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of latitude 25°, the North
Atlantic, and the World Ocean without the Arctic provided first side-by-side comparison with data. Early in the 1990s, for those large-scale and eddies resolvable models, the computer requirement for the 2D ancillary problem associated with the rigid lid approximation was becoming excessive. Furthermore, in order to predict tidal effects or compare height data from satellites, methods were developed to predict the height and pressure of the ocean surface directly. For example, one method is to treat the free surface and the vertically averaged velocity using many small steps in time for each single step of the full 3D model. Another method developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory solves the same 2D equations using an implicit method for the free surface. Both methods are quite efficient.
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magnitude, which means the molecular diffusive time scales are much longer than advective time scale. So we can thus safely conclude that the direct effects of molecular processes are insignificant for large-scale. Yet the molecular friction is essential somewhere. The point is that large-scale motions in the ocean interacted with other scales by the nonlinearities in primitive equation. We can show that by
Reynolds approach, which will leads to the closure problem. That means new variables arise at each level in the Reynolds averaging procedure. This leads to the need of parameterization scheme to account for those sub grid scale effects.
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closure vary considerably. Filters and higher-order operators are used to remove small-scale noise that is numerically necessary. Those special dynamical parameterizations (topographic stress, eddy thickness diffusion and convection) are becoming available for certain processes. In the vertical, the surface mixed layer (sml) has historically received special attention because of its important role in air-sea exchange. Now there are so many schemes can be chose from: Price-Weller-Pinkel, Pacanowksi and
Philander, bulk, Mellor-Yamada and k-profile parameterization (KPP) schemes.
261:
553:. While processes below the thermocline are often diffusive and very slow. The acceleration of these processes is achieved by decreasing the local heat capacity, while not changing the transport and the mixing of heat. This makes the speed of reaching equilibrium for these models much quicker and nearly as efficient as atmospheric models with similar resolution. This method is very successful as there is (almost) no change to the final solution of the model.
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mixing as a function stability frequency (N^2) and/or
Richardson number are historically prevalent. The rotated mixing tensors scheme is the one considering the angle of the principle direction of mixing, as for in the main thermocline, mixing along isopycnals dominates diapycnal mixing. Therefore, the principle direction of mixing is neither strictly vertical nor purely horizontal, but a spatially variable mixture of the two.
650:
of ocean basins is very complex. The boundary conditions are totally different. For ocean models, we need to consider those narrow but important boundary layers on nearly all bounding surfaces as well as within the oceanic interior. These boundary conditions on ocean flows are difficult to define and to parameterize, which results in a high computationally demand.
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perturbations on an energetic mean flow. They may play an important role in the poleward transport of heat. Second, they are relatively small in horizontal extent so that ocean climate models, which must have the same overall exterior dimensions as AGCMs, may require as much as 20 times the resolution as AGCM if the eddies are to be explicitly resolved.
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We can classify ocean models according to different standards. For example, according to vertical ordinates we have geo-potential, isopycnal and topography-following models. According to horizontal discretizations we have unstaggered or staggered grids. According to methods of approximation we have
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There also are more constraints on the OGCM's due to lacking data for the ocean. The bottom topography is especially lacking. Large swaths of the ocean are not mapped in high detail. This is in stark contrast to the land topography which can be mapped in detail by satellite altimeters. This creates
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OGCMs have many important applications: dynamical coupling with the atmosphere, sea ice, and land run-off that in reality jointly determine the oceanic boundary fluxes; transpire of biogeochemical materials; interpretation of the paleoclimate record;climate prediction for both natural variability and
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have much in common, such as, the equations of motion and the numerical techniques. However, OGCMs have some unique features. For example, the atmosphere is forced thermally throughout its volume, the ocean is forced both thermally and mechanically primarily at its surface, in addition, the geometry
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Adaptive (non-constant) mixing length schemes are widely used for parameterization of both lateral and vertical mixing. In the horizontal, parameterizations dependent on the rates of stress and strain (Smagroinsky), grid spacing and
Reynolds number (Re) have been advocated. In the vertical, vertical
386:
In a sigma coordinate system the bottom topography determines the thickness of the vertical layer at each horizontal grid point. Similarly to the Z coordinate system the layers are often more closely spaced near the surface and/or the bottom than they are in the interior. Sigma coordinates allow the
191:
and currents in numerical models, we need grid spacing to be approximately 20 km in middle latitudes. Thanks to those faster computers and further filtering the equations in advance to remove internal gravity waves, those major currents and low-frequency eddies then can be resolved, one example
772:
Idealized geometry models: Models with idealized basin geometry have been used extensively in ocean modeling and have played a major role in the development of new modeling methodologies. They use a simplified geometry, offering a basin itself, while the distribution of winds and buoyancy force are
485:
Here is a schematic “family tree” of subgridscale (SGS) mixing schemes. Although there is a considerable degree of overlap and interrelatedness among the huge variety of schemes in use today, several branch points maybe defined. Most importantly, the approaches for lateral and vertical subgridscale
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at a given pressure level as the vertical coordinate. The layers thus vary in thickness throughout the domain. This type of model is particularly useful when studying tracer transport. This is because tracers often move along lines of constant density. Isopycnal models have a subtle difference with
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In the late 1980s, simulations could finally be undertaken using the GFDL formulation with eddies marginally resolved over extensive domains and with observed winds and some atmospheric influence on density. Furthermore, these simulations with high enough resolution such as the
Southern Ocean south
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models designed by
Holland. Meanwhile, there are some model retaining internal gravity wave, for example one adiabatic layered model by O'Brien and his students, which did retain internal gravity waves so that equatorial and coastal problems involving these waves could be treated, led to an initial
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at which the change over time of a range of variables gets below a set threshold for a certain number of simulation timesteps. For OGCMs of a global scale it is often a challenge to reach this state. It can take thousands of model years to reach an equilibrium state for a model. The speed at which
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are often used. On the A grid all quantities are calculated on a single point. This was only used in some of the earliest OGCMs. However, it was quickly realized that the solutions were extremely poor. The B grid has the velocity components on the edges of the
Temperature grid boxes. While the C
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with time and space scales, respectively, of weeks to months and tens to hundreds of kilometers. Dynamically, these nearly geostrophic turbulent eddies are the oceanographic counterparts of the atmospheric synoptic scale. Nevertheless, there are important differences. First, ocean eddies are not
377:
The z coordinate system in which height is taken as a coordinate is the simplest type of system to implement. The layers are often of varying depth with the layers near the top of the ocean being thinner than the deeper layers. This is because the features nearer to the surface happen on smaller
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is several orders of magnitude smaller than unity; therefore, molecular frictional forces are certainly negligible for large-scale oceanic motions. A similar argument holds for the tracer equations, where the molecular thermodiffusivity and salt diffusivity lead to
Reynolds number of negligible
504:
214:. They maintain the thermal balance as they transport energy from tropical to the polar latitudes. To analyze the feedback between ocean and atmosphere we need ocean model, which can initiate and amplify climate change on many different time scales, for instance, the interannual variability of
303:. Here, the variables are solved on a triangular grid. The big advantage of finite element grids is that it allows flexible resolution throughout the domain of the model. This is especially useful when studying a flow in a near a coastal environment as the coast can be more easily mapped.
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Basin-scale models: To compare OGCM results with observations we need realistic basin information instead of idealized data. However, if we only pay attention to local observation data, we don't need to run whole global simulation, and by doing that we can save a lot of computational
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and the potential modification of the major patterns for oceanic heat transport as a result of increasing greenhouse gases. Oceans are a kind of undersampled nature fluid system, so by using OGCMs we can fill in those data blank and improve understanding of basic processes and their
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to describe physical and thermodynamical processes in oceans. The oceanic general circulation is defined as the horizontal space scale and time scale larger than mesoscale (of order 100 km and 6 months). They depict oceans using a three-dimensional grid that include active
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176:, with variable density as well, for the world ocean with its complex coastline and bottom topography. The first application with specified global geometry was done in the early 1970s. Cox designed a 2° latitude-longitude grid with up to 12 vertical levels at each point.
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interconnectedness, as well as to help interpret sparse observations. Even though, simpler models can be used to estimate climate response, only OGCM can be used conjunction with atmospheric general circulation model to estimate global climate change.
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even bigger uncertainties in the boundary conditions. Secondly, the atmosphere only has a changing geometry for the lower levels for most of its extent. While the ocean has sharp boundaries, with large swaths of land as complex boundary conditions.
560:. In this method, the temperature and salinity fields are repeatedly extrapolated with the assumption that they exponentially decay towards their equilibrium value. This method can in some cases reduce the spin-up time by a factor of two or three.
160:. According to CFL criteria without those fast waves, we can use a bigger time step, which is not so computationally expensive. But it also filtered those ocean tides and other waves having the speed of
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layered models. The main difference is whether the model allows the vanishing of the isopycnals. For layered models the isopycnals are not allowed to vanish which has computational speed benefits.
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The vertical grids used for ocean general circulation models are often different from their atmospheric counterparts. Atmospheric models often use pressure as a vertical coordinate because of its
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of a model, several methods have been proposed. Better initial conditions significantly decrease the time a model needs to spin-up. However, this is not always possible, especially for the
1133:; Briegleb, Bruce; Chang, Yeon; Chassignet, Eric P.; Danabasoglu, Gokhan; Ezer, Tal; Gordon, Arnold L.; Griffies, Stephen; Hallberg, Robert; Jackson, Laura; Large, William (2009-05-01).
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It is also possible to have a so-called Nested Grid Model. A nested grid model is an adaptation of the finite differences grid in which some parts have a higher density of grid points.
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and hence are most directly applicable to climate studies. They are the most advanced tools currently available for simulating the response of the global ocean system to increasing
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are the least used grids for OGCMs, while being widely used in atmospheric general circulation models. They are harder to use for ocean modelling because of the more complicated
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and the effect on the ocean circulation has been widely studied. The first attempts at doing this often used the present-day forcings extrapolated to the past climate from
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Global models: This kind of model is the most computationally costly one. More experiments are needed as a preliminary step in constructing coupled Earth system models.
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concentrations. A hierarchy of OGCMs have been developed that include varying degrees of spatial coverage, resolution, geographical realism, process detail, etc.
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boundary layer to be better represented but have difficulties with pressure gradient errors when sharp bottom topography features are not smoothed out.
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OGCMs require a long spin-up time to be able to realistically represent the studied basins. Spin-up time is the time a model needs to reach a certain
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Another approach is the distorted physics approach. This works on the basis that the ocean has processes on relatively short time scales above the
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Molecular friction rarely upsets the dominant balances (geostrophic and hydrostatic) in the ocean. With kinematic viscosities of v=10m s the
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513:. With 0.5x0.5 degree resolution and 60 vertical layers. Showing how the strength of the streamfunction changes in 256 days of integration.
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Schematic of three different grids used in OGCMs. From left to right the A, B and C grids. They are used in the finite differences methods.
1999:
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Häfner, Dion; Jacobsen, René Løwe; Eden, Carsten; Kristensen, Mads R. B.; Jochum, Markus; Nuterman, Roman; Vinter, Brian (2018-08-16).
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Showstack, Randy. "IPCC Report Calls
Climate Changes Unprecedented." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 94.41 (2013): 363–363
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2004:
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scales. Z-coordinate systems have difficulties representing the bottom boundary layer and downslope flow due to odd diabatic mixing.
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There are different types grid types that can be used by OGCMs. There is often a separation between vertical and horizontal grids.
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These days, more complicated paleo bathymetries are used along with better proxies. To test the quality of the models, the
678:. The closure of the different passages in the ocean can then be simulated by simply blocking them with a thin line in the
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M. D. Cox, in Numerical Models of Ocean Circulation (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1975), pp. 107 120
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grid separates these velocity components in an u and v component. Both are still used presently in different models.
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anthropogenic chafes; data assimilation and fisheries and other biospheric management. OGCMs play a critical role in
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1135:"Improving Oceanic Overflow Representation in Climate Models: The Gravity Current Entrainment Climate Process Team"
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571:. The method can be applied to many existing explicit OGCMs and can significantly speed up the spin-up time.
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Chassignet, Eric P., and Jacques Verron, eds. Ocean modeling and parameterization. No. 516. Springer, 1998.
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S. G. Philander, El Niño, La Nina, and the Southern Oscillation (Academic Press, San Diego, 1990)
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1208:"Oceanic vertical mixing: A review and a model with a nonlocal boundary layer parameterization"
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P. D. Killworth, D. Stainforth, D. J. Webb, S. M. Paterson, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 21, 1333 (1991)
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Ocean modeling is also strongly constrained by the existence in much of the world's oceans of
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1012:"A C-grid Ocean General Circulation Model: Model Formulation and Frictional Parametrizations"
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1061:"A New Treatment of the Coriolis Terms in C-Grid Models at Both High and Low Resolutions"
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1296:"Fast dynamical spin-up of ocean general circulation models using Newton–Krylov methods"
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Mikolajewicz, Uwe; Maier-Reimer, Ernst; Crowley, Thomas J.; Kim, Kwang-Yul (1993).
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finite difference and finite element models. There are three basic types of OGCMs:
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The first generation of OGCMs assumed “rigid lid” to eliminate high-speed external
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1994:
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567:. This method uses the matrix-vector products obtained from an explicit OGCM's
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145:
141:
1491:"Effect of Drake and Panamanian Gateways on the circulation of an ocean model"
1117:"Quickstart Guide: Idealized Global Atmospheric Models with Spectral Dynamics"
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developed a 2D model, a 3D box model, and then a model of full circulation in
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in the ocean compared to atmospheric models where they are extensively used.
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With more and more research on ocean model, mesoscale phenomenon, e.g. most
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F. O. Bryan, C. W. Böning, W. R. Holland, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 25, 289 (1995)
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295:. Showing how this is a useful grid type for modelling complex coastlines.
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There have been many attempts to decrease the spin-up time of OGCMs. To
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441: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1452:"A note on using the accelerated convergence method in climate models"
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this equilibrium is reached is determined by slow processes below the
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1403:"Accelerating the Convergence to Equilibrium of Ocean-Climate Models"
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187:, started to get more awareness. However, in order to analyze those
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grids are the most common grid types for OGCMs. For the grids, the
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1247:"Veros v0.1 – a fast and versatile ocean simulator in pure Python"
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Model to describe physical and thermodynamical processes in oceans
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J. K. Dukowicz and R. D. Smith, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 7991 (1994)
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A. J. Semtner and R. M Chervin, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 5493 (1992)
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Bernsen, Erik; Dijkstra, Henk A.; Wubs, Fred W. (2008-01-01).
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Example of a simple finite element grid around the island of
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Most models use one of the following horizontal grid types.
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Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models
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10.1175/1520-0485(1984)014<0666:ATCTEO>2.0.CO;2
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10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127<1928:ANTOTC>2.0.CO;2
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Adcroft, A. J.; Hill, C. N.; Marshall, J. C. (1999-08-01).
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A. J. Busalacchi and J. J. O'Brien, ibid. 10, 1929 (1980)
339:(top right) and a layered- (bottom left) and non-layered
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Large, W. G.; McWilliams, J. C.; Doney, S. C. (1994).
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Xu, Weimin; Lin, Charles; Robert, André (1997-01-01).
1348:"A method to reduce the spin-up time of ocean models"
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Comparison with Atmospheric General Circulation Model
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993:"Navy Operational Ocean Circulation and Tide Models"
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S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Nature 364, 215 (1993)
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1345:
1294:Merlis, Timothy M.; Khatiwala, Samar (2008-01-01).
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60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
556:It is also possible to reduce the spin-up time by
197:understanding of El Niño in terms of those waves.
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773:generally chosen as simple functions of latitude.
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1139:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
874:W. R. Holland, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 8, 363 (1978)
691:Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project
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563:A third proposed method is the jacobian–free
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735:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
613:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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509:Streamfunction spin-up obtained from OGCM
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755:Learn how and when to remove this message
633:Learn how and when to remove this message
521:. This equilibrium is often defined as a
473:ocean parameterization scheme family tree
457:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1195:. Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.
1119:. Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.
856:K. Bryan, J. Comput. Phys. 4, 347 (1969)
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682:. For instance closing the present-day
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183:have cross-stream dimensions equal to
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2141:Numerical climate and weather models
1848:Regional and mesoscale oceanographic
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733:adding citations to reliable sources
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611:adding citations to reliable sources
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439:adding citations to reliable sources
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331:Schematic figure showing a vertical
58:adding citations to reliable sources
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1790:Regional and mesoscale atmospheric
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903:The FRAM Group, Eos 72, 169 (1991)
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343:(bottom right) coordinate system.
135:(OGCMs) are a particular kind of
69:"Ocean general circulation model"
1468:10.1034/j.1600-0870.2001.01134.x
1407:Journal of Physical Oceanography
807:List of ocean circulation models
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133:Ocean general circulation models
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1614:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
1609:Tropical cyclone forecast model
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1450:WANG, DAILIN (January 2001).
1037:10.1080/07055900.1997.9687362
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407:Subgridscale parameterization
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2014:Land surface parametrization
1604:Numerical weather prediction
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1320:10.1016/j.ocemod.2007.12.001
185:Rossby radius of deformation
7:
839:. Ipcc-data.org. 2013-06-18
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534:Decreasing the spin-up time
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1401:Bryan, Kirk (1984-04-01).
1193:"Ocean Circulation Models"
540:accelerate the convergence
164:. Within this assumption,
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666:OGCMs in paleoceanography
558:exponential extrapolation
137:general circulation model
1624:Upper-atmospheric models
1619:Chemical transport model
1272:10.5194/gmd-11-3299-2018
1634:Model output statistics
337:sigma coordinate system
299:Sometimes models use a
256:Finite differences grid
1897:Atmospheric dispersion
1160:10.1175/2008BAMS2667.1
1065:Monthly Weather Review
693:has been established.
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2151:Physical oceanography
2146:Computational science
1212:Reviews of Geophysics
670:The relation between
523:statistical parameter
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335:system (top left). A
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231:Horizontal grid types
2115:Scientific modelling
1629:Ensemble forecasting
729:improve this section
607:improve this section
565:Newton–Krylov method
435:improve this article
373:Z coordinate systems
54:improve this article
2120:Computer simulation
1589:Oceanographic model
1507:1993PalOc...8..409M
1419:1984JPO....14..666B
1364:2008OcMod..20..380B
1312:2008OcMod..21...97M
1263:2018GMD....11.3299H
1224:1994RvGeo..32..363L
1151:2009BAMS...90..657L
1077:1999MWRv..127.1928A
1028:1997AtO....35S.487X
323:Vertical grid types
317:boundary conditions
301:finite element grid
283:Finite element grid
192:is the three-layer
2105:Mathematical model
2040:Cryospheric models
1983:Chemical transport
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269:Finite differences
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1022:(sup1): 487–504.
893:Albert J. Semtner
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400:potential density
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361:sigma coordinates
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16:(Redirected from
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1001:
1000:
989:
976:
973:
967:
964:
958:
955:
949:
946:
940:
937:
931:
928:
922:
919:
913:
910:
904:
901:
895:
890:
884:
881:
875:
872:
866:
863:
857:
854:
848:
847:
845:
844:
837:"What is a GCM?"
833:
801:
796:
795:
760:
753:
749:
746:
740:
709:
701:
655:mesoscale eddies
638:
631:
627:
624:
618:
587:
579:
507:
494:Spin-up of OGCMs
462:
455:
451:
448:
442:
419:
411:
391:Isopycnal models
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
2166:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2088:
2051:
2035:
2009:
1978:
1892:
1843:
1785:
1723:
1663:
1662:Specific models
1648:
1644:Parametrization
1575:
1564:
1561:
1531:
1530:
1487:
1483:
1448:
1444:
1399:
1395:
1352:Ocean Modelling
1344:
1335:
1306:(3–4): 97–105.
1300:Ocean Modelling
1292:
1288:
1243:
1239:
1204:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1128:
1124:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1057:
1053:
1008:
1004:
991:
990:
979:
974:
970:
965:
961:
956:
952:
947:
943:
938:
934:
929:
925:
920:
916:
911:
907:
902:
898:
891:
887:
882:
878:
873:
869:
864:
860:
855:
851:
842:
840:
835:
834:
830:
825:
797:
790:
787:
761:
750:
744:
741:
726:
710:
699:
668:
639:
628:
622:
619:
604:
588:
577:
536:
498:
496:
463:
452:
446:
443:
432:
420:
409:
393:
384:
375:
325:
309:
285:
258:
233:
225:
207:
154:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2164:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1731:
1729:
1728:Global weather
1725:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1675:
1673:
1665:
1664:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1566:
1565:
1560:
1559:
1552:
1545:
1537:
1529:
1528:
1501:(4): 409–426.
1481:
1442:
1413:(4): 666–673.
1393:
1358:(4): 380–392.
1333:
1286:
1237:
1218:(4): 363–403.
1198:
1184:
1145:(5): 657–670.
1122:
1108:
1051:
1002:
977:
968:
959:
950:
941:
932:
923:
914:
905:
896:
885:
876:
867:
858:
849:
827:
826:
824:
821:
820:
819:
814:
809:
803:
802:
786:
783:
782:
781:
778:
774:
763:
762:
713:
711:
704:
698:
697:Classification
695:
667:
664:
641:
640:
591:
589:
582:
576:
573:
535:
532:
495:
492:
465:
464:
423:
421:
414:
408:
405:
392:
389:
383:
380:
374:
371:
370:
369:
363:
358:
324:
321:
313:spectral grids
308:
305:
284:
281:
257:
254:
253:
252:
247:
245:Finite Element
242:
232:
229:
224:
221:
206:
203:
181:ocean currents
168:and co-worker
153:
150:
146:greenhouse gas
142:thermodynamics
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2163:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1655:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1599:Climate model
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1578:
1571:
1567:
1558:
1553:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1290:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1202:
1194:
1188:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1118:
1112:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1006:
998:
994:
988:
986:
984:
982:
972:
963:
954:
945:
936:
927:
918:
909:
900:
894:
889:
880:
871:
862:
853:
838:
832:
828:
818:
817:Climate model
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
804:
800:
799:Oceans portal
794:
789:
779:
775:
771:
770:
769:
759:
756:
748:
745:December 2021
738:
734:
730:
724:
723:
719:
714:This section
712:
708:
703:
702:
694:
692:
687:
685:
684:Drake Passage
681:
677:
673:
663:
659:
656:
651:
648:
637:
634:
626:
623:December 2021
616:
612:
608:
602:
601:
597:
592:This section
590:
586:
581:
580:
572:
570:
566:
561:
559:
554:
552:
547:
545:
541:
531:
529:
524:
520:
512:
491:
487:
483:
480:
471:
461:
458:
450:
447:December 2021
440:
436:
430:
429:
424:This section
422:
418:
413:
412:
404:
401:
397:
388:
379:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
356:z-coordinates
354:
353:
352:
350:
342:
338:
334:
329:
320:
318:
314:
307:Spectral grid
304:
302:
294:
289:
280:
277:
274:
273:Arakawa Grids
270:
262:
251:
250:Spectral Grid
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
236:
228:
220:
217:
213:
202:
198:
195:
190:
186:
182:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
158:gravity waves
149:
147:
143:
138:
134:
124:
121:
113:
110:December 2021
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
18:Oceanic model
2056:Discontinued
1929:DISPERSION21
1588:
1498:
1494:
1484:
1462:(1): 27–34.
1459:
1455:
1445:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1355:
1351:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1254:
1250:
1240:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1187:
1142:
1138:
1125:
1111:
1068:
1064:
1054:
1019:
1015:
1005:
996:
971:
962:
953:
944:
935:
926:
917:
908:
899:
888:
879:
870:
861:
852:
841:. Retrieved
831:
766:
751:
742:
727:Please help
715:
688:
672:paleoclimate
669:
660:
652:
644:
629:
620:
605:Please help
593:
562:
555:
548:
537:
516:
488:
484:
479:Ekman number
476:
453:
444:
433:Please help
428:verification
425:
394:
385:
376:
346:
333:z coordinate
310:
298:
293:Terschelling
278:
267:
234:
226:
208:
199:
178:
155:
132:
131:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1735:IFS (ECMWF)
1574:Model types
1131:Legg, Sonya
551:thermocline
528:thermocline
519:equilibrium
368:coordinates
170:Micheal Cox
2135:Categories
1959:PUFF-PLUME
1919:AUSTAL2000
1778:GME / ICON
1745:GEM / GDPS
1694:GFDL CM2.X
843:2016-01-24
823:References
777:resources.
680:bathymetry
645:OGCMs and
544:deep ocean
349:isentropic
223:Grid types
205:Importance
166:Kirk Bryan
80:newspapers
2000:GEOS-Chem
1523:1944-9186
1476:0280-6495
1437:0022-3670
1388:113400161
1380:1463-5003
1328:1463-5003
1281:1991-9603
1179:0003-0007
1170:1912/4021
1095:1520-0493
1046:0705-5900
716:does not
594:does not
396:Isopycnal
366:isopycnal
341:isopycnal
1969:SAFE AIR
1802:RR / RAP
1456:Tellus A
785:See also
569:jacobian
351:nature.
162:tsunamis
2005:CHIMERE
1964:RIMPUFF
1944:MERCURE
1924:CALPUFF
1774:JMA-GSM
1689:HadGEM1
1672:Climate
1503:Bibcode
1415:Bibcode
1360:Bibcode
1308:Bibcode
1259:Bibcode
1220:Bibcode
1147:Bibcode
1103:2576288
1073:Bibcode
1024:Bibcode
737:removed
722:sources
676:proxies
615:removed
600:sources
216:El Niño
152:History
94:scholar
2079:NOGAPS
1995:MOZART
1914:ATSTEP
1909:AERMOD
1888:ADCIRC
1878:MITgcm
1820:HIRLAM
1782:ARPEGE
1765:NAVGEM
1684:HadCM3
1521:
1474:
1435:
1386:
1378:
1326:
1279:
1177:
1101:
1093:
1044:
189:eddies
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
2026:CLASS
2021:JULES
1990:CLaMS
1974:SILAM
1883:FESOM
1873:FVCOM
1854:HyCOM
1840:HRDPS
1816:RAQMS
1760:NAEFS
1719:ECHAM
1714:CFSv2
1384:S2CID
1099:S2CID
647:AGCMs
511:veros
101:JSTOR
87:books
2047:CICE
2031:ISBA
1954:OSPM
1949:NAME
1939:MEMO
1934:ISC3
1904:ADMS
1858:ROMS
1836:RGEM
1831:HWRF
1824:LAPS
1807:RAMS
1755:MPAS
1709:CESM
1704:CCSM
1699:CGCM
1679:IGCM
1519:ISSN
1472:ISSN
1433:ISSN
1376:ISSN
1324:ISSN
1277:ISSN
1175:ISSN
1091:ISSN
1042:ISSN
720:any
718:cite
598:any
596:cite
311:The
174:GFDL
73:news
2084:RUC
2074:NGM
2069:MM5
2065:LFM
2062:Eta
1868:MOM
1863:POM
1827:RPM
1812:WRF
1797:NAM
1750:GFS
1740:FIM
1511:doi
1464:doi
1423:doi
1368:doi
1316:doi
1267:doi
1228:doi
1165:hdl
1155:doi
1081:doi
1069:127
1032:doi
731:by
609:by
437:by
56:by
2137::
1770:UM
1517:.
1509:.
1497:.
1493:.
1470:.
1460:53
1458:.
1454:.
1431:.
1421:.
1411:14
1409:.
1405:.
1382:.
1374:.
1366:.
1356:20
1354:.
1350:.
1336:^
1322:.
1314:.
1304:21
1302:.
1298:.
1275:.
1265:.
1255:11
1253:.
1249:.
1226:.
1216:32
1214:.
1210:.
1173:.
1163:.
1153:.
1143:90
1141:.
1137:.
1097:.
1089:.
1079:.
1067:.
1063:.
1040:.
1030:.
1020:35
1018:.
1014:.
995:.
980:^
686:.
546:.
530:.
1556:e
1549:t
1542:v
1525:.
1513::
1505::
1499:8
1478:.
1466::
1439:.
1425::
1417::
1390:.
1370::
1362::
1330:.
1318::
1310::
1283:.
1269::
1261::
1234:.
1230::
1222::
1181:.
1167::
1157::
1149::
1105:.
1083::
1075::
1048:.
1034::
1026::
999:.
846:.
758:)
752:(
747:)
743:(
739:.
725:.
636:)
630:(
625:)
621:(
617:.
603:.
460:)
454:(
449:)
445:(
431:.
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
