Colonial Mauritania

55: 1296:

movement toward independence and elimination of chiefdoms, Babana easily defeated the candidate of the conservative French administration and the leading clerics. The new deputy, however, spent most of his five-year term in Paris, out of contact with politics in Mauritania. As a result, on his return for the 1951 elections, Babana was defeated by the Mauritanian Progressive Union, led by Sidi el Moktar N'Diaye and supported by the colonial administration and its allies, the traditional Maure secular and clerical ruling classes, who feared the Mauritanian Entente's "socialist" program. In the 1952 election for members of the Territorial Assembly, the Mauritanian Progressive Union won the twenty-two of the twenty-four seats.

1146:, and villages. The key figure in the system was the commandant in each cercle, who was almost always a European and who was closest to the indigenous population in his duties of collecting taxes, overseeing works projects, maintaining peace and security, and carrying out administrative decrees. Generally, the subdivisions subordinate to the commandant were manned by Africans. For these positions, the French relied to a great extent on the traditional hierarchy of chiefs or their sons. In keeping with their policy of direct, centralized rule, the French made it clear that these African chiefs exercised authority not by virtue of their traditional position but by virtue of their status as modern colonial administrators. 1303:, were even more sweeping than those of 1946. In the face of growing nationalism and the development of a political consciousness in the AOF, the Loi-Cadre ended the integrationist phase of French colonial policy and bestowed a considerable degree of internal autonomy on the overseas territories. Universal suffrage and the elimination of the dual college electoral system led to the creation of district and local representative councils and a great enlargement of the powers of the territorial assemblies. Each territory could now formulate its own domestic policies, although the territories continued to rely on France for decisions concerning foreign affairs, defense, higher education, and economic aid. 1348:

Community (francophone Africa) and to reject both Morocco's claim to Mauritania and a 1957 French proposal to unite Mauritania with francophone Saharan states in the joint French dominated Common Saharan States Organization. The platform also proposed the systematic organization within the country of local party committees to involve all sectors of the population in the party. The party's program reflected the three main themes of Mauritanian unity: the rejection of federation with Mali or Morocco under any terms, the principle of balance between Maures and blacks within the party and government, and the preeminence of Daddah as the only person capable of holding the country together.

82: 1049:). Although these rights were retained by the Senegalese, they did not apply to Mauritania or other French territories in West Africa. Elsewhere in West Africa, although assimilation was the theoretical basis of administration, a policy evolved that shared elements of British colonial practice. For example, Africans were subjects of France, not citizens, and had no political rights or rights of representation. The centralized and direct administration embodied in the doctrine of assimilation was maintained, however, and a functional collaboration between French rulers and an assimilated indigenous elite developed. Although by 539: 768: 581: 1324:

identified with the Arab world. At independence, Mauritania's estimated 1.5 to 1.8 million people could be divided into three groups: one-third of the inhabitants were both racially and ethnically Maures; another third, although racially black or mixed Maure-black, were ethnically Maures (this group of black Maures was essentially a slave class until 1980, when slavery was abolished); and the remaining third were racially and ethnically black, resembling in many respects the populations in neighboring Senegal and Mali.

918:, Coppolani was able to exploit the fundamental conflicts in Maure society. His task was made difficult by opposition from the administration in Senegal, which saw no value in the wastelands north of the Senegal River, and by the Saint-Louis commercial companies, to whom pacification meant the end of the lucrative arms trade. Nevertheless, by 1904 Coppolani had peacefully subdued Trarza, Brakna, and Tagant and had established French military posts across the central region of southern Mauritania. 1328:

the Mauritanian Progressive Union in the elections of 1951 and 1956, which established the Mauritanian Progressive Union's dominance, led Babana and several of his followers in the summer of 1956 to flee to Morocco, where Babana became head of the National Council of Mauritanian Resistance. With the support of many Maures inside Mauritania, this group supported Morocco's claims to Mauritania and, by extension, Morocco's opposition to Mauritanian independence.

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Shaykh Ma al Aynin enjoyed military as well as moral support from Morocco, the policy of peaceful pacification gave way to active conquest. In return for support, Shaykh Ma al Aynin recognized the Moroccan sultan's claims to sovereignty over Mauritania, which formed the basis for much of Morocco's claim to Mauritania in the late twentieth century. In May 1905, before the French column could set out for Adrar, Coppolani was killed in

1288:. The 1946 constitution, however, separated Mauritania from Senegal politically, giving it a deputy to the French National Assembly. At the same time, the bicameral General Council, which was reorganized into the unicameral Territorial Assembly in 1952, was established in Mauritania. Nonetheless, political activity in Mauritania was minimal. The territory's first party, the Mauritanian Entente, was headed by 1241:. The French administration in Saint-Louis retained jurisdiction in criminal law, public freedoms, and political and administrative organization; the Colonial Ministry could still rule by decree, if the decree did not violate a statute. The indigénat and forced labor were abolished, and French citizenship was extended to all inhabitants of French territories willing to renounce their local legal status. 874:, who was sent to Mauritania as a delegate from the French government. Coppolani set up a policy not only to divide, weaken, and pacify the Maures but also to protect them. Although he served in Mauritania for only four years (1901–05), the French called Coppolani the father of the French colony of Mauritania, and the Maures knew him as the "Pacific Conqueror" of the territory. 1213:, in June 1944 to propose postwar reforms of the colonial administration. The conference favored greater administrative freedom in each colony, combined with the maintenance of unity through a federal constitution. It also recommended the abolition of the indigénat and forced labor, the establishment of trade unions, the rapid extension of education, and the granting of 1217:. The conference was firmly opposed, however, to any concept of evolution outside the French bloc and called for the full application of the assimilationist doctrine. The Brazzaville Conference was the beginning of great political and social change that was to sweep Mauritania and other French African States to independence in less than seventeen years. 1087:(Afrique Occidentale Française—AOF), which had been created in 1895, Mauritania was closely tied to its administrative structure and had its annual budget appended to that of the AOF. On December 4, 1920, by a decree of the Colonial Ministry in Paris, Mauritania was officially included in the AOF with the six other French West African territories— 962:, and received the submission of all the Adrar peoples the following year. By 1912 all resistance in Adrar and southern Mauritania had been put down. As a result of the conquest of Adrar, the fighting ability of the French was established, and the ascendancy of the French-supported marabouts over the warrior clans within Maure society was assured. 850:, the situation was little changed. The endemic warfare between different Maure groups may even have increased as French merchants made arms readily available, and colonial forces defended camps north of the Senegal River against Maure pillagers. Though formally under the "protection" of the French, the Maures were as fiercely independent as ever. 81: 1162:

policy of direct rule and resembled British indirect rule is noteworthy. From the time of Coppolani, the administration had relied heavily on the marabouts for support and administration. In recognition of the support given by Shaykh Sidiya of Trarza, the French placed the school of Islamic studies at

921:

As Faidherbe had suggested fifty years earlier, the key to the pacification of Mauritania lay in the Adrar. There, Shaykh Ma al Aynin had begun a campaign to counteract the influence of his two rivals—the southern marabouts, Shaykh Sidiya and Shaykh Saad—and to stop the advance of the French. Because

1327:

Achievement of national unity was impeded by the desires of some Maures, mostly from the northern sections of the country, to reunite with Morocco, and the countervailing wishes of many blacks to secede from Mauritania and join the Mali Federation. The defeat of the Mauritanian Entente and Babana by

1323:

The greatest challenge to national unity was Mauritania's heterogeneous population. As in all the Sahelian states, Mauritania's southern regions were inhabited mainly by peasants who belonged racially and culturally to black Africa, while the population of its northern regions were desert nomads who

1306:

The most important provision of the 1956 Loi-Cadre was the establishment of a council of government to assume the major executive functions of each territory that until that time had been carried out by a Paris-appointed colonial official. The councils were composed of three to six ministers elected

1161:

The importance of the role of the traditional Maure chiefs in the administration was the most significant difference between Mauritania and the other AOF territories and has probably had the greatest continuing impact. The extent to which administrative practice in Mauritania contradicted the French

838:

warfare and pillaging villages in the Chemama. In virtual control of the colonial administration, the commercial companies of Saint-Louis sold arms to the Maures, while at the same time outfitting French punitive missions. Scientific expeditions into Mauritania became increasingly subject to attack,

783:

from 1854 to 1861 and from 1863 to 1865. In 1840 a French ordinance had established Senegal as a permanent French possession with a government whose jurisdiction extended over all settlements then effectively under French control, including those in Mauritania. By undertaking the governance of these

763:

to the British, brought a strong French reaction. Although the Maures were able to lay siege to Saint-Louis, a large French expeditionary force defeated the emir's forces. The French concluded that to secure the continuing profitability of the gum arabic trade, they would have to forcibly occupy the

1351:

The Mauritanian Regroupment Party represented a union of modern and traditional elements as well as a balance between north and south. The dominance of traditional elements favoring close ties with France led, however, to the end of unity. Progressive youth leaders, excluded from decision making at

1177:

In an effort to maintain order throughout the turbulent territory, the French co-opted the leaders of certain warrior groups to serve the administration. Notable among these were the amirs of Trarza, Brakna, and Adrar, the three most powerful men in the colony, who were aided by 50 heads of smaller

1331:

To counterbalance the pro-Moroccan sympathies of many Maures, southern minority groups formed a regional party, the Gorgol Democratic Bloc, committed to the prevention of a Maghribi union and to the maintenance of close ties with black African countries. Intellectuals from various black minorities

1006:: colonies were a necessary burden the French took on to maintain their international stature. These efforts were always subordinate to the considerations of continental politics. As a result, little attention was paid to the political, social, and economic development of the overseas territories. 1335:

Further impeding national unity was the inclusion of French officials in the key ministries of finance and economic planning. Daddah was educated in France and, having just returned to Mauritania to form the government, had not been involved in the rivalries and struggle for power. His consequent

1276:

created by the 1946 French constitution was small and restricted to government officials, wage earners, veterans, owners of registered property, and members or former members of local associations, cooperatives, or trade unions. Consequently, in the Mauritanian elections of 1946, there were fewer

1157:

Mauritania's administrative structure conformed generally with that of the rest of the AOF territories. There were, however, some very important differences. Unlike the other territories (with the possible exception of Niger), most of the cercles still had military commandants because of the late

1193:

and forced labor, were abused. The chiefs, on whom the Vichy government in Dakar relied, were increasingly seen as collaborators by their people as war-related demands for agricultural production and forced labor besieged them. Sporadic resistance to these abuses was met with summary punishment.

1319:

Mauritania's first government was invested in May 1957 and symbolically chose as its new capital Nouakchott, which by design was situated almost exactly between the Senegal River Valley, populated primarily by black farmers, and the Maure stronghold in Adrar. The choice represented a compromise

1295:

The Mauritanian Entente was founded in 1946 under the auspices of Leopold Senghor and Lamine Gueye of the Senegalese section of the French Socialist Party. Formed specifically for the 1946 election, the Mauritanian Entente was neither well organized nor mass based. Yet on a platform calling for

1153:

in Dakar, Senegal, which since 1925 had represented the federation's major interest groups (military personnel, civil servants, and businessmen). But the council had only consultative status, and its members were all appointed by the governor general. Similar administrative councils advised the

1066:

Mauritania, a long-time appendage of Senegal, was not considered worth the expense necessary to pacify and develop it until Coppolani succeeded in changing the attitude of the French government. In 1904 France recognized Mauritania as an entity separate from Senegal and organized it as a French

1347:

was formed in a merger of the Mauritanian Progressive Union, elements of the Mauritanian Entente that had expelled Babana, and the Gorgol Democratic Bloc. This party was headed by Daddah as secretary-general and Sidi El Moktar as president. Its platform called for Mauritania to join the French

814:

In addition to his military ventures, Faidherbe sponsored an active program to undertake geographic studies and establish political and commercial ties. In 1859 and 1860, Faidherbe sponsored five expeditions, including one that mapped the Adrar, to all areas of western and southern Mauritania.

802:

that had united against him. The Maures attacked Saint Louis in 1855 and almost succeeded in reclaiming the settlement, but they were repulsed and defeated a year later, north of the Senegal River. The treaties ending the war extended a French protectorate over Trarza and Brakna, replaced the

1368:, the call for rapprochement with Morocco caused Nahda's opponents to label it a Maure party, which cost it the support of the black minorities. But former Mauritanian Entente members, including Babana, supported Nahda. Its anticolonial nationalist platform also attracted many young Maures. 1252:

in 1952) was established in each territory with extensive controls over the budget, but with only consultative powers over all other issues. The Mauritanian General Council comprised twenty-four members, eight elected by Europeans and sixteen elected by Mauritanians. Each territory had five

1307:

by the territorial assemblies on the advice of the dominant party. Each minister was charged with overseeing a functional department of government. The head of the ministers became vice president of the council and, in effect, if not in title, prime minister. In Mauritania, that person was

1178:

groups and the more than 800 chiefs of factions and sub-factions. Although there was extensive French interference in the operations of the traditional authorities, the traditional social structure of Mauritania was maintained and thrust into the modern world.

969:

Maures, who sought to replenish their herds in the traditional manner—by raiding other camps. From 1912 to 1934, French security forces repeatedly thwarted such raids. The last raid of the particularly troublesome and far-ranging northern nomads, the

937:

With the death of Coppolani, the tide turned in favor of Shaykh Ma al Aynin, who was able to rally many of the Maures with promises of Moroccan help. The French government hesitated for three years while Shaykh Ma al Aynin urged a

1158:

date of the territory's pacification. The resultant conflicts between military and civilian authorities caused frequent administrative changes and reorganizations, including shifts in boundaries that tended to create confusion.

839:

and their European leaders were killed or held for ransom. The obvious weakness of the French and their distraction with events elsewhere in the region emboldened the amirs to demand and secure the reinstatement of the

1057:

In Mauretania and the other French territories of the Sahara, the French colonial authorities did not enforce their anti-slavery laws, but tolerated the indigenous slave trade until the end of French colonial rule.

1053:

colonial policy was still labeled assimilationist, only a very few Africans were assimilated. For the majority of Africans, the realities of French colonial policy were far from the spirit of French egalitarianism.

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and the black inhabitants of the valley came about only in the course of trade. From the beginning, French influence, competing with traditional trading partners north and east of Mauritania, came through

1343:

In this atmosphere of increasing fragmentation and political instability, Daddah, with the strong support of France, called for unity among all factions. At the Congress of Aleg in May 1958, the

1254: 1150: 2081: 982:) was attacked in 1924 and 1927—the Maures generally acquiesced to French authority. With pacification, the French acquired responsibility for governing the vast territory of Mauritania. 1629: 1257:

in Dakar, Senegal, which had general authority over budgeting, politics, administration, planning, and other matters for all of the AOF. Each territory also sent representatives to the

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between these two competing areas. It also set the tone for Daddah's approach to Mauritania's political conflicts: compromise and conciliation for the sake of national unity.

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in shops, trains, and hotels. Existing democratic institutions were repressed, and the administrative councils were abolished. Elements of French colonial policy, such as the

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With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, France's African territories were called upon to supply troops and provisions for the war effort. After France fell in 1940, the

1080: 974:, occurred in 1934, covered a distance of 6,000 kilometers, and netted 800 head of cattle, 270 camels, and 10 slaves. Yet, except for minor raids and occasional attacks— 514: 500: 2074: 727:

companies on the coast were charged with making the highest possible profit. Four such French companies enjoyed an official French-government monopoly of the

1871: 2067: 830:

to the governor of Senegal in the late 1870s: "Let us not hear from you." With France's virtual abandonment of Senegal, the relative calm created in the

827: 748: 54: 1072: 719:

in West Africa were interested only in coastal trade; they attempted no important inland exploration and established no permanent settlements (except

1281:

were added to the electorate, and in 1951 heads of households and mothers of two children were made eligible. By 1956 suffrage had become universal.

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met in Dakar, Senegal, in 1957 and created the Union of the Inhabitants of the River Valley to fight for minority rights against Maure domination.

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by marrying the heiress to the kingdom. This action, which French authorities viewed as a hostile threat, combined with the emir's efforts to sell

1864: 681: 1170:, were put on the French payroll without supervision, and administrative appointments of chiefs were subject to the approval of the traditional 348: 171: 915: 887: 1197:

In recognition of the suffering of the people of the AOF territories during the war and of the AOF's contribution to the war effort of the

1336:

congeniality toward the French alienated the Association of Mauritanian Youth, an important group advocated total independence and strict

794:, to secure the gum arabic trade, and to protect the sedentary populations of the southern bank from Maure raids, Faidherbe conquered the 2679: 1225:

Only slightly developed and long neglected, Mauritania played no role in the rising nationalism in the AOF after World War II. The 1946

2624: 2357: 2325: 895: 858:

In 1901 the French government adopted a plan of "peaceful penetration" for the administrative organization of areas then under Maure

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Before 1946 the territory of Mauritania formed one electoral unit with Senegal, which was represented by a single senator in the

1123: 994:

in 1789, the two main characteristics of French colonial policy in West Africa were the quest for international prestige and the

784:

Mauritanian settlements, French rulers directly challenged Maure claims of sovereignty. Under orders from the new government of

1472:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 38-39

1353: 2844: 2723: 2718: 2559: 2000: 636: 631: 532: 914:. By enlisting the support of Shaykh Sidiya and Shaykh Saad against the depredations of the warrior clans and in favor of a 3020: 2839: 2692: 1584: 1360:

as secretary-general. The Nahda platform called for total and immediate independence from France and a rapprochement with

2503: 2041: 1890: 943: 674: 1075:

in Saint-Louis. With the success of the first pacification attempts, the status of Mauritania was upgraded to that of a

1013:

in 1794 declared that all people living in the colonies were French citizens and enjoyed all republican rights. Under

834:

and southern Mauritania through Faidherbe's efforts came to an end. The Maures resumed their traditional practices of

2195: 1030: 811:

on the value of gum arabic delivered, and recognized French sovereignty over the northern bank of the Senegal River.

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governments in Paris. The governor general was the head of centralized administrative bureaucracy consisting of a

2814: 2672: 2155: 1577: 2907: 2753: 2530: 2205: 1672: 1667: 1234: 1202: 995: 667: 560: 2819: 2318: 1365: 1344: 3067: 3062: 2919: 2758: 2417: 2178: 1931: 1411: 2498: 2173: 2160: 1400: 1258: 1244:

Elective representation existed on three levels: territorial, federation (AOF), and national (French). A

1026: 580: 1352:

the party congress convened at Nouakchott in July 1958, defected and formed a new opposition party, the

2954: 2929: 2875: 2804: 2665: 1843: 409: 2939: 2870: 2763: 2422: 2283: 2278: 2046: 1560: 447: 1201:(at one time more than half the Free French forces were Africans), Free French officials convened a 2311: 2265: 1764: 1139: 2934: 2893: 2809: 2741: 386: 767: 2979: 2974: 2829: 2824: 2792: 2778: 2708: 2237: 2090: 1990: 1980: 1911: 1887: 1645: 1600: 1230: 1149:

Before 1946 no legislative bodies existed in the AOF. The governor general was assisted by the

1126:

of the AOF came to have a great deal of power because of the instability and short duration of

1022: 999: 710: 590: 455: 144: 3013: 2984: 2888: 2858: 2773: 2700: 2397: 2127: 1921: 1186: 1127: 569: 1185:

gained control of the AOF and replaced the official policy of assimilation with a policy of

2949: 720: 519: 114: 8: 3029: 2994: 2989: 2969: 2964: 2924: 2880: 2593: 1916: 1749: 1654: 1557: 1540:

Warner, Rachel. "The Road to Independence and the Quest for National Unity". In Handloff.

1131: 1119: 1010: 819: 780: 361: 179: 2412: 1357: 1100: 818:

Faidherbe's successors were content to maintain his gains and did not embark on further

2944: 2258: 2168: 2117: 2023: 2010: 1941: 1739: 1690: 1682: 1308: 1214: 1084: 1034: 808: 104: 87: 61: 1311:, the country's only lawyer and a member of a prominent pro-French clerical family. 86:

Map of the seven colonies of French West Africa in 1936. Note that the eighth colony,

3034: 2540: 2488: 2427: 2232: 2215: 1838: 1833: 1289: 1143: 991: 657: 600: 505: 2545: 2579: 2407: 2147: 2112: 1792: 1364:. Although the program was designed to rally diverse opposition to the traditional 1337: 1262: 1182: 1018: 959: 863: 2549: 835: 2598: 2569: 2334: 2227: 2210: 1744: 1722: 1108: 846:

At the beginning of the twentieth century, after 250 years of French presence in

776: 610: 73: 2585: 2525: 1973: 1964: 1926: 1802: 1727: 1695: 1662: 1565:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

1104: 1088: 1003: 907: 871: 785: 744: 716: 615: 2519: 2122: 1292:, who served as the first Mauritanian deputy to the French National Assembly. 94:

also contains a large portion of what is today the eastern half of Mauritania.

3051: 2574: 2480: 2447: 2367: 2222: 1815: 1732: 1705: 1285: 1096: 1009:

The policy of assimilation had its origins in the French Revolution when the

891: 795: 756: 752: 728: 471: 1154:

lieutenant governors in all of the territories except Mauritania and Niger.

2253: 2107: 2099: 1787: 1782: 1777: 1700: 1238: 1210: 1092: 1068: 1050: 975: 954:), took command of French forces as the government commissioner of the new 947: 903: 724: 595: 149: 91: 1496:

Warner, Rachel. "French Administration Through World War II". In Handloff.

1190: 2437: 1985: 1772: 1644: 1569: 1277:

than 10,000 qualified voters. In 1947 individuals literate in French and

1206: 1198: 899: 605: 1314: 2688: 2636: 2377: 2372: 1959: 1898: 1163: 1135: 1115: 979: 859: 847: 760: 697: 123: 2657: 2387: 1166:

under his control. Traditional administrators of Islamic justice, the

1021:(1799–1804), the law was soon repealed. In 1848, at the outset of the 929: 2642: 1142:(a colonial administrative subdivision), and chiefs of subdivisions, 923: 694:

The period from the mid-nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries is the

1820: 1025:, citizenship rights were again extended, and representation in the 2132: 1949: 1377: 1273: 1042: 1014: 971: 879: 826:

at this time can best be characterized by the warning given by the

466: 1969: 1083:(first Coppolani, later Gouraud). Although formally separate from 1046: 2959: 2630: 2382: 2018: 1954: 1810: 1754: 1361: 966: 911: 867: 831: 790: 737: 620: 1253:

representatives, elected from its General Council, on the AOF's

1995: 1906: 1715: 1278: 884: 799: 751:, sought to reassert his sovereignty over the French-protected 732: 2089: 1433:

Warner, Rachel. "French Colonial Administration". In Handloff.

898:, whose importance extended to Tagant and Senegal; and Shaykh 2137: 2028: 1171: 1061: 1038: 942:

to drive the French back across the Senegal. In 1908 Colonel

939: 798:. He then turned his attention to the amirates of Trarza and 1167: 951: 1886: 965:

The fighting took a large toll on the animal herds of the

890:, whose authority was strongest in Trarza, Brakna, and 1463:

Warner, Rachel. "French Colonial Policy". In Handloff.

1114:

The AOF was organized pyramidally under a centralized

1315:

Road to independence and the quest for national unity

90:, was in this period parceled between its neighbors. 704: 3049: 946:, who had defeated a resistance movement in the 1518:Warner, Rachel. "Postwar Reforms". In Handloff. 996:cultural assimilation of indigenous populations 1233:established the former colonies of the AOF as 1118:structure in Dakar. Directly appointed by the 2673: 2319: 2075: 1872: 1630: 1585: 675: 1451:Warner, Rachel. "Pacification". In Handloff. 28: 2469: 1000:France's efforts to build a colonial empire 2680: 2666: 2326: 2312: 2082: 2068: 1879: 1865: 1637: 1623: 1599: 1592: 1578: 1062:French administration through World War II 731:trade from 1659 to 1798. Contact with the 682: 668: 80: 2346: 1405: 985: 404:942,995 km (364,092 sq mi) 396:833,977 km (322,000 sq mi) 295:Amédée Joseph Émile Jean Pierre Anthonioz 1492: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1394: 928: 766: 2687: 3050: 1354:Mauritanian National Renaissance Party 2661: 2468: 2345: 2307: 2063: 1860: 1618: 1573: 1475: 1459: 1457: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 877:During this period, there were three 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1502: 764:northern bank of the Senegal River. 2333: 2042:French colonization of the Americas 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1439: 715:Before the nineteenth century, the 13: 1454: 1416: 1220: 883:of great influence in Mauritania: 14: 3079: 1521: 1499: 775:Implementing this new policy was 1436: 1412:Britannica Book Of The Year 1953 1120:president of the French Republic 1002:may be considered a reaction to 651: 579: 537: 512: 498: 317:• Protectorate established 53: 3058:History of Mauritania by period 2536:French domains of the Holy Land 853: 2531:French domains of Saint Helena 1648:in Africa and the Indian Ocean 1546: 1466: 1235:overseas territories of France 705:Early relationship with Europe 1: 1552:Handloff, Robert E., editor. 1383: 1366:Mauritanian Regroupment Party 1345:Mauritanian Regroupment Party 956:Civil Territory of Mauritania 906:and the north, as well as in 16:Colonial period in Mauritania 2266:Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa) 1267:Assembly of the French Union 958:(created in 1904), captured 902:, who exerted leadership in 7: 2506: and Antarctic Lands 1554:Mauritania: A Country Study 1371: 10: 3084: 1081:commissioner of government 1029:was provided for the four 1004:British imperial successes 708: 337:• Colony established 285:Henri Joseph Marie Bernard 3007: 2915: 2906: 2866: 2857: 2800: 2791: 2749: 2740: 2699: 2619: 2558: 2514: 2497: 2479: 2475: 2464: 2436: 2423:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 2396: 2356: 2352: 2341: 2300: 2284:French East India Company 2274: 2246: 2194: 2146: 2098: 2059: 2047:French West India Company 2037: 2009: 1940: 1897: 1856: 1829: 1801: 1763: 1681: 1653: 1614: 1607: 1561:Federal Research Division 1401:The Americana Annual 1946 1107:(present-day Benin), and 477: 465: 448:French West African franc 443: 439: 429: 419: 415: 408: 400: 392: 385: 381: 371: 358: 347:• Status changed to 345: 335: 325: 315: 311: 303: 299: 289: 279: 275: 265: 261: 251: 247:Nicolas Jules Henri Gaden 241: 237: 227: 223: 219:Nicolas Jules Henri Gaden 213: 203: 199: 189: 143: 133: 110: 99: 79: 68: 50: 45: 23: 2562: the Indian Ocean 1388: 1299:The reforms of 1956, or 1134:for each territory, the 862:. The plan's author was 807:with a 3 percent annual 30:Colonie de la Mauritanie 2470:Uninhabited territories 1981:Saint Kitts & Nevis 1263:Council of the Republic 1237:integrally tied to the 327:• Civil territory 38:Mustaemara al-muritania 2400: collectivities 2238:Sanjak of Alexandretta 2091:Former French colonies 1888:Former French colonies 1646:Former French colonies 1601:French overseas empire 1231:French Fourth Republic 986:French colonial policy 934: 772: 711:Colonisation of Africa 29: 2347:Inhabited territories 2279:France–Asia relations 1834:Somaliland (Djibouti) 1187:racial discrimination 990:From the time of the 932: 770: 658:Mauritania portal 257:Albert Jean Mouragues 134:Common languages 2625:overseas departments 2560:Scattered Islands in 2441: collectivity 1899:French North America 1250:Territorial Assembly 755:to the south of the 520:Imamate of Futa Toro 373:• Independence 25:Colony of Mauritania 3068:1940s in Mauritania 3063:1950s in Mauritania 2594:Juan de Nova Island 2481:North Pacific Ocean 2093:in Asia and Oceania 1558:Library of Congress 1132:lieutenant governor 1011:National Convention 781:governor of Senegal 696:colonial period in 229:Lieutenant Governor 180:Autonomous republic 2499:Overseas territory 2024:France Antarctique 2011:Equinoctial France 1974:Dominican Republic 1309:Moktar Ould Daddah 1215:universal suffrage 1085:French West Africa 1079:administered by a 935: 773: 349:overseas territory 172:Overseas territory 105:French West Africa 88:French Upper Volta 3043: 3042: 3003: 3002: 2902: 2901: 2853: 2852: 2835:Political parties 2815:Foreign relations 2787: 2786: 2655: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2615: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2607: 2606: 2550:Amsterdam Islands 2541:Kerguelen Islands 2489:Clipperton Island 2460: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2428:Wallis and Futuna 2296: 2295: 2292: 2291: 2196:Mandate for Syria 2186:Kouang-Tchéou-Wan 2148:Indochinese Union 2055: 2054: 1852: 1851: 1765:Equatorial Africa 1290:Horma Ould Babana 1259:National Assembly 1027:National Assembly 992:French Revolution 828:Colonial Ministry 820:military ventures 749:Muhammad al Habib 692: 691: 601:Almoravid dynasty 553: 552: 549: 548: 545: 544: 525: 524: 506:Emirate of Trarza 461: 453: 377:November 28, 1960 367:November 28, 1958 291:• 1959–1960 281:• 1958–1959 267:High Commissioner 253:• 1956–1958 243:• 1920–1926 215:• 1916–1920 205:• 1903–1905 185: 177: 169: 163: 155: 129: 121: 40: 34:مستعمرة موريتانيا 3075: 3023: 3016: 2913: 2912: 2884: 2864: 2863: 2798: 2797: 2747: 2746: 2732: 2682: 2675: 2668: 2659: 2658: 2580:Glorioso Islands 2561: 2512: 2511: 2505: 2501: 2477: 2476: 2466: 2465: 2440: 2413:Saint Barthélemy 2408:French Polynesia 2399: 2359: 2354: 2353: 2343: 2342: 2328: 2321: 2314: 2305: 2304: 2113:Coromandel Coast 2084: 2077: 2070: 2061: 2060: 1942:French Caribbean 1922:Terre Neuve 1881: 1874: 1867: 1858: 1857: 1639: 1632: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1594: 1587: 1580: 1571: 1570: 1541: 1538: 1519: 1516: 1497: 1494: 1473: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1452: 1449: 1434: 1431: 1414: 1409: 1403: 1398: 1358:Ahmed Baba Miské 1183:Vichy government 1124:governor general 1073:delegate general 864:Xavier Coppolani 743:In 1825 the new 723:). The European 684: 677: 670: 656: 655: 654: 583: 573: 555: 554: 541: 540: 529: 528: 516: 515: 502: 501: 495: 494: 479: 478: 459: 451: 354:October 27, 1946 341:January 12, 1920 331:October 18, 1904 209:Xavier Coppolani 183: 175: 167: 161: 153: 127: 119: 84: 57: 36: 32: 21: 20: 3083: 3082: 3078: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3073: 3072: 3048: 3047: 3044: 3039: 3026: 3019: 3012: 2999: 2898: 2882: 2849: 2820:Law enforcement 2783: 2736: 2730: 2724:1978–1984 2719:1960–1978 2695: 2686: 2656: 2647: 2629:Claimed by the 2603: 2599:Tromelin Island 2570:Bassas da India 2554: 2504:French Southern 2493: 2471: 2452: 2432: 2392: 2360: regions 2348: 2337: 2335:Overseas France 2332: 2288: 2270: 2242: 2228:Greater Lebanon 2198:and the Lebanon 2197: 2190: 2142: 2094: 2088: 2051: 2033: 2005: 1936: 1893: 1891:in the Americas 1885: 1848: 1825: 1797: 1759: 1677: 1649: 1643: 1603: 1598: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1522: 1517: 1500: 1495: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1455: 1450: 1437: 1432: 1417: 1410: 1406: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1374: 1338:anticolonialism 1317: 1246:General Council 1223: 1221:Postwar reforms 1077:civil territory 1064: 1023:Second Republic 988: 856: 824:colonial policy 777:Louis Faidherbe 771:Louis Faidherbe 717:European powers 713: 707: 688: 652: 650: 611:Saadi Sultanate 591:Precolonial era 571: 564: 538: 513: 499: 458: 454: 450: 432: 422: 374: 364: 351: 338: 328: 318: 292: 282: 254: 244: 216: 206: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 164: 160: 158:Civil territory 156: 152: 138: 126: 122: 118: 117:(exterritorial) 103:Constituent of 95: 74:La Marseillaise 64: 59: 58: 41: 35: 33: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3081: 3071: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3025: 3024: 3017: 3009: 3008: 3005: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2998: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2920:Child marriage 2916: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2878: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2851: 2850: 2848: 2847: 2845:Prime Minister 2842: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2788: 2785: 2784: 2782: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2735: 2734: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2705: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2685: 2684: 2677: 2670: 2662: 2653: 2652: 2649: 2648: 2646: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2623:Also known as 2620: 2617: 2616: 2613: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2590: 2589: 2586:Banc du Geyser 2577: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2556: 2555: 2553: 2552: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2526:Crozet Islands 2523: 2515: 2509: 2495: 2494: 2492: 2491: 2485: 2483: 2473: 2472: 2462: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2450: 2444: 2442: 2434: 2433: 2431: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2404: 2402: 2394: 2393: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2364: 2362: 2350: 2349: 2339: 2338: 2331: 2330: 2323: 2316: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2297: 2294: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2275: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2268: 2263: 2262: 2261: 2250: 2248: 2244: 2243: 2241: 2240: 2235: 2233:Jabal al-Druze 2230: 2225: 2220: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2206:State of Syria 2202: 2200: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2163: 2158: 2152: 2150: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2104: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2087: 2086: 2079: 2072: 2064: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2052: 2050: 2049: 2044: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2015: 2013: 2007: 2006: 2004: 2003: 2001:Virgin Islands 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1965:Saint-Domingue 1962: 1960:The Grenadines 1957: 1952: 1946: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1927:French Florida 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1903: 1901: 1895: 1894: 1884: 1883: 1876: 1869: 1861: 1854: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1847: 1846: 1844:Isle de France 1841: 1836: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1807: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1769: 1767: 1761: 1760: 1758: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1718: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1687: 1685: 1679: 1678: 1676: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1659: 1657: 1651: 1650: 1642: 1641: 1634: 1627: 1619: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1597: 1596: 1589: 1582: 1574: 1568: 1567: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1542: 1520: 1498: 1474: 1465: 1453: 1435: 1415: 1404: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1373: 1370: 1316: 1313: 1222: 1219: 1128:Third Republic 1063: 1060: 987: 984: 908:Spanish Sahara 870:brought up in 855: 852: 786:Louis Napoleon 745:Emir of Trarza 706: 703: 690: 689: 687: 686: 679: 672: 664: 661: 660: 647: 646: 645: 644: 639: 634: 626: 625: 624: 623: 618: 616:Songhai Empire 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 585: 584: 576: 575: 566: 565: 558: 551: 550: 547: 546: 543: 542: 535: 526: 523: 522: 517: 509: 508: 503: 491: 490: 485: 475: 474: 469: 463: 462: 445: 441: 440: 437: 436: 433: 430: 427: 426: 423: 420: 417: 416: 413: 412: 406: 405: 402: 398: 397: 394: 390: 389: 383: 382: 379: 378: 375: 372: 369: 368: 365: 359: 356: 355: 352: 346: 343: 342: 339: 336: 333: 332: 329: 326: 323: 322: 319: 316: 313: 312: 309: 308: 305: 301: 300: 297: 296: 293: 290: 287: 286: 283: 280: 277: 276: 273: 272: 269: 263: 262: 259: 258: 255: 252: 249: 248: 245: 242: 239: 238: 235: 234: 231: 225: 224: 221: 220: 217: 214: 211: 210: 207: 204: 201: 200: 197: 196: 193: 187: 186: 147: 141: 140: 135: 131: 130: 112: 108: 107: 101: 97: 96: 85: 77: 76: 66: 65: 60: 52: 51: 48: 47: 43: 42: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3080: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3055: 3053: 3046: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2928: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2790: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2757: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2671: 2669: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2644: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2626: 2622: 2621: 2618: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2582: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2575:Europa Island 2573: 2571: 2568: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2463: 2449: 2448:New Caledonia 2446: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2368:French Guiana 2366: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2317: 2315: 2310: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2267: 2264: 2260: 2257: 2256: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2223:Alawite State 2221: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2193: 2187: 2184: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2145: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2085: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2066: 2065: 2062: 2058: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2039: 2036: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1991:Saint Vincent 1989: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1816:Grande Comore 1814: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1756: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1733:Four Communes 1731: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1716:Arguin Island 1714: 1713: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1691:Côte d'Ivoire 1689: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1647: 1640: 1635: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1621: 1620: 1617: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1583: 1581: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1566: 1563:(June 1988). 1562: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1525: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1469: 1460: 1458: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1413: 1408: 1402: 1397: 1393: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1356:(Nahda) with 1355: 1349: 1346: 1341: 1339: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1312: 1310: 1304: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1286:French Senate 1282: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1255:Grand Council 1251: 1247: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1159: 1155: 1152: 1151:Grand Council 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101:Côte d'Ivoire 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 983: 981: 978:(present-day 977: 973: 968: 963: 961: 957: 953: 950:(present-day 949: 945: 944:Henri Gouraud 941: 933:Henri Gouraud 931: 927: 925: 919: 917: 913: 910:and southern 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 886: 882: 881: 875: 873: 869: 865: 861: 851: 849: 844: 842: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 816: 812: 810: 806: 801: 797: 796:Oualo Kingdom 793: 792: 787: 782: 779:, the French 778: 769: 765: 762: 758: 757:Senegal River 754: 753:Oualo Kingdom 750: 746: 741: 739: 734: 730: 729:Senegal River 726: 722: 718: 712: 702: 700: 699: 685: 680: 678: 673: 671: 666: 665: 663: 662: 659: 649: 648: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 629: 628: 627: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 588: 587: 586: 582: 578: 577: 574: 568: 567: 562: 557: 556: 536: 534: 531: 530: 527: 521: 518: 511: 510: 507: 504: 497: 496: 493: 492: 489: 486: 484: 481: 480: 476: 473: 470: 468: 467:ISO 3166 code 464: 457: 449: 446: 442: 438: 434: 428: 424: 418: 414: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 388: 384: 380: 376: 370: 366: 363: 357: 353: 350: 344: 340: 334: 330: 324: 320: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 288: 284: 278: 274: 270: 268: 264: 260: 256: 250: 246: 240: 236: 232: 230: 226: 222: 218: 212: 208: 202: 198: 194: 192: 188: 181: 173: 159: 151: 148: 146: 142: 136: 132: 125: 116: 113: 109: 106: 102: 98: 93: 89: 83: 78: 75: 71: 67: 63: 56: 49: 44: 39: 31: 22: 19: 3045: 2955:Human rights 2930:Demographics 2876:Central Bank 2805:Constitution 2713: 2584: 2518: 2418:Saint Martin 2254:New Hebrides 2108:Chandernagor 2100:French India 1932:French Texas 1788:Ubangi-Shari 1783:Middle Congo 1750:James Island 1710: 1655:North Africa 1564: 1553: 1468: 1407: 1396: 1350: 1342: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1283: 1271: 1243: 1239:French Union 1227:constitution 1224: 1196: 1180: 1176: 1160: 1156: 1148: 1113: 1093:French Sudan 1069:protectorate 1065: 1056: 1051:World War II 1033:of Senegal ( 1008: 989: 976:Port-Etienne 964: 948:French Sudan 936: 920: 878: 876: 857: 854:Pacification 845: 840: 817: 813: 804: 789: 774: 742: 714: 695: 693: 642:1984–present 596:Ghana Empire 488:Succeeded by 487: 482: 431:• 1948 421:• 1936 321:May 12, 1903 191:Commissioner 150:Protectorate 92:French Sudan 69: 37: 18: 2871:Agriculture 2764:Departments 2729:1984– 2709:Precolonial 2641:Claimed by 2635:Claimed by 2520:Adélie Land 2438:Sui generis 2169:Cochinchina 1986:Saint Lucia 1740:Upper Volta 1683:West Africa 1547:Works cited 1207:Brazzaville 1199:Free French 1035:Saint-Louis 916:Pax Gallica 900:Ma al Aynin 888:Sidiya Baba 836:internecine 788:to end the 721:Saint-Louis 606:Mali Empire 570:History of 483:Preceded by 460:(1945–1960) 452:(1903–1945) 184:(1958–1960) 176:(1946–1958) 168:(1920–1946) 162:(1904–1920) 154:(1903–1904) 128:(1957–1960) 120:(1903–1957) 115:Saint-Louis 3052:Categories 2883:(currency) 2830:Parliament 2769:Ecoregions 2689:Mauritania 2637:Madagascar 2546:Saint Paul 2378:Martinique 2373:Guadeloupe 2128:Pondichéry 1839:Madagascar 1711:Mauritania 1384:References 1269:in Paris. 1265:, and the 1203:conference 1164:Boutilimit 1136:commandant 980:Nouadhibou 860:suzerainty 848:Mauritania 761:gum arabic 725:mercantile 709:See also: 698:Mauritania 572:Mauritania 533:Mauritania 410:Population 145:Government 124:Nouakchott 2935:Education 2894:Transport 2840:President 2810:Elections 2742:Geography 2643:Mauritius 2502: ( 1912:Louisiana 1793:Cameroons 1301:Loi-Cadre 1274:franchise 1248:(renamed 1191:indigénat 1019:Consulate 924:Tidjikdja 894:; Shaykh 880:marabouts 822:. French 637:1978–1984 632:1960–1978 456:CFA franc 46:1903–1960 3030:Category 2980:Religion 2975:Polygamy 2881:Ouguiya 2825:Military 2793:Politics 2779:Wildlife 2714:Colonial 2693:articles 2398:Overseas 2358:Overseas 2216:Damascus 2165:Vietnam 2156:Cambodia 2133:Karaikal 1950:Dominica 1745:Togoland 1378:Saad Buh 1372:See also 1071:under a 1043:Rufisque 1031:communes 1017:and the 1015:Napoleon 972:Reguibat 868:Corsican 561:a series 559:Part of 444:Currency 362:Autonomy 3014:Outline 2985:Slavery 2960:Leblouh 2908:Society 2889:Tourism 2859:Economy 2774:Regions 2754:Borders 2731:present 2701:History 2631:Comoros 2388:Réunion 2383:Mayotte 2301:Present 2259:Vanuatu 2247:Oceania 2019:Berbice 1955:Grenada 1811:Anjouan 1803:Comoros 1755:Albreda 1728:Senegal 1696:Dahomey 1673:Tunisia 1668:Morocco 1663:Algeria 1362:Morocco 1229:of the 1144:cantons 1116:federal 1105:Dahomey 1089:Senegal 967:nomadic 912:Morocco 896:Saad Bu 872:Algeria 841:coutume 832:Chemama 805:coutume 791:coutume 738:Senegal 621:Sanhaja 435:518,000 425:383,000 360:• 304:History 111:Capital 70:Anthem: 3035:Portal 2950:Health 2759:Cities 2691: 2211:Aleppo 2179:Tonkin 2138:Yanaon 2118:Madras 1996:Tobago 1917:Canada 1907:Acadia 1821:Mohéli 1706:Guinea 1608:Former 1279:Arabic 1261:, the 1140:cercle 1122:, the 1097:Guinea 1091:, the 1045:, and 892:Tagant 885:Shaykh 809:rebate 800:Brakna 733:Maures 563:on the 307: 271: 233: 195: 165:Colony 139:Arabic 137:French 100:Status 72: 3021:Index 2995:Women 2990:Sport 2970:Music 2965:Media 2940:Films 2925:Crime 2174:Annam 2029:Inini 1970:Haïti 1778:Gabon 1723:Niger 1701:Sudan 1389:Notes 1211:Congo 1172:jamaa 1168:qadis 1138:of a 1109:Niger 1047:Gorée 1039:Dakar 940:jihad 904:Adrar 387:Area 2945:Flag 2548:and 2161:Laos 2123:Mahé 1773:Chad 1272:The 960:Atar 952:Mali 866:, a 401:1948 393:1936 62:Flag 1340:. 1205:in 701:. 3054:: 1972:, 1556:. 1523:^ 1501:^ 1477:^ 1456:^ 1438:^ 1418:^ 1209:, 1174:. 1111:. 1103:, 1099:, 1095:, 1041:, 1037:, 998:. 926:. 843:. 747:, 740:. 472:MR 2681:e 2674:t 2667:v 2508:) 2327:e 2320:t 2313:v 2083:e 2076:t 2069:v 1880:e 1873:t 1866:v 1638:e 1631:t 1624:v 1593:e 1586:t 1579:v 683:e 676:t 669:v

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