907:(FMT). Healthcare providers can transfer stool from a healthy person to the colon of a patient with recurrent CDI. This process is the most successful treatment for severe CDI with a cure rate around 93%. Fecal matter transplants have also been found to be an effective and safe treatment option for children and young adults. Recurrence rates of CDI in patients treated with a FMT are generally low, around 19%, which makes it very effective at treating chronic CDI cases. However, in some cases, flares of inflammatory bowel disease are a possible side effect of the treatment. The state of the host immune system is important when considering the success of microbiota-based treatments in clearing infection. Long-term effects of FMT are unknown, as the procedure has only been FDA-approved for recurrent CDI since 2013 and relatively few procedures have been performed. If transplantation is not an option, removal of the infected part of the colon can cure CDI.
782:
colon. Spores can grow and colonize the intestine by antibiotic-induced shifts in the host microbiota. C. difficile secretes mucolytic enzymes like CWp84 to degrade the colonic mucosa. These spores are also capable of adhering to colon cells. Additionally, C. difficile is a motile bacterium that can switch between both the motile and sessile phases, a process regulated by cyclic-di-GMP. On top of that, C. difficile is capable of forming biofilms and cell-to-cell signaling. C. difficile is often transferred from other patients through the hands of healthcare workers or from the overall hospital environment and acquired from ingesting the pathogen. The spores resist the stomach acidity and germinate into their vegetative form in the small intestine. C. difficile can carry a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations, from being asymptomatic to severe colitis and death. As such,
834:
antibodies' neutralization of the cytotoxic effect. C. difficile strains can also be cultured before conducting a cytotoxin assay. These cultures detect the C. difficile strain that can produce toxins. However, these enzyme immunoassays are more widely used due to their rapid turnaround, low cost, and simplicity. Additionally, they show lower sensitivity than toxigenic stool cultures. PCR assays have a shorter turnaround time and a higher sensitivity range than the toxigenic stool culture. Using a PCR-based assay helps avoid detection of asymptomatic patients.
646:
896:, a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The usual dosage is 200 mg twice a day orally for 10 days. Fidaxomicin is considered to be superior to vancomycin for severe CDI. The major downside of treatment with fidaxomicin is the cost of medication. A 10-day course may cost up to US$ 3500. When a patient is deteriorating or progressing to severe-complicated disease the addition of intravenous tigecycline merits considerations. Patients with high risk of relapse may also benefit from the addition of the monoclonal antibody
53:
91:
73:
664:, shed in faeces. The organism forms heat-resistant aero-tolerant spores that are not killed by alcohol-based hand cleansers or routine surface cleaning, thus, these spores survive in clinical environments for long periods. Any surface, device, or material (e.g., toilets, bathing tubs, and electronic rectal thermometers) that becomes contaminated with faeces may serve as a reservoir for the
926:
prevent the spread of spores within the hospital. Another way to prevent CDIs is wearing personal protective equipment when interacting with C. difficile patients. Furthermore, CDI transmission can be prevented by daily environmental sporicidal disinfection in patient rooms. Also, reducing the length of antibiotic therapy decreases the CDI rates in hospitals.
2026:"Phylogenomic analysis of the family Peptostreptococcaceae (Clostridium cluster XI) and proposal for reclassification of Clostridium litorale (Fendrich et al. 1991) and Eubacterium acidaminophilum (Zindel et al. 1989) as Peptoclostridium litorale gen. nov. comb. nov. and Peptoclostridium acidaminophilum comb. nov"
672:
spores can live for long periods of time on surfaces. Because of this, the bacterium may be cultured from almost any surface. Once spores are ingested, their acid resistance allows them to pass through the stomach unscathed. They germinate and multiply into vegetative cells in the colon upon exposure
925:
infection is spread through the fecal-oral route through ingestion and acid-resistant spores. Appropriate hand hygiene of healthcare workers is vital to remove spores, which includes thoroughly washing one's hands with soap and warm water. Additionally, isolation of patients with acute diarrhea can
833:
A C. difficile infection is often suspected because of foul-smelling diarrhea, but this does not confirm if the patient has a CDI. To confirm a CDI, a cytotoxin assay detects the cell's toxin B (ToxB) cytotoxicity in the fecal eluate. The presence of C. difficile toxin is confirmed by the anti-toxin
824:
of patients with severe disease. New findings show that the loss of the interleukin-10 corresponds to higher levels of interleukin-22, which has been found to be important in a host's response to a C.difficile infection. Thus, IL-10 deficiency can increase a host's defense against the pathogen. This
781:
is transmitted through the oral-fecal route, and many reproduce through spores. The germination of these spores depends on the ability to sense primary bile acids in the liver, like taurocholate, which are sensed by the germinant receptor CspC. Secondary bile acids can inhibit these processes in the
875:
is usually treated with the same antibiotic used to treat the primary infection. Any subsequent infections should not be treated with metronidazole. Occasionally, a standard 10-day course of oral vancomycin will not work. In these cases, a vancomycin taper is the preferred treatment. Patients take
617:
warned of the emergence of an epidemic strain with increased virulence, antibiotic resistance, or both. Resistance to other antibiotics such as metronidazole, the first choice of antimicrobial drug when treating CDI, has been observed in up to 12% of clinical isolates, so as treatment with various
957:
As of 2016, the NAP1 strain has been replaced by novel strains in some areas of
British Columbia. These novel strains include NAP2 and NAP4, and some strains that do not have a NAP designation. The frequency of these novel strains increased from 2008 to 2013 in one studied region, displacing the
842:
Patients being treated with antibiotics when symptoms begin should stop taking them, if possible. This break in antibiotic therapy can sometimes lead to spontaneous resolution of symptoms. Patients who do not respond to the cessation of broad-spectrum antibiotics will need to be treated with
3526:
1077:
in 2005 using ultra-high throughput sequencing technology. The tests involved doing 400,000 DNA parallel-sequencing reactions of the bacterium's genome, which had been fragmented for sequencing. These sequences were assembled computationally to form a complete genome sequence.
383:
is commonly known as a hospital and antibiotic associated pathogen, at most one third of infections can be traced to transmission from an infected person in hospitals, and only a small number of antibiotics are directly associated with an elevated risk of developing a
798:
secreted toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB), contain immunogenic antigens that are recognised by antibodies and T cells. However, the levels of anti-TcdA and -TcdB IgG antibodies have not been able to discriminate healthy individuals from patients with
3537:
741:
may be able to grow as a result of many of its competitors being killed off. The incubation period is 5–10 days, with a range of 1 day to weeks following antibiotic treatment for antibiotic associated diarrhea. Additionally, carriage of
4352:
859:
is an acceptable option with similar efficacy and even lower recurrence rates than vancomycin. In cases of fulminant CDI, adjuvant therapy with parenteral metronidazole plus oral vancomycin or fidaxomicin is suggested.
3328:"Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA)"
815:
infection had significantly more toxin-specific T cells compared to those with mild infection, indicating T cells are playing a key role in fighting this infection. This immune response can further dysregulate
3169:
Cook L, Rees WD, Wong MQ, Peters H, Levings MK, Steiner TS (May 2021). "Fecal
Microbiota Transplantation for Recurrent Clostridioides difficile Infection Enhances Adaptive Immunity to C difficile Toxin B".
726:
afflicted almost half a million
Americans and caused 29,000 deaths in 2011. The study estimated that 40% of cases began in nursing homes or community health-care settings, while 24% occurred in hospitals.
325:, and occur in pairs or short chains. Under the microscope, they appear as long, irregular (often drumstick- or spindle-shaped) cells with a bulge at their terminal ends (forms subterminal spores). Under
3793:"Effect of Faecal Microbiota Transplantation for Treatment of Clostridium difficile Infection in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies"
1776:
VanInsberghe D, Elsherbini JA, Varian B, Poutahidis T, Erdman S, Polz MF (April 2020). "Diarrhoeal events can trigger long-term
Clostridium difficile colonization with recurrent blooms".
407:. The majority of infections are acquired outside of hospitals, and most antibiotics have similar elevated risk of infection on par with many non-antibiotic risk factors, such as using
1046:
in the UK. This was of the strain 630, a virulent and multiple drug-resistant strain isolated in
Switzerland in 1982. Scientists at Sanger Institute have sequenced genomes of about 30
540:, a severe form of colonic distention that can put a patient at risk for colon perforation, sepsis and shock. Toxins A and B are glucosyltransferases that target and inactivate the
1703:
McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Stamm WE (September 1990). "Risk factors for
Clostridium difficile carriage and C. difficile-associated diarrhea in a cohort of hospitalized patients".
437:. Individuals with no history of gastrointestinal disturbances appear unlikely to become asymptomatic carriers. These carriers are thought to be a major reservoir of infection.
1325:
1096:
has a highly diverse epigenome, with 17 high-quality methylation motifs reported so far, the majority pertaining to the 6mA type. Methylation at one of these motifs - CAAAA
811:, which are important in maintaining a healthy gut environment, although in patients with severe infection these cells are impaired. Interestingly, individuals with severe
1930:
Lawson PA, Citron DM, Tyrrell KL, Finegold SM (August 2016). "Reclassification of
Clostridium difficile as Clostridioides difficile (Hall and O'Toole 1935) Prévot 1938".
746:
with high levels of toxins is common in young children, while disease is rare. The production of one or even both toxins is not always sufficient for producing symptoms.
733:
is common in the human digestive system. However, it is a poor competitor, and is often outcompeted for nutrients by other bacteria in the digestive system. As a result,
4393:
3377:"Efficacy of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin as therapy for Clostridium difficile infection in individuals taking concomitant antibiotics for other concurrent infections"
719:
infects pigs, calves, and humans, and inhabits a natural reservoir of soil, faeces of domestic animals and humans, sewage, the human intestinal tract, and retail meat.
429:
was present in 2–5% of the adult population, more recent research indicates colonization is closely associated with a history of unrelated diarrheal illnesses, such as
677:
advocates the use of soap in addition to alcohol solutions to limit the spread of the spores. Sporulation was shown to be significantly reduced after inactivation of
3616:"European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: 2021 update on the treatment guidance document for Clostridioides difficile infection in adults"
5417:
5283:
532:), although their relative contributions have been debated. The diarrhea may range from a few days of intestinal fluid loss to life-threatening pseudomembranous
2746:
1246:
4056:"Characterization of Clostridium difficile Strains in British Columbia, Canada: A Shift from NAP1 Majority (2008) to Novel Strain Types (2013) in One Region"
17:
2617:
803:
infection, meaning they have limited clinical use. Recent work has shown these toxins are also recognised by helper CD4+ T cells, predominantly by the
593:
and physiological factors of the bacterium (spore formation, protective effects of the pseudomembrane). The emergence of a new, highly toxic strain of
536:, which is associated with intense inflammation of the colon and formation of pseudomembranes on the intestinal mucosal surface. This may progress to
3666:
Di Bella S, Nisii C, Petrosillo N (July 2015). "Is tigecycline a suitable option for
Clostridium difficile infection? Evidence from the literature".
1144:
965:; both strains became more common after trehalose was introduced as a food additive in the early 2000s, thus increasing dietary trehalose intake.
5391:
4386:
5296:
2518:"Clostridioides difficile infection: history, epidemiology, risk factors, prevention, clinical manifestations, treatment, and future options"
979:
3936:
2647:"Epigenomic characterization of Clostridioides difficile finds a conserved DNA methyltransferase that mediates sporulation and pathogenesis"
863:
Approximately 15-30% of patients who successfully complete therapy of primary infection with metronidazole or vancomycin will experience a
4814:
4227:
2792:
2584:
4379:
3703:"Bezlotoxumab for Preventing Recurrent Clostridioides difficile Infection: A Narrative Review from Pathophysiology to Clinical Studies"
1479:
883:
tends to be more severe than previous infections. Long-term treatment with a vancomycin taper supplemented with probiotics, especially
376:
1215:
2293:"A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality"
1321:
5378:
5270:
3283:
Rupnik M, Wilcox MH, Gerding DN (July 2009). "Clostridium difficile infection: new developments in epidemiology and pathogenesis".
1250:
704:
fluctuates considerably – fluctuating from being below the limit of detection to high levels of shedding from one day to the next.
3426:"2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Infectious Diarrhea"
3225:"Loss of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) Signaling Promotes IL-22-Dependent Host Defenses against Acute Clostridioides difficile Infection"
950:
027; the differing terminology reflects the predominant techniques used for epidemiological typing. This strain is referred to as
5404:
4670:
2266:
5468:
2554:
681:'s DNA methyltransferase CamA, raising the prospect of developing a drug that may inhibit this bacterium in a specific manner.
1455:
5409:
2493:
4804:
3072:"Recurrent Clostridioides difficile Infection Is Associated With Impaired T Helper Type 17 Immunity to C difficile Toxin B"
1085:
genomes from 486 cases arising over four years in
Oxfordshire using next-generation sequencing technologies from Illumina.
4694:
1738:
McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok RY, Stamm WE (January 1989). "Nosocomial acquisition of
Clostridium difficile infection".
5483:
2438:"Activity of Hospital Disinfectants against Vegetative Cells and Spores of Clostridioides difficile Embedded in Biofilms"
820:
expression. This is further evidenced by the recovery of the toxin-specific Th17 cells and microRNA expression following
3842:"Host immunity modulates the efficacy of microbiota transplantation for treatment of Clostridioides difficile infection"
847:
spores. Primary infections are typically treated with vancomycin, with a usual dosage of 125 mg every 6 hours. The
2515:
Di Bella S, Sanson G, Monticelli J, Zerbato V, Principe L, Giuffrè M, et al. (February 29, 2024). Staley C (ed.).
385:
33:
1819:
Eyre DW, Griffiths D, Vaughan A, Golubchik T, Acharya M, O'Connor L, et al. (November 12, 2013). Chang YF (ed.).
5040:
4421:
4371:
2736:
855:
due to its greater efficacy, safety profile, and lower recurrence rates. In patients who cannot tolerate vancomycin,
1167:
Hall IC, O'toole E (1935). "Intestinal flora in new-born infants: with a description of a new pathogenic anaerobe,
943:
511:
500:
358:
354:
574:, which inhibits the growth of other microbes in its vicinity and allows it to outcompete normal human gut flora.
5478:
5356:
5301:
4645:
4625:
4593:
4574:
914:
recurrence has been of great interest, but there has been no consensus on significantly associated risk factors.
5473:
708:
in carriers appear to trigger periods of increased shedding which may be an important factor for transmission.
563:
Additional virulence factors include an adhesion factor that mediates the binding to human colonic cells and a
2175:"Binary bacterial toxins: biochemistry, biology, and applications of common Clostridium and Bacillus proteins"
4548:
2606:
526:
379:, in 2017 there were 223,900 cases in hospitalized patients and 12,800 deaths in the United States. Although
876:
decreasing doses of vancomycin over a period of up to 3 months, depending on the severity of the infection.
5183:
4857:
4466:
3615:
90:
4009:
Tschudin-Sutter S, Kuijper EJ, Durovic A, Vehreschild MJ, Barbut F, Eckert C, et al. (October 2018).
3908:"Predicting Recurrence of C. difficile Colitis Using Bacterial Virulence Factors: Binary Toxin Is the Key"
4686:
4565:
904:
821:
786:
is the most prevalent U.S. healthcare infection, posing serious health risks and substantial care costs.
610:
609:, said to be causing geographically dispersed outbreaks in North America, was reported in 2005. The U.S.
322:
3565:
Surawicz CM, Brandt LJ, Binion DG, Ananthakrishnan AN, Curry SR, Gilligan PH, et al. (April 2013).
4843:
2075:"Clostridium difficile Toxins A and B: Insights into Pathogenic Properties and Extraintestinal Effects"
1347:
Moreno MA, Furtner F, Rivara FP (June 2013). "Clostridium difficile: a cause of diarrhea in children".
321:
bacteria, ubiquitous in nature and especially prevalent in soil. Its vegetative cells are rod-shaped,
5432:
4598:
737:
is kept to a manageable number. If the sudden introduction of an antibiotic disrupts the microbiome,
674:
553:
4105:
Collins J, Robinson C, Danhof H, Knetsch CW, van Leeuwen HC, Lawley TD, et al. (January 2018).
5078:
4779:
4639:
4485:
1605:"Meta-analysis of antibiotics and the risk of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection"
1113:
705:
219:
4011:"Guidance document for prevention of Clostridium difficile infection in acute healthcare settings"
3527:"Treatment of Recurrent Clostridium difficile Colitis with Vancomycin and Saccharomyces boulardii"
2126:"The low molecular mass GTP-binding protein Rho is affected by toxin A from Clostridium difficile"
5029:
4740:
4535:
4358:
3907:
3614:
van Prehn J, Reigadas E, Vogelzang EH, Bouza E, Hristea A, Guery B, et al. (December 2021).
2921:"Management of Clostridioides difficile infection: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Future Perspectives"
1274:"Human Colon Cancer-Derived Clostridioides difficile Strains Drive Colonic Tumorigenesis in Mice"
885:
461:. This new name reflects the taxonomic differences between this species and members of the genus
3701:
Giacobbe DR, Dettori S, Di Bella S, Vena A, Granata G, Luzzati R, et al. (September 2020).
3326:
McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Bakken JS, Carroll KC, Coffin SE, et al. (March 2018).
5396:
5212:
5135:
4928:
4587:
4542:
4491:
2645:
Oliveira PH, Ribis JW, Garrett EM, Trzilova D, Kim A, Sekulovic O, et al. (January 2020).
1501:
Eyre DW, Cule ML, Wilson DJ, Griffiths D, Vaughan A, O'Connor L, et al. (September 2013).
1447:
4220:
2960:
Monaghan TM, Negm OH, MacKenzie B, Hamed MR, Shone CC, Humphreys DP, et al. (July 2017).
5445:
5314:
5156:
5149:
4988:
4798:
4734:
4509:
3840:
Littmann ER, Lee JJ, Denny JE, Alam Z, Maslanka JR, Zarin I, et al. (February 2, 2021).
2788:
2576:
590:
541:
175:
142:
3375:
Mullane KM, Miller MA, Weiss K, Lentnek A, Golan Y, Sears PS, et al. (September 2011).
3114:
Bocchetti M, Ferraro MG, Melisi F, Grisolia P, Scrima M, Cossu AM, et al. (June 2023).
2966:
toxins in adult cystic fibrosis sera: possible mode of immunoprotection against symptomatic
2436:
Rashid T, Haghighi F, Hasan I, Bassères E, Alam MJ, Sharma SV, et al. (December 2019).
2291:
Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, Oughton M, Libman MD, Michaud S, et al. (December 2005).
1471:
1439:
5365:
5257:
5162:
5141:
4809:
4748:
4528:
4521:
4175:
4118:
3853:
2242:
1880:"List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published"
1832:
1272:
Drewes JL, Chen J, Markham NO, Knippel RJ, Domingue JC, Tam AJ, et al. (August 2022).
1199:
350:
3424:
Shane AL, Mody RK, Crump JA, Tarr PI, Steiner TS, Kotloff K, et al. (November 2017).
3021:"IgG antibody response to toxins A and B in patients with Clostridium difficile infection"
8:
4704:
4664:
4514:
4417:
4246:"Microevolutionary analysis of Clostridium difficile genomes to investigate transmission"
4162:
He M, Sebaihia M, Lawley TD, Stabler RA, Dawson LF, Martin MJ, et al. (April 2010).
4051:
3567:"Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections"
1184:
361:
and Clostridioides difficile transferase. Under stress conditions, the bacteria produce
5288:
4244:
Didelot X, Eyre DW, Cule M, Ip CL, Ansari MA, Griffiths D, et al. (December 2012).
4179:
4122:
3857:
3146:
3115:
2246:
1836:
1680:
1653:
1242:
1104:
disease transmission, as well as cell length, biofilm formation, and host colonization.
618:
antibiotics continues, more diverse and stronger resistances will continue to evolve in
5488:
5002:
4885:
4326:
4299:
4272:
4245:
4198:
4163:
4139:
4106:
4082:
4055:
3986:
3959:
3882:
3841:
3822:
3768:
3751:
3727:
3702:
3648:
3596:
3503:
3474:
3450:
3425:
3401:
3376:
3352:
3327:
3308:
3257:
3224:
3205:
3047:
3020:
2996:
2961:
2896:
2869:
2842:
2815:
2741:
2671:
2646:
2462:
2437:
2413:
2382:
2322:
2258:
2101:
2074:
2050:
2025:
2001:
1966:
1904:
1879:
1855:
1820:
1801:
1629:
1604:
1580:
1551:
1550:
Guh AY, Adkins SH, Li Q, Bulens SN, Farley MM, Smith Z, et al. (October 1, 2017).
1527:
1502:
1408:
1383:
1298:
1273:
1059:
939:
689:
684:
Susceptibility to colonization appears to be triggered by diarrheal illnesses, such as
365:
that are able to tolerate extreme conditions that the active bacteria cannot tolerate.
314:
244:
197:
85:
4401:
3679:
2199:
2174:
2150:
2125:
1652:
Rafey A, Jahan S, Farooq U, Akhtar F, Irshad M, Nizamuddin S, et al. (May 2023).
692:
or laxative abuse; people without a history of diarrheal illnesses who are exposed to
5440:
5422:
5309:
5174:
4905:
4729:
4699:
4331:
4277:
4203:
4144:
4087:
4032:
3991:
3928:
3887:
3869:
3814:
3773:
3732:
3683:
3652:
3640:
3588:
3508:
3455:
3406:
3357:
3300:
3262:
3244:
3209:
3197:
3151:
3093:
3052:
3001:
2942:
2901:
2847:
2717:
2676:
2546:
2538:
2467:
2418:
2363:
2314:
2229:
2204:
2155:
2106:
2055:
2006:
1947:
1909:
1860:
1805:
1793:
1755:
1720:
1685:
1634:
1585:
1532:
1451:
1440:
1413:
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1360:
1303:
1200:"Études de systématique bactérienne. IV. Critique de la conception actuelle du genre
1066:
1055:
3600:
3312:
2517:
2326:
2262:
961:
Two strains, ribotypes RT078 and RT027, can live on low concentrations of the sugar
903:
Patients who do not respond to traditional antibiotic therapy may be eligible for a
5126:
4321:
4311:
4267:
4257:
4193:
4183:
4134:
4126:
4077:
4067:
4022:
3981:
3971:
3920:
3877:
3861:
3826:
3804:
3763:
3750:
AKAGAWA S, AKAGAWA Y, YAMANOUCHI S, KIMATA T, TSUJI S, KANEKO K (August 25, 2020).
3722:
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3131:
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2991:
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2881:
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2658:
2530:
2457:
2449:
2408:
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2250:
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2190:
2186:
2145:
2137:
2096:
2086:
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1996:
1986:
1943:
1939:
1899:
1891:
1850:
1840:
1785:
1747:
1712:
1675:
1665:
1624:
1616:
1575:
1567:
1522:
1514:
1403:
1395:
1356:
1293:
1285:
1180:
1043:
804:
661:
645:
549:
400:
273:
2962:"High prevalence of subclass-specific binding and neutralizing antibodies against
1384:"Clostridioides difficile toxins: mechanisms of action and antitoxin therapeutics"
700:, they remain carriers for year-long time scales, but the day-to-day abundance of
5235:
4899:
4613:
4440:
4231:
3183:
3088:
3071:
2937:
2920:
2485:
1845:
1503:"Diverse sources of C. difficile infection identified on whole-genome sequencing"
1289:
598:
537:
422:
362:
306:
52:
4164:"Evolutionary dynamics of Clostridium difficile over short and long time scales"
1751:
986:
5057:
4262:
4168:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3865:
3718:
2696:"Clostridium difficile in food and domestic animals: a new foodborne pathogen?"
2254:
1716:
1399:
1027:
767:
763:
685:
453:
434:
430:
152:
4027:
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3924:
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3792:
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2662:
1789:
5462:
5341:
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4316:
3873:
3248:
3136:
2542:
1991:
1116:
852:
630:
602:
564:
404:
299:
132:
4188:
2387:
Infections: A Global Overview of Drug Sensitivity and Resistance Mechanisms"
5035:
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3687:
3644:
3592:
3512:
3459:
3410:
3361:
3304:
3266:
3201:
3155:
3097:
3056:
3005:
2946:
2905:
2851:
2721:
2680:
2550:
2471:
2422:
2403:
2367:
2318:
2208:
2110:
2059:
2041:
2010:
1951:
1913:
1895:
1864:
1797:
1689:
1638:
1589:
1536:
1417:
1368:
1307:
897:
606:
522:
255:
72:
4353:
Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Clostridium Difficile
3343:
2569:
2159:
2091:
1759:
1724:
1571:
1518:
696:
spores will not necessarily become carriers. Once people are colonized by
5350:
5189:
4964:
4934:
3791:
Chen T, Zhou Q, Zhang D, Jiang F, Wu J, Zhou JY, et al. (May 2018).
3441:
3392:
3240:
3037:
2886:
2832:
2534:
2453:
2309:
2292:
1821:"Asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonisation and onward transmission"
1670:
1620:
1322:"Johns Hopkins Doctors Discover That a Common Infection May Cause Cancer"
1004:
893:
856:
568:
496:
463:
447:
396:
4130:
4107:"Dietary trehalose enhances virulence of epidemic Clostridium difficile"
4008:
3296:
3192:
3070:
Cook L, Rees WD, Wong MQ, Kwok WW, Levings MK, Steiner TS (March 2021).
2986:
5383:
5275:
5117:
5102:
5091:
4954:
4835:
4763:
4608:
4582:
4408:
3583:
3566:
2814:
Smits WK, Lyras D, Lacy DB, Wilcox MH, and Kuijper EJ (April 7, 2017).
2073:
Di Bella S, Ascenzi P, Siarakas S, Petrosillo N, di Masi A (May 2016).
1051:
1017:
947:
848:
653:
amongst other microflora from infected patient fecal sample suspension.
582:
392:
334:
326:
122:
64:
5249:
4060:
The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology
2141:
1775:
5062:
4969:
4826:
4789:
4634:
4412:
4404:
4054:, Marra F, Kibsey P, Tan K, Umlandt P, et al. (March 29, 2016).
3494:
2342:"Clostridium difficile: responding to a new threat from an old enemy"
2123:
1124:
962:
507:
251:
112:
5206:
825:
could be of particular interest in future research for treatments.
552:
of the low molecular mass GTP-binding Rho proteins. There is also a
5335:
5229:
4994:
4918:
4875:
4768:
4475:
4445:
3564:
2712:
2695:
2358:
2341:
1971:
Biology: Sporulation, Germination, and Corresponding Therapies for
1132:
817:
759:
622:
populations, further complicating attempts at effective treatment.
557:
518:
408:
372:
346:
318:
254:
known for causing serious diarrheal infections, and may also cause
102:
2124:
Just I, Selzer J, von Eichel-Streiber C, Aktories K (March 1995).
548:
depolymerization by a mechanism correlated with a decrease in the
5262:
5244:
5008:
4891:
4431:
3116:"Overview of current detection methods and microRNA potential in
2230:"The chemical weapon that helps bacterium wreak havoc in the gut"
2072:
2030:
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
1884:
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
864:
614:
533:
425:
without causing disease. Although early estimates indicated that
302:
2870:"Current Status of Clostridium difficile Infection Epidemiology"
1243:"LPSN - List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature"
5370:
3613:
2514:
1070:
994:
634:
338:
3749:
3113:
867:. About 40% of these patients will continue to have recurrent
625:
Disinfecting surfaces in hospitals may also be challenging as
279:
3752:"Development of the gut microbiota and dysbiosis in children"
1818:
1654:"Antibiotics Associated With Clostridium difficile Infection"
934:
In 2005, molecular analysis led to the identification of the
545:
492:
412:
4104:
4049:
3325:
2918:
2644:
2173:
Barth H, Aktories K, Popoff MR, Stiles BG (September 2004).
3700:
3223:
Cribas ES, Denny JE, Maslanka JR, Abt MC (April 16, 2021).
2599:
2435:
2024:
Galperin MY, Brover V, Tolstoy I, Yutin N (December 2016).
1929:
2959:
2607:"WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: a Summary"
2577:"Clostridium difficile Infection Information for Patients"
2023:
1737:
1602:
471:. As of 2018, the only other species in this new genus is
32:
This article is about the bacterium. For the disease, see
3374:
3019:
Wullt M, Norén T, Ljungh A, Åkerlund T (September 2012).
2919:
Cymbal M, Chatterjee A, Baggott B, Auron M (March 2024).
2172:
287:
3018:
1271:
892:
After three relapses, patients may be treated with oral
4214:
4161:
3665:
2290:
1603:
Brown KA, Khanafer N, Daneman N, Fisman DN (May 2013).
1500:
958:
originally more common and recognizable NAP1 bacteria.
3960:"Clostridium difficile Infection: A Worldwide Disease"
3222:
1702:
1651:
1247:
Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen
1081:
In 2012, scientists at University of Oxford sequenced
660:
is transmitted from person or animal to person by the
942:
analysis, as North American pulse-field-type NAP1 by
353:-negative, and produces up to three types of toxins:
290:
276:
3839:
2813:
2478:
560:), but its role in disease is not fully understood.
284:
191:(Hall & O'Toole, 1935) Lawson & Rainey, 2016
4355:, Public Health Agency, Canada, September 10, 2014.
4098:
3479:
Infection: Risk Factors, Treatment, and Prevention"
3282:
2583:. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
2486:"Bleach does not kill common superbug, study finds"
1346:
1131: strains carry a diverse and prevalent set of
1127:. Both environmentally and clinically derived
1123:, ranging in genome size from about 30 to about 60
333:cells are Gram-positive and show optimum growth on
3906:
3904:
3790:
3423:
3168:
2868:Lessa FC, Gould CV, McDonald LC (August 1, 2012).
2867:
2516:
2228:
770:that can be severe, loss of appetite, and nausea.
4243:
1549:
1314:
5460:
4300:"Clostridium difficile phages: still difficult?"
4297:
3069:
1979:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
1472:"Clostridioides difficile Infection | HAI | CDC"
1381:
1160:
4293:
4291:
3560:
3558:
3278:
3276:
3109:
3107:
2863:
2861:
2640:
2638:
1925:
1923:
1771:
1769:
1464:
1166:
1100:was shown to impact sporulation, a key step in
889:, is associated with a higher rate of success.
3905:Stewart DB, Berg A, Hegarty J (January 2013).
2772:(Fifth ed.). Elsevier Mosby. p. 412.
1138:
4387:
3668:International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents
337:at human body temperatures in the absence of
4288:
4237:
4155:
4043:
4002:
3951:
3898:
3833:
3784:
3743:
3694:
3659:
3607:
3555:
3466:
3417:
3368:
3319:
3273:
3216:
3162:
3104:
3063:
3012:
2953:
2912:
2858:
2807:
2728:
2693:
2687:
2635:
2508:
2429:
2374:
2333:
2166:
2066:
2017:
1958:
1920:
1871:
1812:
1766:
1645:
1596:
1543:
1494:
851:regimen has replaced the traditional use of
3957:
2789:"Could you have deadly diarrhea (C. Diff)?"
2783:
2781:
2779:
2761:
2346:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
2286:
2284:
2221:
2117:
1877:
1731:
1696:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1375:
1340:
1265:
1191:
577:
567:. The bacterium also produces the chemical
445:The species was transferred from the genus
4394:
4380:
2974:Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology
2179:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
1964:
1556:Infection in Adults: A Case-Control Study"
1382:Kordus SL, Thomas AK, Lacy DB (May 2022).
71:
51:
4325:
4315:
4271:
4261:
4197:
4187:
4138:
4081:
4071:
4026:
3985:
3975:
3881:
3808:
3767:
3726:
3634:
3582:
3502:
3449:
3400:
3351:
3256:
3191:
3145:
3135:
3087:
3046:
3036:
2995:
2985:
2936:
2895:
2885:
2841:
2831:
2711:
2670:
2461:
2412:
2402:
2357:
2308:
2198:
2149:
2100:
2090:
2049:
2000:
1990:
1903:
1854:
1844:
1679:
1669:
1628:
1579:
1526:
1407:
1297:
938:strain type characterized as group BI by
589:infections may be difficult, due both to
421:can also become established in the human
3958:Burke KE, Lamont JT (January 29, 2014).
3571:The American Journal of Gastroenterology
3534:The American Journal of Gastroenterology
3519:
2776:
2737:"Death Toll From C. Difficile Is Raised"
2339:
2281:
1424:
1173:American Journal of Diseases of Children
1073:of the highly virulent Quebec strain of
1038:The first complete genome sequence of a
644:
4671:Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection
4368:- the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase.
4234:– Institute of Public Affairs, Montreal
3472:
2749:from the original on September 29, 2017
2734:
2581:Health-care Associated Infections (HAI)
2380:
2215:
1552:"Risk Factors for Community-Associated
1437:
1148:infection § Etymology and pronunciation
789:
467:, while maintaining the common name as
14:
5461:
2767:
2694:Gould LH, Limbago B (September 2010).
2496:from the original on November 22, 2023
1446:(4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp.
1197:
5211:
5210:
4375:
2442:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
2130:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
1878:Oren A, Garrity GM (September 2017).
1609:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1253:from the original on November 8, 2022
749:
457:in 2016, thus giving it the binomial
80:Electron micrograph of the bacterium
5433:b212b1f2-123c-4ff3-8b3d-60313e54feab
4805:Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
1185:10.1001/archpedi.1935.01970020105010
4015:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
3939:from the original on March 21, 2024
3913:Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery
3623:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
2795:from the original on March 30, 2017
2587:from the original on March 30, 2017
2529:(2). Mayuresh Abhyankar: e0013523.
2297:The New England Journal of Medicine
1740:The New England Journal of Medicine
1507:The New England Journal of Medicine
1230:
633:, including high concentrations of
24:
18:Clostridioides difficile (bacteria)
2557:from the original on March 4, 2024
2269:from the original on July 28, 2020
1705:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
1482:from the original on March 8, 2020
1218:from the original on July 28, 2020
773:
34:Clostridioides difficile infection
25:
5500:
5041:Clostridial necrotizing enteritis
4346:
4298:Hargreaves KR, Clokie MR (2014).
3680:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2015.03.012
3124:World Journal of Gastroenterology
2816:"Clostridium difficile infection"
2241:(7723): 288. September 14, 2018.
2185:(3): 373–402, table of contents.
1328:from the original on May 26, 2023
1238:Species: Clostridioides difficile
673:to bile acids. Consequently, the
482:
3797:Journal of Crohn's & Colitis
3473:Song JH, Kim YS (January 2019).
2623:from the original on May 9, 2020
2381:Banawas SS (February 21, 2018).
1361:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2551
1107:
1042:strain was published in 2005 by
944:pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
871:infection. The first relapse of
722:A 2015 CDC study estimated that
272:
89:
4646:Group B streptococcal infection
4594:Group A streptococcal infection
3707:Infectious Diseases and Therapy
3025:Clinical and Vaccine Immunology
2735:Belluck P (February 25, 2015).
1050:isolates using next-generation
843:antibiotics capable of killing
640:
371:is an important emerging human
2820:Nature Reviews Disease Primers
2191:10.1128/MMBR.68.3.373-402.2004
1965:Zhu D, Sorg JA, Sun X (2018).
1944:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2016.06.008
1560:Open Forum Infectious Diseases
1438:Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004).
544:. Toxin B (cytotoxin) induces
13:
1:
5469:Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
2523:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
2391:BioMed Research International
1208:Annales de l'Institut Pasteur
1153:
917:
711:
517:), both of which may produce
495:. The best-characterized are
5184:Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
3756:National Library of Medicine
3430:Clinical Infectious Diseases
3381:Clinical Infectious Diseases
3332:Clinical Infectious Diseases
3285:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
3184:10.1053/J.GASTRO.2021.01.009
3089:10.1053/J.GASTRO.2020.11.043
2938:10.1016/j.amjmed.2024.03.024
2874:Clinical Infectious Diseases
2700:Clinical Infectious Diseases
1846:10.1371/journal.pone.0078445
1442:Sherris Medical Microbiology
1388:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
1290:10.1158/2159-8290.CD-21-1273
1088:
837:
828:
7:
2340:McDonald LC (August 2005).
1752:10.1056/NEJM198901263200402
1139:Etymology and pronunciation
905:fecal microbiota transplant
822:Fecal microbiota transplant
611:Centers for Disease Control
440:
218:(Hall & O'Toole, 1935)
10:
5505:
5484:Bacteria described in 1935
4263:10.1186/gb-2012-13-12-r118
3866:10.1038/s41467-020-20793-x
3719:10.1007/s40121-020-00314-5
2255:10.1038/d41586-018-06650-4
1400:10.1038/s41579-021-00660-2
1142:
1069:in Montreal sequenced the
929:
879:Each subsequent relapse of
227:Peptoclostridium difficile
31:
5325:
5219:
5173:
5125:
5116:
5089:
5055:
5019:
4978:
4962:
4953:
4916:
4873:
4825:
4788:
4777:
4762:
4718:
4685:
4656:
4624:
4599:Streptococcal pharyngitis
4573:
4564:
4502:
4474:
4465:
4454:
4439:
4430:
4304:Frontiers in Microbiology
4028:10.1016/j.cmi.2018.02.020
3925:10.1007/s11605-012-2056-6
3636:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.09.038
2663:10.1038/s41564-019-0613-4
2614:World Health Organization
1790:10.1038/s41564-020-0668-2
1026:
1015:
1003:
993:
978:
968:
900:to the standard of care.
675:World Health Organization
491:strains produce multiple
473:Clostridioides mangenotii
210:Hall & O'Toole, 1935
203:
196:
181:
174:
86:Scientific classification
84:
79:
70:
59:
50:
43:
5289:clostridioides-difficile
5221:Clostridioides difficile
5079:Pseudomembranous colitis
5073:Clostridioides difficile
4317:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00184
3137:10.3748/wjg.v29.i22.3385
3118:Clostridioides difficile
1992:10.3389/fcimb.2018.00029
1969:Clostridioides difficile
1717:10.1093/infdis/162.3.678
1146:Clostridioides difficile
1119:have been isolated from
1094:Clostridioides difficile
940:restriction endonuclease
731:Clostridioides difficile
717:Clostridioides difficile
658:Clostridioides difficile
578:Antimicrobial resistance
459:Clostridioides difficile
419:Clostridioides difficile
369:Clostridioides difficile
240:Clostridioides difficile
185:Clostridioides difficile
45:Clostridioides difficile
5030:Clostridium perfringens
4741:Urinary tract infection
4189:10.1073/pnas.0914322107
3810:10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjy031
3577:(4): 478–98, quiz 499.
886:Saccharomyces boulardii
5479:Gram-positive bacteria
5136:Ureaplasma urealyticum
4929:Listeria monocytogenes
4633:bacitracin resistant,
4492:Pneumococcal infection
3977:10.5009/gnl.2014.8.1.1
3229:Infection and Immunity
2042:10.1099/ijsem.0.001548
1896:10.1099/ijsem.0.002278
1112:At least eight mainly
762:(at least three loose
654:
525:in infected patients (
477:Clostridium mangenotii
258:. It is known also as
5474:Peptostreptococcaceae
5423:clostridium-difficile
5357:Clostridium difficile
5327:Clostridium difficile
5157:Mycoplasma pneumoniae
5150:Mycoplasma genitalium
4989:Clostridium botulinum
4735:Enterococcus faecalis
4510:Viridans streptococci
4361:Clostridium difficile
4230:May 22, 2022, at the
3846:Nature Communications
3477:Clostridium difficile
2964:Clostridium difficile
2492:. November 22, 2023.
2385:Clostridium difficile
2092:10.3390/toxins8050134
1554:Clostridium difficile
1519:10.1056/NEJMoa1216064
766:a day), dehydration,
648:
601:antibiotics, such as
591:antibiotic resistance
542:Rho family of GTPases
248:Clostridium difficile
215:Clostridium difficile
143:Peptostreptococcaceae
5163:Mycoplasma pneumonia
5142:Ureaplasma infection
4852:novobiocin resistant
4810:Toxic shock syndrome
4749:Enterococcus faecium
4073:10.1155/2016/8207418
3241:10.1128/IAI.00730-20
3120:infection screening"
3038:10.1128/CVI.00210-12
2880:(Suppl 2): S65–S70.
2833:10.1038/nrdp.2016.20
2770:Medical Microbiology
2616:. 2009. p. 31.
2535:10.1128/cmr.00135-23
2454:10.1128/AAC.01031-19
2404:10.1155/2018/8414257
2310:10.1056/NEJMoa051639
1671:10.7759/cureus.39029
1621:10.1128/AAC.02176-12
790:Host immune response
351:superoxide dismutase
63:colonies on a blood
5095:(non-spore forming)
4705:Streptococcus bovis
4665:Streptococcus iniae
4413:Infectious diseases
4180:2010PNAS..107.7527H
4131:10.1038/nature25178
4123:2018Natur.553..291C
3858:2021NatCo..12..755L
3629:(Suppl 2): S1–S21.
3344:10.1093/cid/cix1085
3297:10.1038/nrmicro2164
3178:(6): 2155–2158.e4.
3082:(4): 1410–1413.e4.
2987:10.2147/CEG.S133939
2791:. January 4, 2019.
2651:Nature Microbiology
2247:2018Natur.561S.288.
1837:2013PLoSO...878445E
1778:Nature Microbiology
1572:10.1093/ofid/ofx171
1478:. January 2, 2020.
1324:. August 24, 2022.
1169:Bacillus difficilis
975:
974:Genomic information
629:spores resist many
475:(formerly known as
375:; according to the
309:-forming bacteria.
207:Bacillus difficilis
27:Species of bacteria
5003:Clostridium tetani
4886:Bacillus anthracis
4503:optochin resistant
4418:Bacterial diseases
3584:10.1038/ajg.2013.4
3442:10.1093/cid/cix669
3393:10.1093/cid/cir404
2887:10.1093/cid/cis319
2742:The New York Times
1198:Prévot AR (1938).
1054:technologies from
1028:Year of completion
973:
910:The prediction of
758:infection include
750:Signs and symptoms
655:
5456:
5455:
5441:Open Tree of Life
5310:Open Tree of Life
5213:Taxon identifiers
5204:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5175:Anaeroplasmatales
5112:
5111:
5051:
5050:
4949:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4869:
4868:
4758:
4757:
4714:
4713:
4681:
4680:
4560:
4559:
4174:(16): 7527–7532.
4117:(7688): 291–294.
4021:(10): 1051–1054.
3543:on August 9, 2017
3130:(22): 3385–3399.
2768:Murray P (2005).
2303:(23): 2442–2449.
2142:10.1172/JCI117747
2036:(12): 5506–5513.
1513:(13): 1195–1205.
1457:978-0-8385-8529-0
1067:McGill University
1056:454 Life Sciences
1036:
1035:
411:and receiving an
236:
235:
230:
223:
211:
167:C. difficile
16:(Redirected from
5496:
5449:
5448:
5436:
5435:
5426:
5425:
5413:
5412:
5400:
5399:
5387:
5386:
5374:
5373:
5361:
5360:
5359:
5346:
5345:
5344:
5318:
5317:
5305:
5304:
5292:
5291:
5279:
5278:
5266:
5265:
5253:
5252:
5240:
5239:
5238:
5208:
5207:
5127:Mycoplasmataceae
5123:
5122:
5103:Finegoldia magna
4976:
4975:
4960:
4959:
4858:S. saprophyticus
4786:
4785:
4775:
4774:
4571:
4570:
4472:
4471:
4463:
4462:
4452:
4451:
4437:
4436:
4396:
4389:
4382:
4373:
4372:
4340:
4339:
4329:
4319:
4295:
4286:
4285:
4275:
4265:
4241:
4235:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4201:
4191:
4159:
4153:
4152:
4142:
4102:
4096:
4095:
4085:
4075:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4030:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3989:
3979:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3910:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3885:
3837:
3831:
3830:
3812:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3771:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3730:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3638:
3620:
3611:
3605:
3604:
3586:
3562:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3542:
3536:. Archived from
3531:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3506:
3495:10.5009/gnl18071
3470:
3464:
3463:
3453:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3404:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3355:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3280:
3271:
3270:
3260:
3235:(5): e00730–20.
3220:
3214:
3213:
3195:
3172:Gastroenterology
3166:
3160:
3159:
3149:
3139:
3111:
3102:
3101:
3091:
3076:Gastroenterology
3067:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3040:
3031:(9): 1552–1554.
3016:
3010:
3009:
2999:
2989:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2940:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2899:
2889:
2865:
2856:
2855:
2845:
2835:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2785:
2774:
2773:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2715:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2674:
2642:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2622:
2611:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2465:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2416:
2406:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2361:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2312:
2288:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2232:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2153:
2136:(3): 1026–1031.
2121:
2115:
2114:
2104:
2094:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2053:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2004:
1994:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1927:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1890:(9): 3140–3143.
1875:
1869:
1868:
1858:
1848:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1773:
1764:
1763:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1683:
1673:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1632:
1615:(5): 2326–2332.
1600:
1594:
1593:
1583:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1530:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1445:
1435:
1422:
1421:
1411:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1301:
1284:(8): 1873–1885.
1278:Cancer Discovery
1269:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1164:
1044:Sanger Institute
1011:
989:
976:
972:
662:fecal-oral route
550:ADP-ribosylation
401:fluoroquinolones
297:
296:
293:
292:
289:
286:
282:
281:
278:
229:
217:
209:
187:
94:
93:
75:
55:
41:
40:
21:
5504:
5503:
5499:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5494:
5493:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5444:
5439:
5431:
5429:
5421:
5416:
5408:
5403:
5395:
5390:
5382:
5377:
5369:
5364:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5340:
5339:
5334:
5321:
5313:
5308:
5300:
5295:
5287:
5282:
5274:
5269:
5261:
5256:
5248:
5243:
5234:
5233:
5228:
5215:
5205:
5196:
5169:
5108:
5085:
5047:
5015:
4941:
4912:
4900:Bacillus cereus
4865:
4821:
4766:
4754:
4710:
4677:
4652:
4620:
4614:Rheumatic fever
4556:
4498:
4443:
4441:Lactobacillales
4426:
4400:
4359:Type strain of
4349:
4344:
4343:
4296:
4289:
4242:
4238:
4232:Wayback Machine
4221:Scientists map
4219:
4215:
4160:
4156:
4103:
4099:
4048:
4044:
4007:
4003:
3956:
3952:
3942:
3940:
3903:
3899:
3838:
3834:
3789:
3785:
3748:
3744:
3699:
3695:
3664:
3660:
3618:
3612:
3608:
3563:
3556:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3529:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3471:
3467:
3436:(12): e45–e80.
3422:
3418:
3373:
3369:
3324:
3320:
3281:
3274:
3221:
3217:
3167:
3163:
3112:
3105:
3068:
3064:
3017:
3013:
2958:
2954:
2917:
2913:
2866:
2859:
2812:
2808:
2798:
2796:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2766:
2762:
2752:
2750:
2733:
2729:
2692:
2688:
2643:
2636:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2609:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2590:
2588:
2575:
2574:
2570:
2560:
2558:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2497:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2434:
2430:
2379:
2375:
2338:
2334:
2289:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2216:
2171:
2167:
2122:
2118:
2071:
2067:
2022:
2018:
1963:
1959:
1928:
1921:
1876:
1872:
1817:
1813:
1774:
1767:
1736:
1732:
1701:
1697:
1650:
1646:
1601:
1597:
1548:
1544:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1483:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1436:
1425:
1380:
1376:
1349:JAMA Pediatrics
1345:
1341:
1331:
1329:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1254:
1241:
1235:
1231:
1221:
1219:
1196:
1192:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1141:
1110:
1091:
1065:Researchers at
1009:
985:
971:
932:
920:
840:
831:
809:17 helper cells
808:
792:
776:
774:Pathophysiology
764:bowel movements
752:
714:
706:GI disturbances
690:Crohn's disease
643:
599:fluoroquinolone
597:, resistant to
580:
538:toxic megacolon
485:
443:
409:stool softeners
283:
275:
271:
192:
189:
183:
170:
88:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5502:
5492:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5454:
5453:
5451:
5450:
5437:
5427:
5414:
5401:
5388:
5375:
5362:
5347:
5331:
5329:
5323:
5322:
5320:
5319:
5306:
5293:
5280:
5267:
5254:
5241:
5225:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5202:
5201:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5194:
5193:
5192:
5179:
5177:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5153:
5146:
5145:
5144:
5131:
5129:
5120:
5114:
5113:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5106:
5098:
5096:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5083:
5082:
5081:
5068:
5066:
5058:Clostridioides
5053:
5052:
5049:
5048:
5046:
5045:
5044:
5043:
5038:
5025:
5023:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5011:
4999:
4998:
4997:
4984:
4982:
4973:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4939:
4938:
4937:
4924:
4922:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4908:
4906:Food poisoning
4896:
4895:
4894:
4881:
4879:
4871:
4870:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4861:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4844:S. epidermidis
4831:
4829:
4823:
4822:
4820:
4819:
4818:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4794:
4792:
4783:
4780:Staphylococcus
4772:
4760:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4745:
4744:
4743:
4726:
4724:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4708:
4697:
4691:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4673:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4648:
4630:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4579:
4577:
4568:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4554:
4546:
4539:
4532:
4525:
4518:
4506:
4504:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4481:
4479:
4469:
4460:
4449:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4415:
4399:
4398:
4391:
4384:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4356:
4348:
4347:External links
4345:
4342:
4341:
4287:
4250:Genome Biology
4236:
4213:
4154:
4097:
4042:
4001:
3950:
3919:(1): 118–125.
3897:
3832:
3803:(6): 710–717.
3783:
3742:
3713:(3): 481–494.
3693:
3658:
3606:
3554:
3518:
3465:
3416:
3387:(5): 440–447.
3367:
3318:
3291:(7): 526–536.
3272:
3215:
3161:
3103:
3062:
3011:
2952:
2931:(7): 571–576.
2911:
2857:
2806:
2775:
2760:
2727:
2713:10.1086/655692
2706:(5): 577–582.
2686:
2657:(1): 166–180.
2634:
2598:
2568:
2507:
2477:
2428:
2373:
2359:10.1086/502600
2352:(8): 672–675.
2332:
2280:
2220:
2214:
2165:
2116:
2065:
2016:
1957:
1919:
1870:
1831:(11): e78445.
1811:
1784:(4): 642–650.
1765:
1746:(4): 204–210.
1730:
1711:(3): 678–684.
1695:
1644:
1595:
1542:
1493:
1463:
1456:
1423:
1394:(5): 285–298.
1374:
1339:
1313:
1264:
1229:
1190:
1179:(2): 390–402.
1158:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1140:
1137:
1117:bacteriophages
1109:
1106:
1090:
1087:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1013:
1012:
1007:
1001:
1000:
997:
991:
990:
983:
970:
967:
931:
928:
919:
916:
839:
836:
830:
827:
806:
791:
788:
775:
772:
768:abdominal pain
751:
748:
713:
710:
686:food poisoning
642:
639:
579:
576:
484:
483:Human pathogen
481:
454:Clostridioides
442:
439:
435:laxative abuse
431:food poisoning
405:cephalosporins
391:(CDI), namely
311:Clostridioides
234:
233:
232:
231:
224:
212:
201:
200:
194:
193:
190:
179:
178:
172:
171:
164:
162:
158:
157:
154:Clostridioides
150:
146:
145:
140:
136:
135:
130:
126:
125:
120:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
100:
96:
95:
82:
81:
77:
76:
68:
67:
57:
56:
48:
47:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5501:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5466:
5464:
5447:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5393:
5389:
5385:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5358:
5352:
5348:
5343:
5337:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5328:
5324:
5316:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5246:
5242:
5237:
5231:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5209:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5186:
5185:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5176:
5172:
5164:
5161:
5160:
5159:
5158:
5154:
5152:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5140:
5139:
5138:
5137:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5128:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5115:
5105:
5104:
5100:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5093:
5088:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5075:
5074:
5070:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5060:
5059:
5054:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5032:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4981:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4920:
4915:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4887:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4878:
4877:
4872:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4850:
4846:
4845:
4841:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4833:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4824:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4773:
4770:
4765:
4761:
4751:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4717:
4707:
4706:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4684:
4672:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4659:
4655:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4640:S. agalactiae
4636:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4604:Scarlet fever
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4589:
4585:susceptible:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4553:
4551:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4540:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4511:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4501:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4487:
4486:S. pneumoniae
4483:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4458:
4457:Streptococcus
4453:
4450:
4447:
4442:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4423:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4390:
4385:
4383:
4378:
4377:
4374:
4367:
4363:
4362:
4357:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4337:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4294:
4292:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4240:
4233:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4217:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4158:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4101:
4093:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4052:Prystajecky N
4046:
4038:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4005:
3997:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3954:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3901:
3893:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3746:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3697:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3662:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3617:
3610:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3561:
3559:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3522:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3483:Gut and Liver
3480:
3478:
3469:
3461:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3371:
3363:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3338:(7): e1–e48.
3337:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3277:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3165:
3157:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3110:
3108:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3066:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2956:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2915:
2907:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2862:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2771:
2764:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2731:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2639:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2602:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2511:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2386:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2287:
2285:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2224:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1770:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1664:(5): e39029.
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1599:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1566:(4): ofx171.
1565:
1561:
1557:
1555:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1459:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1443:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1268:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1233:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1203:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1159:
1149:
1147:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1108:Bacteriophage
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1086:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1014:
1008:
1006:
1002:
998:
996:
992:
988:
984:
981:
977:
966:
964:
959:
955:
954:BI/NAP1/027.
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
927:
924:
915:
913:
908:
906:
901:
899:
895:
890:
888:
887:
882:
877:
874:
870:
866:
861:
858:
854:
853:metronidazole
850:
846:
835:
826:
823:
819:
814:
810:
802:
797:
787:
785:
780:
771:
769:
765:
761:
757:
747:
745:
740:
736:
732:
728:
725:
720:
718:
709:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
682:
680:
679:C. diffiicile
676:
671:
667:
663:
659:
652:
649:Gram-stained
647:
638:
636:
632:
631:disinfectants
628:
623:
621:
616:
612:
608:
604:
603:ciprofloxacin
600:
596:
592:
588:
585:treatment of
584:
575:
573:
571:
566:
565:hyaluronidase
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
529:
524:
520:
516:
514:
509:
505:
503:
498:
494:
490:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
465:
460:
456:
455:
450:
449:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
388:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
364:
360:
356:
355:enterotoxin A
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:Gram staining
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
301:
300:Gram-positive
298:), and is a
295:
269:
268:
263:
262:
257:
253:
249:
246:
242:
241:
228:
225:
221:
216:
213:
208:
205:
204:
202:
199:
195:
188:
186:
180:
177:
176:Binomial name
173:
169:
168:
163:
160:
159:
156:
155:
151:
148:
147:
144:
141:
138:
137:
134:
133:Eubacteriales
131:
128:
127:
124:
121:
118:
117:
114:
111:
108:
107:
104:
101:
98:
97:
92:
87:
83:
78:
74:
69:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
46:
42:
39:
35:
30:
19:
5326:
5220:
5182:
5155:
5148:
5134:
5101:
5090:
5072:
5071:
5056:
5036:Gas gangrene
5028:
5020:
5001:
4987:
4979:
4963:
4927:
4917:
4898:
4884:
4874:
4856:
4851:
4842:
4834:
4797:
4778:
4747:
4733:
4721:Enterococcus
4719:
4703:
4663:
4638:
4586:
4550:S. anginosus
4549:
4541:
4536:S. sanguinis
4534:
4527:
4520:
4513:
4484:
4455:
4365:
4360:
4307:
4303:
4256:(12): R118.
4253:
4249:
4239:
4223:C. difficile
4222:
4216:
4171:
4167:
4157:
4114:
4110:
4100:
4063:
4059:
4045:
4018:
4014:
4004:
3967:
3963:
3953:
3941:. Retrieved
3916:
3912:
3900:
3849:
3845:
3835:
3800:
3796:
3786:
3762:(1): 12–18.
3759:
3755:
3745:
3710:
3706:
3696:
3671:
3667:
3661:
3626:
3622:
3609:
3574:
3570:
3545:. Retrieved
3538:the original
3533:
3521:
3489:(1): 16–24.
3486:
3482:
3476:
3468:
3433:
3429:
3419:
3384:
3380:
3370:
3335:
3331:
3321:
3288:
3284:
3232:
3228:
3218:
3193:11343/289863
3175:
3171:
3164:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3079:
3075:
3065:
3028:
3024:
3014:
2977:
2973:
2968:C. difficile
2967:
2963:
2955:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2877:
2873:
2823:
2819:
2809:
2797:. Retrieved
2769:
2763:
2753:February 25,
2751:. Retrieved
2740:
2730:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2654:
2650:
2625:. Retrieved
2613:
2601:
2589:. Retrieved
2580:
2571:
2559:. Retrieved
2526:
2522:
2510:
2500:November 22,
2498:. Retrieved
2489:
2480:
2445:
2441:
2431:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2376:
2349:
2345:
2335:
2300:
2296:
2271:. Retrieved
2238:
2234:
2223:
2217:
2182:
2178:
2168:
2133:
2129:
2119:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2033:
2029:
2019:
1982:
1978:
1973:C. difficile
1972:
1968:
1960:
1935:
1931:
1887:
1883:
1873:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1781:
1777:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1661:
1657:
1647:
1612:
1608:
1598:
1563:
1559:
1553:
1545:
1510:
1506:
1496:
1484:. Retrieved
1475:
1466:
1441:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1352:
1348:
1342:
1330:. Retrieved
1316:
1281:
1277:
1267:
1255:. Retrieved
1237:
1232:
1222:December 15,
1220:. Retrieved
1211:
1207:
1201:
1193:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1145:
1129:C. difficile
1128:
1121:C. difficile
1120:
1111:
1102:C. difficile
1101:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1083:C. difficile
1082:
1080:
1075:C. difficile
1074:
1064:
1048:C. difficile
1047:
1040:C. difficile
1039:
1037:
960:
956:
952:C. difficile
951:
936:C. difficile
935:
933:
923:C. difficile
922:
921:
912:C. difficile
911:
909:
902:
898:bezlotoxumab
891:
884:
881:C. difficile
880:
878:
873:C. difficile
872:
869:C. difficile
868:
862:
845:C. difficile
844:
841:
832:
813:C. difficile
812:
801:C. difficile
800:
796:C. difficile
795:
793:
784:C. difficile
783:
779:C. difficile
778:
777:
756:C. difficile
755:
754:Symptoms of
753:
744:C. difficile
743:
739:C. difficile
738:
735:C. difficile
734:
730:
729:
723:
721:
716:
715:
702:C. difficile
701:
698:C. difficile
697:
694:C. difficile
693:
683:
678:
670:C. difficile
669:
668:spores, and
666:C. difficile
665:
657:
656:
650:
641:Transmission
627:C. difficile
626:
624:
620:C. difficile
619:
607:levofloxacin
595:C. difficile
594:
586:
581:
569:
562:
554:binary toxin
528:C. difficile
527:
523:inflammation
513:C. difficile
512:
502:C. difficile
501:
489:C. difficile
488:
486:
476:
472:
468:
462:
458:
452:
446:
444:
427:C. difficile
426:
418:
417:
387:C. difficile
386:
381:C. difficile
380:
368:
367:
343:C. difficile
342:
331:C. difficile
330:
310:
266:
265:
261:C. difficile
260:
259:
256:colon cancer
247:
239:
238:
237:
226:
214:
206:
184:
182:
166:
165:
153:
61:C. difficile
60:
44:
38:
29:
5351:Wikispecies
5190:Erysipeloid
4965:Clostridium
4935:Listeriosis
4838:susceptible
4588:S. pyogenes
4543:S. sobrinus
4478:susceptible
4066:: 8207418.
4050:Jassem AN,
3674:(1): 8–12.
3475:"Recurrent
2980:: 169–175.
2397:: 8414257.
1476:www.cdc.gov
1257:November 8,
1202:Clostridium
1018:chromosomes
1005:Genome size
894:fidaxomicin
857:fidaxomicin
497:enterotoxin
487:Pathogenic
464:Clostridium
448:Clostridium
397:clindamycin
359:cytotoxin B
323:pleomorphic
5463:Categories
5118:Mollicutes
5092:Finegoldia
5021:nonmotile:
4955:Clostridia
4836:novobiocin
4764:Bacillales
4609:Erysipelas
4583:bacitracin
3970:(1): 1–6.
3852:(1): 755.
2970:infection"
2273:October 8,
2085:(5): 134.
1975:Infection"
1355:(6): 592.
1332:August 29,
1154:References
1052:sequencing
1016:Number of
918:Prevention
849:vancomycin
712:Host range
583:Antibiotic
393:vancomycin
335:blood agar
123:Clostridia
65:agar plate
5489:Anaerobes
5236:Q56290719
5065:-forming)
4972:-forming)
4799:S. aureus
4657:ungrouped
4635:CAMP test
4529:S. oralis
4522:S. mutans
4405:Bacillota
3964:Gut Liver
3943:March 20,
3874:2041-1723
3653:239473944
3547:April 28,
3249:1098-5522
3210:231611318
2826:: 16020.
2543:0893-8512
1938:: 95–99.
1806:211074075
1486:March 10,
1214:(1): 84.
1133:prophages
1114:temperate
1089:Epigenome
982:genome ID
963:trehalose
838:Treatment
829:Diagnosis
508:cytotoxin
389:infection
315:anaerobic
313:spp. are
252:bacterium
161:Species:
113:Bacillota
5397:10917971
5336:Wikidata
5263:52503553
5230:Wikidata
4995:Botulism
4919:Listeria
4876:Bacillus
4515:S. mitis
4476:optochin
4336:24808893
4282:23259504
4228:Archived
4208:20368420
4149:29310122
4092:27366181
4037:29505879
3996:24516694
3937:Archived
3933:23086451
3892:33531483
3819:29528385
3778:33520564
3737:32632582
3688:25982915
3645:34678515
3601:54629762
3593:23439232
3513:30400734
3460:29053792
3411:21844027
3362:29462280
3313:23376891
3305:19528959
3267:33649048
3202:33444574
3156:37389232
3147:10303512
3098:33253683
3057:22787196
3006:28765714
2947:38508330
2925:Am J Med
2906:22752867
2852:27158839
2793:Archived
2747:Archived
2722:20642351
2681:31768029
2627:June 18,
2618:Archived
2585:Archived
2561:March 4,
2555:Archived
2551:38421181
2494:Archived
2490:BBC News
2472:31611365
2423:29682562
2368:16156321
2327:14818750
2319:16322602
2267:Archived
2263:52297840
2209:15353562
2111:27153087
2060:27902180
2011:29473021
1952:27370902
1932:Anaerobe
1914:28891789
1865:24265690
1825:PLOS ONE
1798:32042128
1690:37323360
1681:10266117
1639:23478961
1590:29732377
1537:24066741
1480:Archived
1418:34837014
1369:23733223
1326:Archived
1308:35678528
1251:Archived
1216:Archived
1060:Illumina
948:ribotype
818:microRNA
760:diarrhea
558:AB toxin
519:diarrhea
441:Taxonomy
373:pathogen
347:catalase
198:Synonyms
139:Family:
109:Phylum:
103:Bacteria
99:Domain:
5446:5256524
5384:3226608
5342:Q310543
5315:5256524
5276:9290075
5245:BacDive
5009:Tetanus
4980:motile:
4892:Anthrax
4432:Bacilli
4327:4009436
4310:: 184.
4273:4056369
4199:2867753
4176:Bibcode
4140:5984069
4119:Bibcode
4083:4904575
3987:3916678
3883:7854624
3854:Bibcode
3827:3841585
3769:7817514
3728:7452994
3504:6346998
3451:5850553
3402:3156139
3353:6018983
3258:8091099
3048:3428380
2997:5525456
2897:3388017
2843:5453186
2799:May 22,
2672:6925328
2591:May 22,
2463:7187568
2414:5841113
2243:Bibcode
2160:7883950
2102:4885049
2051:5244501
2002:5809512
1905:5817221
1856:3827041
1833:Bibcode
1760:2911306
1725:2387993
1630:3632900
1581:5903408
1528:3868928
1409:9018519
1299:9357196
999:haploid
946:and as
930:Strains
865:relapse
724:C. diff
651:C. diff
615:Atlanta
587:C. diff
572:-cresol
534:colitis
530:colitis
515:toxin B
504:toxin A
469:C. diff
303:species
267:C. diff
250:) is a
222:, 1938
149:Genus:
129:Order:
119:Class:
5430:NZOR:
5410:960739
5371:995330
4334:
4324:
4280:
4270:
4225:strain
4206:
4196:
4147:
4137:
4111:Nature
4090:
4080:
4035:
3994:
3984:
3931:
3890:
3880:
3872:
3825:
3817:
3776:
3766:
3735:
3725:
3686:
3651:
3643:
3599:
3591:
3511:
3501:
3458:
3448:
3409:
3399:
3360:
3350:
3311:
3303:
3265:
3255:
3247:
3208:
3200:
3154:
3144:
3096:
3055:
3045:
3004:
2994:
2945:
2904:
2894:
2850:
2840:
2720:
2679:
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