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471:. Tolman, one of the early cognitive psychologists, introduced this idea when doing an experiment involving rats and mazes. In Tolman's experiment, a rat was placed in a cross shaped maze and allowed to explore it. After this initial exploration, the rat was placed at one arm of the cross and food was placed at the next arm to the immediate right. The rat was conditioned to this layout and learned to turn right at the intersection in order to get to the food. When placed at different arms of the cross maze however, the rat still went in the correct direction to obtain the food because of the initial cognitive map it had created of the maze. Rather than just deciding to turn right at the intersection no matter what, the rat was able to determine the correct way to the food no matter where in the maze it was placed.
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cells represents the distances between them in the actual environment. The same cells can be used for constructing several environments, though individual cells' relationships to each other may differ on a map by map basis. The possible involvement of place cells in cognitive mapping has been seen in a number of mammalian species, including rats and macaque monkeys. Additionally, in a study of rats by Manns and
Eichenbaum, pyramidal cells from within the hippocampus were also involved in representing object location and object identity, indicating their involvement in the creation of cognitive maps. However, there has been some dispute as to whether such studies of mammalian species indicate the presence of a cognitive map and not another, simpler method of determining one's environment.
630:(1996) it can simply mean that the dogs have seen some landmarks near point B such as trees or buildings and headed towards them because they associated them with the food. Later, in 1998, Cheng and Spetch did an experiment on gerbils. When looking for the hidden food (goal), gerbils were using the relationship between the goal and one landmark at a time. Instead of deducing that the food was equidistant from two landmarks, gerbils were searching it by its position from two independent landmarks. This means that even though animals use landmarks to locate positions, they do it in a certain way.
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highlights three simpler alternatives that cannot be ruled out in tests of cognitive maps in non-human animals "These alternatives are (1) that the apparently novel short-cut is not truly novel; (2) that path integration is being used; and (3) that familiar landmarks are being recognised from a new angle, followed by movement towards them." This point of view is also shared by
Grieves and Dudchenko (2013) that showed with their experiment on rats (briefly presented above) that these animals are not capable of making spatial inferences using cognitive maps.
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statically, when a person does not move within his environment while interpreting it, and dynamically, when movement through a gradient is used to provide information about the nature of the surrounding environment. Positional landmarks provide information about the environment by comparing the relative position of specific objects, whereas directional cues give information about the shape of the environment itself. These landmarks are processed by the hippocampus together to provide a graph of the environment through relative locations.
516:, olfaction, and hearing are all used to deduce a person's location within their environment as they move through it. This allows for path integration, the creation of a vector that represents one's position and direction within one's environment, specifically in comparison to an earlier reference point. This resulting vector can be passed along to the hippocampal place cells where it is interpreted to provide more information about the environment and one's location within the context of the cognitive map.
577:, actually playing the role of the path integrator while place cells display the output of the information gained through path integration. The results of path integration are then later used by the hippocampus to generate the cognitive map. The cognitive map likely exists on a circuit involving much more than just the hippocampus, even if it is primarily based there. Other than the medial entorhinal cortex, the presubiculum and parietal cortex have also been implicated in the generation of cognitive maps.
601:, and their relative locations to create a 2D map of the environment. The cognitive map is thus obtained by the integration of these two separate maps. This leads to an understanding that it is not just one map but three that help us create this mental process. It should be clear that parallel map theory is still growing. The sketch map has foundation in previous neurobiological processes and explanations while the bearing map has very little research to support its evidence.
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not concluded with such clear results. Some authors tried to bring to light the way rats can take shortcuts. The results have demonstrated that in most cases, rats fail to use a shortcut when reaching for food unless they receive a preexposure to this shortcut route. In that case, rats use that route significantly faster and more often than those who were not preexposed. Moreover, they have difficulties making a spatial inference such as taking a novel shortcut route.
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937:, which I have discussed elsewhere (Eden, 1982) is the framework that guides the process of working with teams. Thus building and working with the cognitive maps of each individual is primarily aimed at helping each team member reflectively 'construct' and 'make sense' of the situation they believe the team is facing. (pp. 7–8)
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be encoded, at the beginning in a non-metric representation form and consequently they will be expanded with metric properties, such as distances, durations and angular deviations. In the third and final step, the observer will be able to use a survey representation of the surroundings, using an allocentric point of view.
38:
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For geographers, a map is a means of depicting the world so that people understand where they are and where they can go. For cognitive researchers, who often use the idea of a 'map' as an analogy, the basic idea is the same. Cognitive maps are graphic representations that locate people in relation to
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were found to be used in the manipulation and creation of cognitive maps. These internal representations are used by our memory as a guide in our external environment. It was found that when questioned about maps imaging, distancing, etc., people commonly made distortions to images. These distortions
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In a review, Andrew T.D. Bennett noted two principal definitions for the “cognitive map” term. The first one, according to Tolman, O’Keefe, and Nadel, implies the capacity to create novel short-cutting thanks to vigorous memorization of the landmarks. The second one, according to
Gallistel, considers
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this time, showed that they also use landmarks to locate positions. The task was for the pigeons to find hidden food in an arena. A part of the testing was to make sure that they were not using their smell to locate food. These results show and confirm other evidence of links present in those animals
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in a maze, conducted by Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish (1946), showed that rats can form mental maps of spatial locations with a good comprehension of them. But these experiments, led again later by other researchers (for example by
Eichenbaum, Stewart, & Morris, 1990 and by Singer et al. 2006) have
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Unfortunately, further research was slowed due to the behaviorist point of view prevalent in the field of psychology at the time. In later years, O'Keefe and Nadel attributed Tolman's research to the hippocampus, stating that it was the key to the rat's mental representation of its surroundings. This
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Alex Siegel and
Sheldon White (1975) proposed a model of acquisition of spatial knowledge based on different levels. The first stage of the process is said to be limited to the landmarks available in a new environment. Then, as a second stage, information about the routes that connect landmarks will
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In some uses, mental map refers to a practice done by urban theorists by having city dwellers draw a map, from memory, of their city or the place they live. This allows the theorist to get a sense of which parts of the city or dwelling are more substantial or imaginable. This, in turn, lends itself
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Cognitive maps are a function of the working brain that humans and animals use for movement in a new environment. They help us in recognizing places, computing directions and distances, and in critical-thinking on shortcuts. They support us in wayfinding in an environment, and act as blueprints for
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to determine if they were able to infer shortcuts. The conclusion confirmed their hypothesis. Indeed, the results demonstrated that the dogs were able to go from starting point to point A with food and then go directly to point B without returning to the starting point. But for Andrew T.D. Bennett
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Numerous studies by O'Keefe have implicated the involvement of place cells. Individual place cells within the hippocampus correspond to separate locations in the environment with the sum of all cells contributing to a single map of an entire environment. The strength of the connections between the
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Mental mapping is typically associated with landmarks, locations, and geography when demonstrated. Creating mental maps depends on the individual and their perceptions whether they are influenced by media, real-life, or other sources. Because of their factual storage mental maps can be useful when
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A cognitive map is a spatial representation of the outside world that is kept within the mind, until an actual manifestation (usually, a drawing) of this perceived knowledge is generated, a mental map. Cognitive mapping is the implicit, mental mapping the explicit part of the same process. In most
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As time went on, the cognitive map was researched in other prospective fields that found it useful, therefore leading to broader and differentiating definitions and applications. A very prominent researcher, Colin Eden, has specifically mentioned his application of cognitive mapping simply as any
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Cognitive maps have been studied in various fields, such as psychology, education, archaeology, planning, geography, cartography, architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, management and history. Because of the broad use and study of cognitive maps, it has become a colloquialism for
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Directional cues and positional landmarks are also used to create the cognitive map. Within directional cues, both explicit cues, like markings on a compass, as well as gradients, like shading or magnetic fields, are used as inputs to create the cognitive map. Directional cues can be used both
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We shall not explain here what cognitive maps are about as this has been done extensively elsewhere (Huff, 1990). Let us just say that cognitive maps are the representation of an individual's personal knowledge, of an individual's own experience (Weick and Bougon, 1986), and they are ways of
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However, Bennett argued that there is no clear evidence for cognitive maps in non-human animals (i.e. cognitive map according to Tolman's definition). This argument is based on analyses of studies where it has been found that simpler explanations can account for experimental results. Bennett
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They are internal representation, they are not a fixed image, instead they are a schema, dynamic and flexible, with a degree of personal level. A spatial map needs to be acquired according to a frame of reference. Because it is independent from the observer's point of view, it is based on an
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and lateral entorhinal cortex provide nonspatial information. The integration of this information in the hippocampus makes the hippocampus a practical location for cognitive mapping, which necessarily involves combining information about an object's location and its other features.
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in 1948. He tried to explain the behavior of rats that appeared to learn the spatial layout of a maze, and subsequently the concept was applied to other animals, including humans. The term was later generalized by some researchers, especially in the field of
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their information environments. Maps provide a frame of reference for what is known and believed. They highlight some information and fail to include other information, either because it is deemed less important, or because it is not known. (p. 267)
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Another method of creating cognitive maps is by means of auditory intake based on verbal descriptions. Using the mapping based from a person's visual intake, another person can create a mental image, such as directions to a certain location.
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and imaging use spatial knowledge to aid in processing the task. They include information about the spatial relations that objects have among each other in an environment and they help us in orienting and moving in a setting and in space.
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Cognitive mapping is believed to largely be a function of the hippocampus. The hippocampus is connected to the rest of the brain in such a way that it is ideal for integrating both spatial and nonspatial information. Connections from the
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All in all, the acquisition of cognitive maps is a gradual construction. This kind of knowledge is multimodal in nature and it is built up by different pieces of information coming from different sources that are integrated step by step.
711:, whereby a person estimates a distance based on a mental image that, to them, might appear like an actual map. This image is generally created when a person's brain begins making image corrections. These are presented in five ways:
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need them as well to find food, shelters, and other animals whether it is mates or predators. To do so, some animals establish relationships between landmarks, allowing them to make spatial inferences and detect positions.
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O'Keefe and Nadel were the first to outline a relationship between the hippocampus and cognitive mapping. Many additional studies have shown additional evidence that supports this conclusion. Specifically,
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used by an individual to order their personal store of information about their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment, and the relationship of its component parts. The concept was introduced by
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Papageorgiou, Elpiniki; Stylios, Chrysostomos; Groumpos, Peter (2003). "Fuzzy
Cognitive Map Learning Based on Nonlinear Hebbian Rule". In Gedeon, Tamás Domonkos; Fung, Lance Chun Che (eds.).
662:”. This lack of a proper definition is also shared by Thinus-Blanc (1996) who stated that the definition is not clear enough. Therefore, this makes further experiments difficult to conclude.
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In the practical setting of work in with a team of busy managers cognitive mapping is a tool for building interest from all team members in the problem solving activity. The cycle of
597:-based cues creates a rough, 2D map of the environment. The second map would be the sketch map that works off of positional cues. The second map integrates specific objects, or
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giving directions and navigating. As stated previously this distinction is hard to identify when posed with almost identical definitions, nevertheless there is a distinction.
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McNaughton, Bruce L.; Battaglia, Francesco P.; Jensen, Ole; Moser, Edvard I; Moser, May-Britt (August 2006). "Path integration and the neural basis of the 'cognitive map'".
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knowledge, and is generally developed after a person has performed a task and is relaying the information of that task to another person. The third is a
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cases, a cognitive map exists independently of a mental map, an article covering just cognitive maps would remain limited to theoretical considerations.
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of information. This type of spatial thinking can also be used as a metaphor for non-spatial tasks, where people performing non-spatial tasks involving
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There are several ways that humans form and use cognitive maps, with visual intake being an especially key part of mapping: the first is by using
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Sargolini, Francesca; Fyhn, Marianne; Hafting, Torkel; McNaughton, Bruce L.; Witter, Menno P.; Moser, May-Britt; Moser, Edvard I. (May 2006).
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allocentric reference system— with an object-to-object relation. It codes configurational information, using a world-centred coding system.
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between one or multiple landmark(s) and hidden food (Cheng and Spetch, 1998, 2001; Spetch and
Mondloch, 1993; Spetch et al., 1996, 1997).
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Ambrosini, VĂ©ronique; Bowman, Cliff (2002). "Mapping successful organizational routines". In Huff, Anne
Sigismund; Jenkins, Mark (eds.).
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While not located in the hippocampus, grid cells from within the medial entorhinal cortex have also been implicated in the process of
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almost any mental representation or model. As a consequence, these mental models are often referred to, variously, as cognitive maps,
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observation furthered research in this area and consequently much of hippocampus activity is explained through cognitive map making.
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form navigational cognitive maps. In one such neurological study, wireless neural recording systems measured the neural activity of
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Jacobs, Lucia F.; Schenk, Françoise (April 2003). "Unpacking the cognitive map: the parallel map theory of hippocampal function".
1907:"Cognitive maps and spatial inference in animals: Rats fail to take a novel shortcut, but can take a previously experienced one"
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RodrĂguez, Fernando; Quintero, Blanca; Amores, Lucas; Madrid, David; Salas-Peña, Carmen; Salas, Cosme (August 11, 2021).
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703:, whereby a person uses a mental image to estimate a relationship, usually distance, between two objects. The second is
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representing individuals' views of reality (Eden et al., 1981). There are various types of cognitive maps (Huff, 1990).
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by two separate maps. The first is the bearing map, which represents the environment through self-movement cues and
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Vinepinsky, Ehud; Cohen, Lear; Perchik, Shay; Ben-Shahar, Ohad; Donchin, Opher; Segev, Ronen (September 8, 2020).
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734:: when a person takes a naturally (realistically) distorted image and straightens it out for their mental image.
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2162:. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 256–268.
1419:"Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History Mental Maps"
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740:: similar to the previous, where people align objects mentally to make them straighter than they really are.
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1997:"Representation of edges, head direction, and swimming kinematics in the brain of freely-navigating fish"
1865:"In search of the cognitive map: Can rats learn an abstract pattern of rewarded arms on the radial maze?"
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Olthof, Anneke; Sutton, Jennifer E.; Slumskie, Shawna V.; D'Addetta, JoAnne; Roberts, William A. (1999).
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746:: people do not accurately distance landmarks in their mental image based on how well they remember them.
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718:: when a person straightens out an image, like mapping an intersection, and begins to give everything
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and the medial entorhinal cortex provide spatial information to the hippocampus. Connections from the
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728:: when people tend to think of shapes, or buildings, as being more symmetrical than they really are.
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is distinctive because of its emphasis on geography as well as perception of space and environment.
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Cognitive maps serve the construction and accumulation of spatial knowledge, allowing the "
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There has been some evidence for the idea that the cognitive map is represented in the
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and elsewhere. Much of the cognitive map is created through self-generated movement
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1642:(2008). "Place cells, grid cells, and the brain's spatial representation system".
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According to O’Keefe and Nadel (1978), not only humans require spatial abilities.
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Lloyd, Robert (March 1989). "Cognitive Maps: Encoding and
Decoding Information".
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is directly related to expanding on a particular subject with physical diagrams.
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1735:(August 2006). "Path integration and the neural basis of the 'cognitive map'".
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and found evidence they form complex cognitive maps of their surroundings.
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1527:"The Primacy Effect in Young Children: Verbal Fact or Spatial Artifact?"
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Cognitive psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience
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Siegel, Alexander W.; Allik, Judith P.; Herman, James F. (March 1976).
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establishes an important connection between concepts and actual events.
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The cognitive map is generated from a number of sources, both from the
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2111:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. pp.
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of images (i.e., images are represented as more like pure abstract
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International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
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to a decisive idea of how well urban planning has been conducted.
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Ungar, Simon (2005). "Cognitive maps". In Caves, Roger W. (ed.).
1994:
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1394:"Mental Maps: You Don't Need a GPS to Get Where You Want to Go"
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1946:"Spatial Cognition in Teleost Fish: Strategies and Mechanisms"
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McNaughton, Bruce L.; Battaglia, Francesco P.; Jensen, Ole;
951:"Maps for managers: Where are we? Where do we go from here?"
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1254:"Some thoughts on the evolution of comparative psychology."
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is more directly related to speed and direction processing.
290:
1039:"Cognitive Maps, Mind Maps, and Concept Maps: Definitions"
618:
1424:
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1905:
Grieves, Roderick M.; Dudchenko, Paul A. (2013-05-01).
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Eden, Colin (1992). "On the Nature of Cognitive Maps".
1581:"A cognitive map for object memory in the hippocampus"
680:
Heuristic-systematic model of information processing
499:
1064:"Cognitive maps: what are they and why study them?"
949:Fiol, C. Marlene; Huff, Anne Sigismund (May 1992).
467:The idea of a cognitive map was first developed by
375:representing an individual's personal knowledge or
2102:
443:of a cognitive map have been speculated to be the
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1448:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
1037:World Leaders in Research-Based User Experience.
625:In 1987, Chapuis and Varlet led an experiment on
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1904:
1634:
1102:
2203:, in Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (eds.),
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676:Intuition and decision-making § Heuristics
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1098:
1096:
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696:images, though they are irregular in shape).
660:any representation of space held by an animal
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2160:AI 2003: Advances in Artificial Intelligence
1887:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1256:, in Koch, Sigmund; Leary, David E. (eds.),
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286:List of concept- and mind-mapping software
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722:, when in reality it may not be that way.
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415:" to visualize images in order to reduce
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1837:"Integration of spatial maps in pigeons"
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904:European Journal of Operational Research
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781:is a technique for identifying meaning.
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1684:Bennett, Andrew T. D. (January 1996).
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1658:10.1146/annurev.neuro.31.061307.090723
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1835:Blasidell Aaron, Cook Robert (2004).
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1297:The Hippocampus and Context Revisited
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1782:"The Evolution of the Cognitive Map"
1392:M. A., Geography; B. A., Geography.
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16:Mental representation of information
1691:The Journal of Experimental Biology
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1072:Journal of Environmental Psychology
479:representation of thinking models.
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2207:, Pergamon, pp. 10093–10099,
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1460:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1989.tb00253.x
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1343:10.1111/j.1467-6486.1992.tb00664.x
1258:A century of psychology as science
1113:The hippocampus as a cognitive map
972:10.1111/j.1467-6486.1992.tb00665.x
641:There is increasing evidence that
512:. Inputs from senses like vision,
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1686:"Do animals have cognitive maps?"
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500:Acquisition of the cognitive maps
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1369:"National Geography Standard 2"
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1367:Society, National Geographic.
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633:Another experiment, including
99:Ontology (information science)
1:
1789:Brain, Behavior and Evolution
1645:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1331:Journal of Management Studies
1252:Glickman, Stephen E. (1992),
1219:(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA:
1085:10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80194-X
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959:Journal of Management Studies
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2168:10.1007/978-3-540-24581-0_22
1215:Goldstein, E. Bruce (2011).
917:10.1016/0377-2217(88)90002-1
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451:and the recently discovered
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2199:Sperling, G. (2001-01-01),
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1738:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1504:10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.285
1417:Schenk, Frithjof Benjamin.
1300:. Oxford University Press.
1062:Kitchin, Robert M. (1994).
991:Mapping strategic knowledge
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744:Relative-position heuristic
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301:Problem structuring methods
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2201:"Motion Perception Models"
2021:10.1038/s41598-020-71217-1
1923:10.1016/j.lmot.2012.08.001
1294:Nadel, Lynn (2008-03-20).
1221:Wadsworth Cengage Learning
673:
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18:
1780:Jacobs, Lucia F. (2003).
617:The first experiments on
605:Cognitive maps in animals
276:Entity–relationship model
59:Business decision mapping
2292:Knowledge representation
2136:Montello, D. R. (2009).
854:Encyclopedia of the City
371:, to refer to a kind of
19:Not to be confused with
1911:Learning and Motivation
1193:10.1126/science.1125572
1122:Oxford University Press
593:cues. The use of these
84:Knowledge visualization
1373:nationalgeographic.org
935:portfolio of solutions
856:. Abingdon; New York:
483:Mental map distinction
271:Diagrammatic reasoning
94:Morphological analysis
2138:"Cognitive Geography"
1705:10.1242/jeb.199.1.219
1586:Learning & Memory
1425:http://www.ieg-ego.eu
870:10.4324/9780203484234
360:mental representation
296:Ontology (philosophy)
195:Layered graph drawing
69:Graphic communication
2268:at Wikimedia Commons
2107:Cognitive Psychology
1491:Psychological Review
1116:. Oxford; New York:
1043:Nielsen Norman Group
931:defining the problem
923:problem construction
810:Psychological Review
658:a cognitive map as “
210:Organizational chart
205:Object-role modeling
122:Node–link approaches
2013:2020NatSR..1014762V
1963:10.3390/ani11082271
1184:2006Sci...312..758S
767:Fuzzy cognitive map
761:Cognitive geography
738:Alignment heuristic
581:Parallel map theory
369:operations research
104:Schema (psychology)
46:Information mapping
2001:Scientific Reports
1638:; Kropff, Emilio;
1599:10.1101/lm.1484509
1577:Eichenbaum, Howard
1575:Manns, Joseph R.;
1223:. pp. 11–12.
997:. pp. 19–45.
933:, and declaring a
732:Rotation heuristic
726:Symmetry heuristic
688:took shape in the
611:Non-humans animals
532:Neurological basis
402:frame of reference
215:Pathfinder network
79:Information design
64:Data visualization
2297:Spatial cognition
2282:Cognitive science
2264:Media related to
2234:"Repertory Grids"
2214:978-0-08-043076-8
2177:978-3-540-20646-0
2122:978-1-111-34476-4
1801:10.1159/000072443
1698:(Pt 1): 219–224.
1531:Child Development
1315:978-0-19-986926-8
1275:978-1-55798-171-4
1266:10.1037/10117-048
1178:(5774): 758–762.
995:SAGE Publications
805:Tolman, Edward C.
773:Motion perception
543:perirhinal cortex
539:postrhinal cortex
457:entorhinal cortex
441:neural correlates
352:
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51:Topics and fields
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1729:Moser, Edvard I.
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1636:Moser, Edvard I.
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1142:. Archived from
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801:
720:90-degree angles
716:Right-angle bias
575:path integration
469:Edward C. Tolman
408:new technology.
373:semantic network
344:
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281:Geovisualization
266:Design rationale
225:Semantic network
155:Conceptual graph
109:Visual analytics
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175:Hyperbolic tree
145:Concept lattice
114:Visual language
32:
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779:Repertory grid
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417:cognitive load
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1146:on 2019-09-27
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1104:O'Keefe, John
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358:is a type of
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1279:, retrieved
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1144:the original
1112:
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1046:. Retrieved
1042:
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355:
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306:Semantic Web
139:
130:Argument map
89:Mental model
74:Infographics
29:Mental model
1956:(8): 2271.
1108:Nadel, Lynn
1079:(1): 1–19.
1015:. pp.
911:(1): 1–13.
587:hippocampus
556:place cells
449:hippocampus
390:mental maps
311:Treemapping
220:Radial tree
150:Concept map
2276:Categories
2243:2020-04-06
2220:2020-04-06
1874:2022-04-24
1846:2022-04-24
1537:(1): 242.
1432:2020-04-06
1403:2020-04-06
1378:2020-04-06
1281:2020-03-18
1150:2006-09-27
1131:0198572069
1048:2020-04-06
1004:0761969497
860:. p.
792:References
705:route-road
685:Heuristics
674:See also:
670:Heuristics
564:grid cells
453:grid cells
445:place cell
419:, enhance
413:mind's eye
190:Issue tree
165:Dendrogram
135:Cladistics
25:Mental map
2287:Mnemonics
2186:0302-9743
2074:1471-003X
2029:2045-2322
1972:2076-2615
1931:0023-9690
1652:: 69–89.
1551:0009-3920
1398:ThoughtCo
1351:1467-6486
1239:658234658
858:Routledge
701:landmarks
694:geometric
653:Criticism
599:landmarks
240:Topic map
230:Sociogram
185:Issue map
180:Hypertext
2145:ucsb.edu
2090:16928213
2082:16858394
1883:cite web
1817:16102408
1809:12937351
1767:16928213
1759:16858394
1666:18284371
1617:19794187
1512:12747525
1202:16675704
1110:(1978).
1013:47900801
888:55948158
839:42496633
831:18870876
785:Mind map
755:See also
647:goldfish
591:gradient
425:learning
398:schemata
383:Overview
258:See also
235:Timeline
200:Mind map
21:Mind map
2038:7479115
2009:Bibcode
1981:8388456
1950:Animals
1714:8576693
1608:2769165
1559:1128306
1468:2563857
1180:Bibcode
1171:Science
1140:4430731
635:pigeons
463:History
455:in the
394:scripts
377:schemas
2211:
2184:
2174:
2119:
2115:–315.
2088:
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2072:
2035:
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1978:
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837:
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709:survey
678:, and
595:vector
562:, and
429:memory
421:recall
400:, and
250:ZigZag
2141:(PDF)
2086:S2CID
1813:S2CID
1785:(PDF)
1763:S2CID
1555:JSTOR
1464:JSTOR
1067:(PDF)
1017:21–22
954:(PDF)
835:S2CID
27:, or
2209:ISBN
2182:ISSN
2172:ISBN
2117:ISBN
2078:PMID
2070:ISSN
2025:ISSN
1968:ISSN
1927:ISSN
1889:link
1805:PMID
1755:PMID
1710:PMID
1662:PMID
1613:PMID
1547:ISSN
1508:PMID
1423:EGO(
1347:ISSN
1310:ISBN
1270:ISBN
1235:OCLC
1225:ISBN
1198:PMID
1136:OCLC
1126:ISBN
1009:OCLC
999:ISBN
884:OCLC
874:ISBN
827:PMID
643:fish
627:dogs
619:rats
510:cues
439:The
423:and
291:Olog
2164:doi
2113:310
2062:doi
2033:PMC
2017:doi
1976:PMC
1958:doi
1919:doi
1797:doi
1747:doi
1700:doi
1696:199
1654:doi
1603:PMC
1595:doi
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1500:doi
1496:110
1456:doi
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1262:doi
1188:doi
1176:312
1081:doi
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2278::
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2015:.
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2003:.
1999:.
1974:.
1966:.
1954:11
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1925:.
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1881:{{
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1855:^
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