro Manabe
431:climate change
366:, and surface
328:
320:
318:
315:
310:
309:
270:
267:
255:
252:
248:sea level rise
232:ocean currents
224:oceanic models
218:, and surface
112:climate change
108:climate system
76:climate models
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5386:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5366:
5364:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5331:
5328:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5263:Crime mapping
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5234:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5208:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5171:Climate model
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5154:Environmental
5152:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5112:
5110:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5093:
5088:
5086:
5081:
5079:
5074:
5073:
5070:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5039:
5036:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4991:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4979:
4975:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4949:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4918:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4832:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4783:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4725:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4663:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4596:
4592:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4536:Climate model
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4518:
4515:
4508:
4504:
4495:
4490:
4488:
4483:
4481:
4476:
4475:
4472:
4460:
4459:
4450:
4448:
4447:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4426:
4424:
4423:
4412:
4411:
4408:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4361:Climate model
4359:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4347:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4293:Cloud forcing
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4190:
4186:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4151:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4121:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4068:Communication
4065:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4048:Vulnerability
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4018:Flood control
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3935:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3891:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3851:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3840:reforestation
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3825:afforestation
3823:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3760:Nuclear power
3758:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3655:Carbon budget
3653:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3627:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
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3559:
3557:
3555:
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3542:
3540:
3537:
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3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3493:
3492:Mental health
3490:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3423:United States
3421:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3277:deoxygenation
3275:
3273:
3272:acidification
3270:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3093:
3089:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3067:from wetlands
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3027:Deforestation
3025:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2906:
2904:
2899:
2897:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2749:
2732:
2728:
2726:
2718:
2702:
2698:
2696:
2688:
2669:
2662:
2656:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2587:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2491:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2455:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2415:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2379:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2356:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2327:
2319:
2312:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2107:(3): 545–52.
2106:
2102:
2101:J. Atmos. Sci
2098:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1999:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1893:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1864:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1815:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1786:
1779:
1773:
1757:
1751:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:(9): 1671–4.
1682:
1678:
1671:
1664:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1584:
1577:
1575:9780511535857
1571:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1540:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1506:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1456:
1454:
1445:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1418:
1410:
1397:
1390:
1382:
1379:IPCC (2014).
1375:
1371:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1261:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1203:
1199:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1133:
1126:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1057:
1055:
1050:
1044:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1012:
1002:
1000:
994:
992:
988:
979:
975:
972:
971:
970:
968:
963:
954:
952:
948:
947:heat transfer
943:
941:
932:
923:
919:
917:
907:
903:
890:
882:
879:
875:
871:
858:
850:
847:
843:
830:
822:
821:
820:
814:
811:
810:
809:
790:
786:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
764:
761:
758:
748:
747:
746:
730:
726:
721:
714:The constant
709:
705:
692:
684:
681:
680:
676:
673:
672:
668:
665:
661:
660:
656:
655:
654:
648:
644:
641:
640:
639:
620:
616:
612:
609:
604:
600:
596:
593:
590:
585:
581:
577:
574:
568:
565:
562:
552:
551:
550:
548:
538:
535:
534:dimensionless
531:
527:
526:pale blue dot
517:
515:
511:
507:
502:
500:
497:applying the
495:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
463:
458:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
434:
432:
428:
424:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
392:thermodynamic
389:
385:
381:
377:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:heat transfer
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
325:
314:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
268:
265:
261:
260:
259:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
208:heat transfer
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
167:include also
166:
162:
158:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
69:
65:
61:
57:
52:
46:
45:Oceanic model
42:
35:
27:
19:
5170:
4993:Discontinued
4866:DISPERSION21
4535:
4456:
4444:
4432:
4413:
4360:
4246:Carbon cycle
4203:Measurements
3898:Society and
3782:carbon sinks
3687:Climate debt
3677:Carbon price
3499:Human rights
3324:Season creep
3282:heat content
3208:Anoxic event
3121:James Hansen
2852:
2851:
2826:. Retrieved
2822:
2813:
2801:. Retrieved
2797:
2787:
2760:
2735:. Retrieved
2731:the original
2724:
2717:
2705:. Retrieved
2701:the original
2694:
2687:
2675:. Retrieved
2668:the original
2655:
2643:. Retrieved
2636:the original
2608:(D3): 7419.
2605:
2599:
2586:
2574:. Retrieved
2561:
2549:. Retrieved
2542:the original
2524:
2512:. Retrieved
2508:
2499:
2472:
2468:
2454:
2442:. Retrieved
2429:
2417:. Retrieved
2399:
2362:
2355:
2330:
2324:
2311:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2259:
2250:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2163:
2159:
2149:
2140:
2131:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2082:the original
2077:
2069:
2057:. Retrieved
2053:
2044:
2017:
2013:
1985:. Retrieved
1971:
1959:. Retrieved
1946:
1934:. Retrieved
1921:
1905:
1892:
1876:
1863:
1831:
1827:
1814:
1805:
1796:
1785:the original
1772:
1760:. Retrieved
1750:
1738:. Retrieved
1734:the original
1729:
1720:
1680:
1676:
1663:
1644:
1634:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1589:
1583:
1547:
1521:
1517:
1495:
1486:
1469:
1424:
1417:
1396:cite journal
1387:
1374:
1285:
1258:
1239:
1221:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1153:
1137:
1109:carbon cycle
1102:
1100:techniques.
1098:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1046:
1026:
1016:
1008:
995:
983:
960:
944:
937:
920:
912:
883:
851:
823:
818:
807:
713:
685:
677:
669:
657:
652:
637:
544:
523:
514:carbon cycle
503:
494:paleoclimate
490:
462:carbon cycle
435:
420:
418:components.
416:land-surface
373:
344:fluid motion
311:
257:
226:to simulate
192:fluid motion
181:
150:radiant heat
147:
116:
100:land surface
79:
75:
73:
64:fluid motion
26:
4672:IFS (ECMWF)
4511:Model types
4273:Carbon sink
4251:atmospheric
4116:video games
3790:Blue carbon
3413:Agriculture
3392:Marine life
3339:Water cycle
3297:temperature
3032:Fossil fuel
2475:(3): 3–15.
2059:14 November
1302:air quality
978:troposphere
962:Water vapor
872:is Earth's
510:water cycle
400:latent heat
300:, UK), the
280:, US), the
264:climatology
171:as well as
5363:Categories
5107:Biological
4896:PUFF-PLUME
4856:AUSTAL2000
4715:GME / ICON
4682:GEM / GDPS
4631:GFDL CM2.X
4305:Cryosphere
4266:permafrost
4038:Resilience
3990:Adaptation
3965:Litigation
3955:Governance
3900:adaptation
3682:Carbon tax
3635:Mitigation
3572:Antarctica
3460:Disability
2828:8 December
2803:8 December
2707:18 January
2576:6 February
2419:6 February
2141:shodor.org
1828:J. Climate
1367:References
1286:parameters
1123:See also:
1089:reservoirs
1060:Box models
528:viewed by
478:(GFDL) in
472:Kirk Bryan
450:GFDL CM2.X
384:atmosphere
284:(GFDL, in
276:(NCAR, in
202:calculate
177:ecosystems
129:, chiefly
92:atmosphere
74:Numerical
4937:GEOS-Chem
4320:Feedbacks
4091:Education
3592:Caribbean
3587:Australia
3514:Migration
3477:Fisheries
3418:Livestock
3344:Wildfires
3250:Heat wave
2779:2324-9250
2737:3 October
2677:29 August
2645:6 January
2618:CiteSeerX
2551:3 January
2444:8 January
1987:2 October
1961:2 October
1936:2 October
891:ϵ
783:σ
780:ϵ
762:−
722:π
693:σ
613:σ
610:ϵ
597:π
578:π
566:−
530:Voyager 1
396:radiation
368:hydrology
360:radiation
348:chemistry
220:hydrology
212:radiation
196:chemistry
68:chemistry
4906:SAFE AIR
4739:RR / RAP
4446:Glossary
4434:Category
4256:biologic
3970:Politics
3862:Personal
3567:Americas
3430:Children
3196:Physical
2989:Overview
2929:Overview
2256:"emics1"
2078:nasa.gov
1910:Archived
1881:Archived
1852:Archived
1806:ucsb.edu
1709:Archived
1705:34790317
1496:noaa.gov
1476:Archived
1309:See also
1189:studies.
1107:and the
404:simulate
266:section.
169:land use
139:infrared
135:infrared
5327:Portals
4942:CHIMERE
4901:RIMPUFF
4881:MERCURE
4861:CALPUFF
4711:JMA-GSM
4626:HadGEM1
4609:Climate
4261:oceanic
4111:fiction
3960:Justice
3911:Society
3519:Poverty
3228:Drought
3096:History
3020:Sources
2823:LabNews
2798:HPCwire
2763:(101).
2610:Bibcode
2514:25 June
2477:Bibcode
2335:Bibcode
2303:4312683
2283:Bibcode
2201:Bibcode
2109:Bibcode
2022:Bibcode
1836:Bibcode
1740:1 March
1685:Bibcode
1281:weather
1222:A 2012
1119:History
1076:, sink
1052:MOM-3 (
1011:zonally
909:angles.
904:is the
706:is the
662:is the
474:at the
427:climate
412:sea ice
340:physics
288:, US),
188:physics
154:sea ice
131:visible
88:climate
60:physics
5341:Energy
5236:Social
5016:NOGAPS
4932:MOZART
4851:ATSTEP
4846:AERMOD
4825:ADCIRC
4815:MITgcm
4757:HIRLAM
4719:ARPEGE
4702:NAVGEM
4621:HadCM3
4241:Albedo
4234:Theory
3945:Denial
3736:Energy
3597:Europe
3577:Arctic
3562:Africa
3487:Health
3482:Gender
3435:Cities
3360:Biomes
3267:Oceans
3255:Marine
2978:Causes
2861:(CCSM)
2777:
2620:
2410:
2374:
2301:
2275:Nature
2160:Tellus
1762:6 July
1758:. NOAA
1703:
1647:(98).
1596:
1572:
1440:
1386:: 58.
1296:, and
1231:Issues
1183:HadCM3
1070:fluxes
846:albedo
808:where
638:where
442:HadCM3
346:, and
298:Exeter
292:, the
194:, and
119:energy
96:oceans
82:) are
66:, and
4963:CLASS
4958:JULES
4927:CLaMS
4911:SILAM
4820:FESOM
4810:FVCOM
4791:HyCOM
4777:HRDPS
4753:RAQMS
4697:NAEFS
4656:ECHAM
4651:CFSv2
4458:Index
4220:Proxy
3980:Women
3445:Crime
3372:Birds
3238:Flood
2671:(PDF)
2664:(PDF)
2639:(PDF)
2596:(PDF)
2545:(PDF)
2534:(PDF)
2321:(PDF)
2299:S2CID
1913:(PDF)
1902:(PDF)
1884:(PDF)
1873:(PDF)
1855:(PDF)
1824:(PDF)
1788:(PDF)
1781:(PDF)
1712:(PDF)
1701:S2CID
1673:(PDF)
1384:(PDF)
1279:in a
987:trace
446:EdGCM
352:winds
204:winds
4984:CICE
4968:ISBA
4891:OSPM
4886:NAME
4876:MEMO
4871:ISC3
4841:ADMS
4795:ROMS
4773:RGEM
4768:HWRF
4761:LAPS
4744:RAMS
4692:MPAS
4646:CESM
4641:CCSM
4636:CGCM
4616:IGCM
4043:Risk
3582:Asia
3164:2024
3159:2023
3154:2022
3149:2021
3144:2020
3139:2019
2830:2023
2805:2023
2775:ISSN
2739:2012
2709:2021
2679:2010
2647:2011
2578:2018
2553:2011
2516:2019
2446:2011
2421:2018
2408:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2061:2023
1989:2022
1963:2022
1938:2022
1764:2023
1742:2010
1594:ISBN
1570:ISBN
1438:ISBN
1409:help
1211:The
1021:and
470:and
454:NOAA
414:and
408:OGCM
296:(in
254:Uses
102:and
78:(or
43:and
5021:RUC
5011:NGM
5006:MM5
5002:LFM
4999:Eta
4805:MOM
4800:POM
4764:RPM
4749:WRF
4734:NAM
4687:GFS
4677:FIM
4106:art
2765:doi
2761:Eos
2628:doi
2606:101
2485:doi
2368:210
2343:doi
2291:doi
2279:308
2238:doi
2209:doi
2168:doi
2117:doi
2030:doi
1844:doi
1693:doi
1649:doi
1645:Eos
1622:doi
1560:hdl
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