217:
393:
887:, the structure can be used to reconstruct the original order of a manuscript. However, complications can arise in the study of a codex. Manuscripts were frequently rebound, and this resulted in a particular codex incorporating works of different dates and origins, thus different internal structures. Additionally, a binder could alter or unify these structures to ensure a better fit for the new binding. Completed quires or books of quires might constitute independent book units- booklets, which could be returned to the stationer, or combined with other texts to make anthologies or miscellanies. Exemplars were sometimes divided into quires for simultaneous copying and loaned out to students for study. To facilitate this, catchwords were used- a word at the end of a page providing the next page's first word.
819:, and rebinding. A quire consisted of a number of folded sheets inserting into one another- at least three, but most commonly four bifolia, that is eight sheets and sixteen pages: Latin quaternio or Greek tetradion, which became a synonym for quires. Unless an exemplar (text to be copied) was copied exactly, format differed. In preparation for writing codices, ruling patterns were used that determined the layout of each page. Holes were prickled with a spiked lead wheel and a circle. Ruling was then applied separately on each page or once through the top folio. Ownership markings, decorations, and
752:
304:
418:; the erased text, which can often be recovered, is older and usually more interesting than the newer text which replaced it. Consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal and impermanent. Parchment (animal skin) was expensive, and therefore it was used primarily by the wealthy and powerful, who were also able to pay for textual design and color. "Official documents and deluxe manuscripts were written in gold and silver ink on parchment...dyed or painted with costly purple pigments as an expression of imperial power and wealth."
469:
799:. Codices intended for display were bound with more durable materials than vellum. Parchment varied widely due to animal species and finish, and identification of animals used to make it has only begun to be studied in the 21st century. How manufacturing influenced the final products, technique, and style, is little understood. However, changes in style are underpinned more by variation in technique. Before the 14th and 15th centuries, paper was expensive, and its use may mark off the deluxe copy.
649:
512:
385:. Three of these books are specifically described by Martial as being in the form of a codex; the poet praises the compendiousness of the form (as opposed to the scroll), as well as the convenience with which such a book can be read on a journey. In another poem by Martial, the poet advertises a new edition of his works, specifically noting that it is produced as a codex, taking less space than a scroll and being more comfortable to hold in one hand. According to
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side to the flesh side. This was not the same style used in the
British Isles, where the membrane was folded so that it turned out an eight-leaf quire, with single leaves in the third and sixth positions. The next stage was tacking the quire. Tacking is when the scribe would hold together the leaves in quire with thread. Once threaded together, the scribe would then sew a line of parchment up the "spine" of the manuscript to protect the tacking.
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makers. Defects can often be found in the membrane, whether they are from the original animal, human error during the preparation period, or from when the animal was killed. Defects can also appear during the writing process. Unless the manuscript is kept in perfect condition, defects can also appear
722:
The first stage in creating a codex is to prepare the animal skin. The skin is washed with water and lime but not together. The skin is soaked in the lime for a couple of days. The hair is removed, and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame, called a herse. The parchment maker attaches the skin
768:
Pricking is the process of making holes in a sheet of parchment (or membrane) in preparation of it ruling. The lines were then made by ruling between the prick marks.... The process of entering ruled lines on the page to serve as a guide for entering text. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal
763:
Firstly, the membrane must be prepared. The first step is to set up the quires. The quire is a group of several sheets put together. Raymond
Clemens and Timothy Graham point out, in "Introduction to Manuscript Studies", that "the quire was the scribe's basic writing unit throughout the Middle Ages":
408:
in Egypt, Eric Turner seems to challenge Skeat's notion when stating, "its mere existence is evidence that this book form had a prehistory", and that "early experiments with this book form may well have taken place outside of Egypt." Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have been widely
778:
From the
Carolingian period to the end of the Middle Ages, different styles of folding the quire came about. For example, in continental Europe throughout the Middle Ages, the quire was put into a system in which each side folded on to the same style. The hair side met the hair side and the flesh
413:
9.26.1). Early codices were not always cohesive. They often contained multiple languages, various topics and even multiple authors. "Such codices formed libraries in their own right." The parchment notebook pages were "more durable, and could withstand being folded and stitched to other sheets".
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to remove any remaining hairs. Once the skin completely dries, the maker gives it a deep clean and processes it into sheets. The number of sheets from a piece of skin depends on the size of the skin and the final product dimensions. For example, the average calfskin can provide three-and-a-half
1516:; see Roberts & Skeat 28). Papyrus fragments of a 'Treatise of the Empirical School' dated by its editor to the centuries AD 1â2 is also attested in the Berlin collection (inv. # 9015, Pack\2 # 2355)âTurner, Typology # 389, and Roberts & Skeat 71, call it a 'medical manual
723:
at points around the circumference. The skin attaches to the herse by cords. To prevent it from being torn, the maker wraps the area of the skin attached to the cord around a pebble called a pippin. After completing that, the maker uses a crescent shaped knife called a
240:, by the fifth century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature. The change from rolls to codices roughly coincides with the transition from
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492:
in the 8th century, many works that were not converted from scroll to codex were lost. The codex improved on the scroll in several ways. It could be opened flat at any page for easier reading, pages could be written on both front and back
389:, this might be the first recorded known case of an entire edition of a literary work (not just a single copy) being published in codex form, though it was likely an isolated case and was not a common practice until a much later time.
504:, before the concept of a proper title developed in medieval times. Though most early codices were made of papyrus, the material was fragile and supplied from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew. The more durable parchment and
453:
in Egypt demonstrates that the surviving evidence is insufficient to conclude whether
Christians played a major or central role in the development of early codicesâor if they simply adopted the format to distinguish themselves from
248:
as the preferred writing material, but the two developments are unconnected. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible and common in the historical record.
882:
emerged. They would receive commissions for texts, which they would contract out to scribes, illustrators, and binders, to whom they supplied materials. Due to the systematic format used for assembly by the
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may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to bound pages in the form of a note-book, possibly even as a papyrus codex. At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called
622:
dynasties (1644â1912), and finally the adoption of
Western-style bookbinding in the 20th century. The initial phase of this evolution, the accordion-folded palm-leaf-style book, most likely came from
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The earliest surviving fragments from codices come from Egypt, and are variously dated (always tentatively) towards the end of the 1st century or in the first half of the 2nd. This group includes the
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Watermarks may provide, although often approximate, dates for when the copying occurred. The layout (size of the margin and the number of lines) is determined. There may be textual articulations,
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The materials codices are made with are their support, and include papyrus, parchment (sometimes referred to as membrane or vellum), and paper. They are written and drawn on with metals,
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Medieval and
Renaissance manuscripts, including Vulgates, Breviaries, Contracts, and Herbal Texts from 12 -17th century, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries
847:. Space was reserved for illustrations and decorated guide letters. The apparatus of books for scholars became more elaborate during the 13th and 14th centuries when chapter, verse,
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Traditional bookbinders would call one of these assembled, trimmed and bound folios (that is, the "pages" of the book as a whole, comprising the front matter and contents) a
1617:
874:
By a close examination of the physical attributes of a codex, it is sometimes possible to match up long-separated elements originally from the same book. In 13th-century
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praised its convenient use, the codex achieved numerical parity with the scroll around 300 CE, and had completely replaced it throughout what was by then a
Christianized
1295:
169:, in particular the Maya codices and Aztec codices, which are actually long sheets of paper or animal skin folded into pages. In Japan, concertina-style codices called
1512:. From Robert A Kraft (see link): "A fragment of a Latin parchment codex of an otherwise unknown historical text dating to about AD 100 was also found at Oxyrhynchus (
192:. The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that has lasted ever since. The spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of
586:-style and pasted together at the back and books that were printed only on one side of the paper. This replaced traditional Chinese writing mediums such as
216:
534:(Mexico and Central America) had a similar appearance when closed to the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark (
283:
The codex provided considerable advantages over other book formats, primarily its compactness, sturdiness, economic use of materials by using both sides (
339:, used a unique connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords. A first evidence of the use of papyrus in codex form comes from the
1436:
2012:
1492:
567:. There are significant codices produced in the colonial era, with pictorial and alphabetic texts in Spanish or an indigenous language such as
1217:"L'instrvmentvm Scriptorivm Nei Monumenti Pompeiani Ed Ercolanesi." in Pompeiana. Raccolta di studi per il secondo centenario degli di Pompei
769:
lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered and with vertical bounding lines that marked the boundaries of the columns.
708:. In the hardcover bookbinding process, the procedure of binding the codex is very different to that of producing and attaching the case.
188:. The gradual replacement of the scroll by the codex has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of the
392:
685:
made to this day for ritual use. This made it possible to fold the scroll as an accordion. The next evolutionary step was to cut the
1568:
1529:
Murray, S. (2009). The library: An illustrated history. New York, NY: Skyhorse
Publishing, Inc. Chicago: ALA Editions 2009. (p. 27).
1182:
1360:
916:
441:, hidden about AD 390, all texts (Gnostic) are codices. Despite this comparison, a fragment of a non-Christian parchment codex of
738:. Historians have found evidence of manuscripts in which the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern
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manuscripts. Library practices have led to many
European manuscripts having "codex" as part of their usual name, as with the
795:. The quality, size, and choice of support determine the status of a codex. Papyrus is found only in late antiquity and the
1292:
677:
Among the experiments of earlier centuries, scrolls were sometimes unrolled horizontally, as a succession of columns. The
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2710:
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medium sheets of writing material, which can be doubled when they are folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a
157:. At least in the Western world, the main alternative to the paged codex format for a long document was the continuous
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As early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codexâusually of papyrusâwas the preferred format among
2524:
2150:
1246:"'The Graz Mummy Book': The Oldest Known Codex Fragment from 260 BC Discovered at Graz University Library, Austria"
488:, the codex gradually replaced the scroll. Between the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, and the
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The ancients stored codices with spines facing inward, and not always vertically. The spine could be used for the
2190:
931:
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759:. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered.
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Science and
Civilization in China: Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing
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almost as soon as it was invented, although new finds add three centuries to its history (see below). In
1047:"CBAA the Association for Book Art Education - A HISTORY OF THE ACCORDION BOOK: PART II // Peter Thomas"
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The Codex and Canon Consciousness â Draft paper by Robert Kraft on the change from scroll to codex
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Parchments whose writing was no longer needed were commonly washed or scraped for re-use, creating a
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theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East.
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1945:
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17:
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1513:
820:
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31:
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554:). Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded
220:
The scroll was the document form which was replaced by the codex during the late Roman Empire.
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2621:
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1721:
McCormick, Michael; Gamillscheg, Ernst (1991). "Codicology". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.).
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485:
386:
363:
2421:
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811:(its quires or gatherings), consisting of sheets folded a number of times, often twice- a
8:
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99:. Technically the vast majority of modern books use the codex format of a stack of pages
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at one edge, along the side of the text. But the term "codex" is now reserved for older
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2006:
1486:
1428:
941:
906:
852:
450:
434:
344:
232:, meaning "trunk of a tree", "block of wood" or "book". The codex began to replace the
1940:
Smith, Margaret M. (2010). "Catchword". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.).
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and sew and glue them at their centers, making it easier to use the papyrus or vellum
497:), and the protection of durable covers made it more compact and easier to transport.
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used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent (Cicero
340:
292:
205:
135:
1824:
Gamillscheg, Ernst; Ĺ evÄenko, Ihor (1991). "Quire". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.).
465:, containing part of St John's Gospel, and perhaps dating from between 125 and 160.
381:
meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of
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2705:
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Pearsal, Derek (2010). "Codicology". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.).
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63:
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The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization
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Zammit Lupi, Theresa; Krämer, Lena; Csanådy, Thomas; Renhart, Erich (2024-01-02).
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from the early 16th century, showing the tribute obligations of particular towns
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The Allure of Nezahualcoyotl: Pre-Hispanic History, Religion, and Nahua Poetics
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are a famous example of this format, and it is the standard format for Jewish
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Thompson, Daniel. "Medieval Parchment-Making." The Library 16, no. 4 (1935).
200:. First described in the 1st century of the Common Era, when the Roman poet
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In his discussion of one of the earliest parchment codices to survive from
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Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts, revised: A Guide to Technical Terms
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2311:
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42:
433:(buried in AD 79), all the texts (of Greek literature) are scrolls (see
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583:
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382:
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273:
261:
185:
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104:
2514:
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130:, although the earlier examples do not actually use the codex format,
30:
This article is about ancient and medieval books. For other uses, see
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Early medieval bookcase containing about ten codices depicted in the
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257:
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146:
112:
1566:
Several intermediate Chinese bookbinding forms from the 10th century
1230:
37:
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2252:
1999:
The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins
896:
856:
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253:
150:
2158:
Catalogue of New Testament Papyri & Codices 2ndâ10th Centuries
1619:
Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism
1599:
1597:
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2449:
2235:
1911:
Hunter, Timothy (2001). "Codicology". In Brigstocke, Hugh (ed.).
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400:
is an example of a codex that was created during the Middle Ages.
378:
374:
241:
201:
116:
1111:, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 473.
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1594:
1243:
505:
272:. The scholarly study of these manuscripts is sometimes called
233:
170:
158:
108:
1429:"Biblical literature â Types of writing materials and methods"
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world. There were intermediate stages, such as scrolls folded
260:
are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for
84:
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2593:
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1309:
623:
564:
560:
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237:
225:
197:
120:
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1582:
455:
96:
72:
578:, the scroll remained standard for far longer than in the
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for taking notes and other informal writings. Two ancient
792:
704:
producing the format of book now colloquially known as a
78:
2168:
1977:
The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental
1884:
A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 1450â2000
149:(or softback) and those bound with stiff boards, called
1797:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture
606:(618â907), improved by the 'butterfly' bindings of the
1853:
Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. (1991). "Ruling Patterns".
1333:
827:, or any production center, and libraries of codices.
546:
codices were written as late as the 16th century (see
276:. The study of ancient documents in general is called
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
87:
81:
69:
1720:
1374:
75:
1823:
1321:
807:
The structure of a codex includes its size, format/
746:
95:) was the historical ancestor format of the modern
66:
2113:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1682:. Itaca (N. Y.) London: Cornell university press.
1020:
1075:
594:and paper scrolls. The evolution of the codex in
358:in Latin became commonly used for writing in the
161:, which was the dominant form of document in the
2778:
1353:"The Book of Kells | Symbols, History & Art"
823:are also a part of it. They are specific to the
1965:
1795:Hourihane, Colum P., ed. (2013). "Codicology".
558:-style, sometimes written on both sides of the
287:), and ease of reference (a codex accommodates
369:Codices are described in certain works by the
165:. Some codices are continuously folded like a
2184:
2091:The Collected Biblical Writings of T.C. Skeat
1677:
126:By convention, the term is also used for any
2068:
2038:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1603:
1588:
1509:
1315:
1303:
1202:
1161:
1140:Roberts, Colin H., and Skeat, T. C. (1987),
1128:
1093:
1069:
610:(960â1279), the wrapped back binding of the
196:, which early on adopted the format for the
153:. Elaborate historical bindings are called
1875:
2191:
2177:
2011:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1678:Clemens, Raymond; Graham, Timothy (2007).
1491:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1214:
643:
1904:
1794:
1705:
1261:
614:(1271â1368), the stitched binding of the
538:) or plant fibers, often with a layer of
2151:Encyclopaedia Romana: "Scroll and codex"
2069:Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983).
1979:. New York: Courier Dover Publications.
1971:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
917:List of florilegia and botanical codices
750:
647:
510:
467:
391:
302:
215:
211:
36:
1993:
1852:
1760:
1399:. Thames & Hudson. pp. 36â37.
989:, 2nd ed.: Codex: "a manuscript volume"
878:, due to secularization, stationers or
14:
2779:
2108:
1910:
1696:
1505:
1456:
1380:
1215:Carratelli, Giovanni Pugliese (1950).
27:Historical ancestor of the modern book
2172:
2087:
2024:. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
2019:
1939:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1756:
1754:
1752:
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1662:
1650:from the original on 25 November 2010
1615:
1392:
1339:
1327:
1081:
1033:
700:in contradistinction to the cover or
291:, as opposed to a scroll, which uses
1881:
628:Buddhist missionaries and scriptures
602:in the 9th century, during the late
2073:. London: Oxford University Press.
1913:The Oxford Companion to Western Art
1538:
264:(hand-written) books produced from
107:books, which mostly used sheets of
54:
24:
2135:Centre for the History of the Book
2094:. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 45.
1882:Beal, Peter (2008). "codicology".
1855:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1826:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1783:
1743:
1723:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1680:Introduction to manuscript studies
1099:
25:
2818:
2128:
319:used precursors made of reusable
2760:
2751:
2750:
2740:
1942:The Oxford Companion to the Book
1763:The Oxford Companion to the Book
1622:. Wayne State University Press.
1616:Meyer, Michael A. (1995-04-01).
1463:. Philadelphia, Pa. p. 40.
964:(9th ed.). Chambers. 2003.
773:
747:Preparation of pages for writing
626:and was introduced to China via
508:gained favor, despite the cost.
62:
2741:
2111:The Typology of the Early Codex
1933:
1846:
1817:
1644:"The Making of a Medieval Book"
1636:
1609:
1559:
1532:
1523:
1499:
1460:The Typology of the Early Codex
1450:
1439:from the original on 2015-04-26
1421:
1386:
1363:from the original on 2022-10-28
1345:
1278:
1237:
1223:
1208:
1196:
1185:from the original on 2019-03-06
1167:
1155:
1134:
1122:
932:Traditional Chinese bookbinding
866:
640:, at least for ceremonial use.
177:(794â1185) were made of paper.
1577:International Dunhuang Project
1108:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1087:
1063:
1039:
992:
978:
953:
711:
311:, from which the codex evolved
224:The word codex comes from the
145:Modern books are divided into
13:
1:
1396:Books : a living history
1263:10.1080/18680860.2023.2292721
1250:Journal of Paper Conservation
927:List of New Testament uncials
851:, marginalia finding guides,
660:, produced ca. AD 870 at the
477:
2664:Conservation and restoration
1966:General and cited references
1005:, 2018, Getty Publications,
947:
922:List of New Testament papyri
802:
782:
377:. He wrote a series of five
7:
2147:Maya Codex and Paper Making
1646:. The J. Paul Getty Trust.
1175:"Definition of PALEOGRAPHY"
890:
671:Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
658:Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram
463:Rylands Library Papyrus P52
343:in Egypt, as a find at the
321:wax-covered tablets of wood
10:
2823:
2052:Cambridge University Press
715:
298:
29:
2787:1st-century introductions
2736:
2614:
2548:
2487:
2335:
2206:
2198:
986:Oxford English Dictionary
307:Reproduction Roman-style
252:Technically, even modern
1604:Needham & Tsien 1985
1589:Needham & Tsien 1985
1510:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1457:Turner, Eric G. (2016).
1316:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1304:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1203:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1162:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1129:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1094:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1070:Roberts & Skeat 1983
830:
542:applied before writing.
425:. In the library of the
184:developed the form from
2322:Collection (publishing)
2246:Illuminated manuscripts
2022:Books: A Living History
1946:Oxford University Press
1917:Oxford University Press
1888:Oxford University Press
1859:Oxford University Press
1830:Oxford University Press
1801:Oxford University Press
1767:Oxford University Press
1727:Oxford University Press
1433:Encyclopedia Britannica
1179:www.merriam-webster.com
1146:Oxford University Press
962:The Chambers Dictionary
693:as with a modern book.
644:From scrolls to codices
598:began with folded-leaf
588:bamboo and wooden slips
490:Carolingian Renaissance
45:, 13th century, Bohemia
2071:The Birth of the Codex
2020:Lyons, Martyn (2011).
1393:Lyons, Martyn (2013).
1142:The Birth of the Codex
1051:www.collegebookart.org
771:
760:
674:
664:, during the reign of
524:
481:
401:
312:
221:
46:
32:Codex (disambiguation)
2691:Intellectual property
2317:Volume (bibliography)
2109:Turner, Eric (1977).
1539:Lee, Jongsoo (2008).
937:Volume (bibliography)
766:
754:
716:Further information:
651:
514:
471:
395:
387:Theodore Cressy Skeat
364:Theodore Cressy Skeat
306:
219:
212:Etymology and origins
173:developed during the
142:, while most do not.
40:
2088:Skeat, T.C. (2004).
356:pugillares membranei
208:by the 6th century.
2807:Manuscripts by type
1606:, pp. 227â229.
743:later in its life.
439:Nag Hammadi library
437:). However, in the
427:Villa of the Papyri
2802:Italian inventions
2728:World Book Capital
2044:Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin
1571:2016-01-10 at the
1298:2022-12-26 at the
1219:. pp. 166â78.
942:Index (publishing)
907:History of scrolls
861:tables of contents
761:
675:
636:still retains the
525:
482:
447:De Falsa Legatione
435:Herculaneum papyri
402:
345:University of Graz
313:
222:
47:
2774:
2773:
2606:Coffee table book
2437:Bookworm (insect)
2120:978-0-8122-7696-1
2031:978-1-60606-083-4
1689:978-0-8014-3863-9
1629:978-0-8143-3755-4
1552:978-0-8263-4337-6
1470:978-1-5128-0786-8
1406:978-0-500-29115-3
1342:, pp. 45â46.
1318:, pp. 15â22.
1231:"Graz Mummy Book"
999:Michelle P. Brown
797:Early Middle Ages
656:gospel book, the
652:The cover of the
293:sequential access
206:Greco-Roman world
155:treasure bindings
16:(Redirected from
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863:were developed.
679:Dead Sea Scrolls
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662:Palace of Aachen
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495:recto and verso
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119:, rather than
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2001:. Cambridge.
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2327:Book series
2312:Typesetting
1654:19 November
1506:Turner 1977
1381:Turner 1977
1286:Gallic Wars
1284:During the
1164:, p. 5
1072:, p. 1
817:bookbinding
712:Preparation
691:recto-verso
654:Carolingian
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451:Oxyrhynchus
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431:Herculaneum
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337:Herculaneum
278:paleography
270:Middle Ages
186:wax tablets
140:Codex Gigas
128:Aztec codex
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2797:Codicology
2781:Categories
2589:audiobooks
2488:By country
2441:Furniture
2432:Digitizing
2427:Collecting
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2285:Publishing
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2207:Production
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1367:2022-10-28
1340:Skeat 2004
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1056:2023-10-26
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309:wax tablet
274:codicology
268:until the
262:manuscript
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2632:incidents
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2300:paperback
2295:hardcover
2007:cite book
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1479:979970695
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1272:1868-0860
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880:libraires
809:ordinatio
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718:Parchment
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544:New World
540:whitewash
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242:papyrus
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