Computer network - Knowledge

2297: 2069: 2636: 2890:(SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the storage appears as locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized business environments. 822: 1858: 5168:"Many of the theoretical studies of the performance and design of the ARPA Network were developments of earlier work by Kleinrock ... Although these works concerned message switching networks, they were the basis for a lot of the ARPA network investigations ... The intention of the work of Kleinrock was to analyse the performance of store and forward networks, using as the primary performance measure the average message delay. ... Kleinrock extended the theoretical approaches of to the early ARPA network." 2289: 1625: 174: 8363: 1788: 1902: 1512: 8373: 3074: 50: 2203: 8383: 2804:(PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computers and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with 1433: 2568: 6759: 2327:, often constructed per the OSI model, communications functions are divided up into protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below it until the lowest layer controls the hardware that sends information across the media. The use of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is 5025:

Distributed Communications" in the early 1960's. Also of note was work done by Donald Davies and others at the National Physical Laboratory in England in the mid-1960's. ... Another early major network development which affected development of the ARPANET was undertaken at the National Physical Laboratory in Middlesex, England, under the leadership of D. W. Davies.

1616:, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location. Physical layout is not completely irrelevant, however, as common ducting and equipment locations can represent single points of failure due to issues like fires, power failures and flooding. 2369:, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet protocol (IP). At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for 1486:. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link is not overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case, the packet is 3817:. Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a client requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this certificate (all web browsers come with an exhaustive list of 2970:(WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by 2870:(HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a 3026:(GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile users across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial 5124:

Although there was considerable technical interchange between the NPL group and those who designed and implemented the ARPANET, the NPL Data Network effort appears to have had little fundamental impact on the design of ARPANET. Such major aspects of the NPL Data Network design as the standard network

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at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstruction so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted-pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of

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The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and

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is a network that is under the administrative control of a single organization but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities

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is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. An intranet typically uses the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits the use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly,

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Computer networks enhance how users communicate with each other by using various electronic methods like email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video calls, and video conferencing. Networks also enable the sharing of computing resources. For example, a user can print a document on a shared

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The hierarchical approach is further motivated by theoretical results (e.g., ) which show that, by optimally placing separators, i.e., elements that connect levels in the hierarchy, tremendous gain can be achieved in terms of both routing table size and update message churn. ... KLEINROCK, L., AND

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As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to

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based on the destination MAC address in each frame. They learn the association of physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request to all ports

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is a virtual network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from

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The physical or geographic locations of network nodes and links generally have relatively little effect on a network, but the topology of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as bus or star networks, a single failure can

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In mathematical modelling use is made of the theories of queueing processes and of flows in networks, describing the performance of the network in a set of equations. ... The analytic method has been used with success by Kleinrock and others, but only if important simplifying assumptions are made.

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priority schemes allowing selected traffic to bypass congestion. Priority schemes do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for critical services. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to

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Aside from the technical problems of interconnecting computers with communications circuits, the notion of computer networks had been considered in a number of places from a theoretical point of view. Of particular note was work done by Paul Baran and others at the Rand Corporation in a study "On

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that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the

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in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network. One common application is

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has key components implemented at the nanoscale, including message carriers, and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also

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is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require

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Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his

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A firewall is a network device or software for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from

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Network bridges and network switches are distinct from a hub in that they only forward frames to the ports involved in the communication whereas a hub forwards to all ports. Bridges only have two ports but a switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Switches normally have numerous ports,

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In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing

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are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, the structured addressing used by routers outperforms unstructured addressing used by bridging.

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the first occurrence in print of the term protocol in a data communications context ... the next hardware tasks were the detailed design of the interface between the terminal devices and the switching computer, and the arrangements to secure reliable transmission of packets of data over the

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secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.

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is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area. When designing a network backbone,

1880:, optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple streams of data on different wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for 3591:

access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-accessible resources. Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies, and individuals.

1925: – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 40 miles (64 km) apart. 1136:

proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organization of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centers. Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962

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is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model.

1892:(MMF). Single-mode fiber has the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the data rate and cable grade. 3038:

Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.

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interface, the routing algorithm, and the software structure of the switching node were largely ignored by the ARPANET designers. There is no doubt, however, that in many less fundamental ways the NPL Data Network had and effect on the design and evolution of the ARPANET.

1933: – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. 2832:(LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Wired LANs are most commonly based on Ethernet technology. Other networking technologies such as 3872:

Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered

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to another. Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints. Engineers usually report both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the delay into several components, the sum of which is the total delay:

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For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. Another example of a backbone network is the

6027:"IEEE Standard for Information Technology--Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems - Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Specific Requirements - Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications" 3426:

occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater data load than it is rated for, resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues become too full, packets have to be discarded, and participants must rely on

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is the largest example of internetwork. It is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet protocol suite. It is the successor of the

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Bridges and switches divide the network's collision domain but maintain a single broadcast domain. Network segmentation through bridging and switching helps break down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.

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Networks may be characterized by many properties or features, such as physical capacity, organizational purpose, user authorization, access rights, and others. Another distinct classification method is that of the physical extent or geographic scale.

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Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H. M. Teager and J. McCarthy at MIT delivered an unpublished paper "Time-shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM

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between computers over a network. Baran's work addressed adaptive routing of message blocks across a distributed network, but did not include routers with software switches, nor the idea that users, rather than the network itself, would provide the

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is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees). Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An

1705:. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination. 5093:

Significant aspects of the network's internal operation, such as routing, flow control, software design, and network control were developed by a BBN team consisting of Frank Heart, Robert Kahn, Severo Omstein, William Crowther, and David

2145:. In addition to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by modern network switches. 5601:

Council, National Research; Sciences, Division on Engineering and Physical; Board, Computer Science and Telecommunications; Applications, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and; Committee, NII 2000 Steering (1998-02-05).

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protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support circuit-switched

2104:. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce. 1225:

were connected using 50 kbit/s circuits between the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. Designed principally by

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A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the addressing or routing information included in the packet. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the

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is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. It is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes called

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Participants on the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet protocol suite and the IP addressing system administered by the

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him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.

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are often used to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed.

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and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for plugging in a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.

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cause the network to fail entirely. In general, the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Therefore, most network diagrams are arranged by their

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Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and

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Routing calculates good paths through a network for information to take. For example, from node 1 to node 6 the best routes are likely to be 1-8-7-6, 1-8-10-6 or 1-9-10-6, as these are the shortest routes.

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Message flows between two devices (A-B) at the four layers of the TCP/IP model in the presence of a router (R). Red flows are effective communication paths, black paths are across the actual network links.

984:. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes and are rarely changed after initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols such as the 1955: – Wireless LANs use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. 1807:

is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per

1218:, pioneered the implementation of the concept in 1968-69 using 768 kbit/s links. Both Baran's and Davies' inventions were seminal contributions that influenced the development of computer networks. 2420:

protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it is also found in WLANs) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless access key".

1849:. The transmission speed ranges from 2 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several 1455:

Packets consist of two types of data: control information and user data (payload). The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example, source and destination

1066:, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a wide array of technological developments and historical milestones. 6763: 2496:. ATM has similarities with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, 5307:

The Spanish, dark horses, were the first people to have a public network. They'd got a bank network which they craftily turned into a public network overnight, and beat everybody to the post.

3857:, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using VLANs. 3483:

techniques where endpoints typically slow down or sometimes even stop transmission entirely when the network is congested to try to avoid congestive collapse. Specific techniques include:

3400:. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads. Other types of performance measures can include the level of noise and echo. 1841:

and other standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce

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is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources.

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is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.

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Hierarchical addressing systems for network routing have been proposed by Fultz and, in greater detail, by McQuillan. A recent very full analysis may be found in Kleinrock and Kamoun.

3407:(ATM) network, performance can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, technology, modulation technique, and modem enhancements. 6659: 3089:

is the connection of multiple different types of computer networks to form a single computer network using higher-layer network protocols and connecting them together using routers.

1582:: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. 2593:

can also forward packets and perform routing, though because they lack specialized hardware, may offer limited performance. The routing process directs forwarding on the basis of

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Overlay networks have been used since the early days of networking, back when computers were connected via telephone lines using modems, even before data networks were developed.

3837:, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a network administrator is responsible for keeping that network up and running. A 3410:

There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example,

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mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure VPN technology.

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For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls.

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printer or use shared storage devices. Additionally, networks allow for the sharing of files and information, giving authorized users access to data stored on other computers.

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has less of a connection of being in a local area and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via

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data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet service providers or

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that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network, e.g., the Ethernet

4890: 2902:(CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, 2237:

Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more

1759:(LAN) technology are collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by 1655:. Even today, each Internet node can communicate with virtually any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and technologies. 3607:

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

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unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in

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The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s made it obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed.

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through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose

6178: 2377:, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. The Internet protocol suite is the defining set of protocols for the Internet. 1701:

in the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from

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is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental or corporate interference.

2223:. A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets and does not require broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big networks. 1242:

carried out mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET. His theoretical work on

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an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.

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Essentially all the work was defined by 1961, and fleshed out and put into formal written form in 1962. The idea of hot potato routing dates from late 1960.

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Users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of a network's trust and scope characteristics. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an

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published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks" and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.

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Davies's invention of packet switching and design of computer communication networks ... were a cornerstone of the development which led to the Internet

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are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. The network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN technology.

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use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area is served by a low-power

1497:(MTU). A longer message may be fragmented before it is transferred and once the packets arrive, they are reassembled to construct the original message. 690: 2930:

are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the backbone network's capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it.

3631: 2097: 1608:: nodes are arranged hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing. 5906: 6925: 5640: 4501: 5698: 1268:

was the first to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself.

6475: 5644: 5197:... It is heartening in Kleinrock's work to see the good correspondence achieved between the results of analytic methods and those of simulation. 1670:, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a 3014:

VPN may have best-effort performance or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider.

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Structured IP addresses are used on the Internet. Unstructured MAC addresses are used for bridging on Ethernet and similar local area networks.

4001: 4036: 3748:-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between 4120: 1215: 6667: 2548: 1596:: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other. 1145: 4277: 2130:

Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model but still require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a

6872: 6449: 5619: 5138: 4445: 1876:. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Using dense 6605: 4177: 7399: 5038: 3869:

is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).

2974:, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI model: the physical layer, the 2544: 2597:, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. 3102: 2854:

to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to and in excess of

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The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built as an overlay on the

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Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a

4820: 3901: 3270:, i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected by processes such as 5109:

The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications: Volume 1 - Access Charges in the U.S.A. to Basics of Digital Communications

4557: 2468:. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting 1402:

In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was developed by

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The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the communication themselves, such as the

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In nearly all respects, Davies' original proposal, developed in late 1965, was similar to the actual networks being built today.

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is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be

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communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of

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paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party

2054:. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and so may perform multiple functions. 7992: 5455: 2954:(MAN) is a large computer network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a 6798:

Kurose James F and Keith W. Ross: Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, Pearson Education 2005.

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Almost immediately after the 1965 meeting, Davies conceived of the details of a store-and-forward packet switching system.

3795:, which relates to things such as the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent. 3133:. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the 2839:

also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.

8146: 7418: 5936: 5758: 4990:. Johns Hopkins studies in the history of technology New series. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. pp. 153–196. 4532: 4067: 3232: 3126: 3106: 2556: 1555: 17: 5158: 3825:

for use in the session. The session is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel between the SSL server and the SSL client.

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IEEE STD 802.1X-2020 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.1X-2010 Incorporating IEEE STD 802.1Xbx-2014 and IEEE STD 802.1Xck-2018)

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KAMOUN, F. Hierarchical routing for large networks: Performance evaluation and optimization. Computer Networks (1977).

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cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant or owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.).

8298: 8126: 7656: 5823: 5674: 5323: 5166:(PhD thesis). Department of Electrical Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London. 4958: 4757: 4439: 2309: 2026:

Apart from any physical transmission media, networks are built from additional basic system building blocks, such as

1191: 1071: 133: 67: 2938:, which is a massive, global system of fiber-optic cable and optical networking that carry the bulk of data between 1716:). Academic research includes end system multicast, resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others. 1612:

The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with

8386: 7480: 6976: 6920: 1967: 1877: 1587: 1334: 1227: 754: 337: 100: 7774: 6895: 6865: 6774: 6693: 5529: 4922: 3834: 1117:

in Paris that year. McCarthy was instrumental in the creation of three of the earliest time-sharing systems (the

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initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT. Strachey passed the concept on to

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Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous

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Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described by a set of standards together called

2123: 1915:

Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic means of communication.

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networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the

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specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the

2096:—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the 1748:, the software to handle the media is defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer. 635: 8207: 8184: 7914: 7904: 7366: 6915: 6900: 5018:(Report). Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc. 1 April 1981. pp. 13, 53 of 183 (III-11 on the printed copy). 3838: 3291: 2332: 1346: 1126: 790: 749: 266: 82: 8288: 7876: 7784: 7689: 7465: 7450: 6961: 6946: 6905: 3885:

names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the

3695: 3295: 2524: 2313: 2063: 2027: 905: 595: 439: 386: 201: 6219: 630: 8376: 8111: 7609: 7127: 7074: 6795:

Wendell Odom, Rus Healy, Denise Donohue. (2010) CCIE Routing and Switching. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press

6489: 5914: 4747: 3964: 3776: 3623: 2758: 2119: 1656: 1534:: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original 1231: 6264: 4470: 3242:

that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service.

8407: 8348: 7997: 7142: 6981: 6858: 5720: 5690: 5061: 4934:

Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer Paul Baran

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preloaded), and if the certificate checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a

3661:

society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to lawsuits such as

3404: 3316: 3159: 3130: 3077:

Partial map of the Internet based on 2005 data. Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing two

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sent over a standard voice telephone line. Modems are still commonly used for telephone lines, using a

2073: 1094:

to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second (bit/s).

759: 665: 660: 625: 424: 322: 261: 3853:) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, 8366: 8293: 8268: 8131: 7779: 7385: 7177: 6996: 6956: 6951: 6910: 5782: 4714: 3850: 3738: 3646: 3170: 2951: 2712: 1972: 1885: 1846: 1702: 1494: 1280: 942: 347: 2100:(IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six 1663:

are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network.

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This was the first digital local network in the world to use packet switching and high-speed links.

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The physical link technologies of packet networks typically limit the size of packets to a certain

1235: 825: 783: 685: 645: 152: 38: 31: 4101: 3568:

on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a

2846:(WAN) using a router. The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a WAN, include higher 1155:

In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the "

543: 8278: 8212: 8103: 7919: 7579: 6966: 6689: 3969: 3928: 3905: 3878: 3784: 3480: 3432: 3204: 3134: 3003: 2875: 2739: 2366: 2254: 1979: 1842: 1599: 1564:: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a small 1449: 1230:, the network's routing, flow control, software design and network control were developed by the 1122: 1008: 1000: 766: 585: 352: 286: 241: 60: 6100:

The evolution of mobile communications in the US and Europe: Regulation, technology, and markets

5384:

Kirstein, P.T. (1999). "Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom".

2635: 8343: 8174: 8055: 7822: 7812: 7807: 7354: 7293: 7182: 7162: 7111: 7069: 5354:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" 4269: 3949: 3938: 3698:, from reading or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both 3687: 3324: 2817: 2751: 2417: 2401: 2305: 1985: 1677:

Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through

1667: 1424:

leverages resources from multiple computers across a network to perform tasks collaboratively.

1199: 931: 670: 655: 570: 6422: 5603: 5107: 4684: 4429: 4185: 4097: 3675:

has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance".

2448:

protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares many properties with wired Ethernet.

2249:

that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Early modems modulated

107: 8313: 8283: 8273: 8169: 8083: 7959: 7899: 7866: 7856: 7739: 7704: 7694: 7631: 7500: 7475: 7470: 7435: 7137: 7103: 7005: 6941: 6601: 6557:

Simmonds, A; Sandilands, P; van Ekert, L (2004). "An Ontology for Network Security Attacks".

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tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for other communication techniques.

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network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.

2009: 2005: 1573: 1479: 1421: 1396:

In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed by GTE in Long Beach, California.

1386: 1323: 996: 771: 590: 560: 449: 404: 5046: 4701:

Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.

4235:

Gillies, James M.; Gillies, James; Gillies, James and Cailliau Robert; Cailliau, R. (2000).

2444:

standards, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well-known member of the

2068: 8073: 8045: 8017: 8012: 7841: 7817: 7769: 7752: 7747: 7729: 7719: 7714: 7676: 7626: 7621: 7538: 7484: 7334: 7308: 6742: 6458: 6404: 6370: 5980:"IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Port-Based Network Access Control" 5748: 5543: 4516:

Both Paul Baran and Donald Davies in their original papers anticipated the use of T1 trunks

3897: 3893: 3822: 3810: 3600: 3476: 3444: 3287: 3279: 3275: 3239: 2887: 2855: 2675: 2665: 2292:

The TCP/IP model and its relation to common protocols used at different layers of the model

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but does not prevent sending large amounts of information (they can have high throughput).

1989: 1978:

Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical means, the

1403: 1243: 1203: 1098: 1059: 1015: 538: 419: 5725:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968-1988

5360: 4431:

The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution

3634:, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens. 8: 8338: 8263: 8179: 8164: 7929: 7709: 7666: 7661: 7558: 7548: 7520: 7303: 7255: 7132: 6811:

Network Communication Architecture and Protocols: OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model

6081: 5957: 5239:

Feldmann, Anja; Cittadini, Luca; Mühlbauer, Wolfgang; Bush, Randy; Maennel, Olaf (2009).

4666:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988

3714: 3484: 3464: 3023: 2899: 1732: 1712:

manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of

1709: 1472: 1468: 1371: 1254: 1087: 1039: 992: 969: 575: 444: 434: 429: 281: 226: 216: 5039:"Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message Ever Sent Between Two Computers" 8303: 8202: 8078: 8035: 7944: 7886: 7871: 7861: 7646: 7445: 7240: 7147: 6580: 6469: 5663: 5634: 5583: 5436: 5401: 5269: 5084: 4822:

A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at remote Terminals

4797: 4553: 4493: 4407: 3959: 3886: 3814: 3780: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3663: 3545: 3537: 3507: 3472: 3447:

of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in

3423: 3366: 3357:

A certain minimum level of delay is experienced by signals due to the time it takes to

3344: 3208: 3118: 3110: 2927: 2847: 2829: 2670: 2197: 2176: 2047: 1822: 1756: 1698: 1678: 1464: 1211: 1195: 1186: 1149: 1110: 1063: 965: 414: 367: 342: 231: 221: 6299: 5250:. ReArch '09. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 43–48. 4819:

Davies, Donald; Bartlett, Keith; Scantlebury, Roger; Wilkinson, Peter (October 1967).

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space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the

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Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945-1995

4690: 4638: 4599: 4435: 4399: 4347: 4324: 4303: 4248: 4237: 4110: 4077: 4046: 4011: 3979: 3769: 3756:, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are 3726: 3672: 3658: 3627: 3358: 3350: 3271: 2967: 2955: 2939: 2935: 2867: 2843: 2788: 2724: 2655: 2598: 2586: 2465: 2131: 2101: 2081: 2021: 1873: 1791: 1725: 1671: 1652: 1565: 1483: 1482:

of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were

1382:. This underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s. 1272: 1239: 985: 961: 927: 874: 854: 711: 377: 327: 236: 211: 6831: 5440: 5088: 4988:

Transforming computer technology: information processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1986

4497: 4411: 1159:", a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users. 8156: 8040: 8007: 7802: 7724: 7613: 7599: 7594: 7543: 7455: 7408: 6881: 6778: 6732: 6584: 6562: 6394: 6360: 6295: 6034: 5987: 5573: 5533: 5492: 5428: 5405: 5393: 5324:"RCP, the Experimental Packet-Switched Data Transmission Service of the French PTT" 5273: 5251: 5076: 4855: 4801: 4789: 4630: 4591: 4485: 4391: 4339: 3818: 3792: 3580: 3522: 3506:

Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing

3458: 3397: 3332: 3155: 2918: 2903: 2707: 2582: 1993: 1937: 1910: 1737: 1521: 1506: 1350: 1182: 1167: 1163: 1055: 954: 898: 813: 470: 459: 357: 301: 5752: 5587: 4844:"all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control" 2511:, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user. 2504:

must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

2320:

or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.

1959:

defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as

1861:

2007 map showing submarine optical fiber telecommunication cables around the world

8227: 8121: 8093: 7987: 7939: 7924: 7909: 7764: 7759: 7699: 7589: 7563: 7515: 7460: 7273: 7235: 7206: 6818: 6566: 6511: 6038: 5991: 5857: 4206: 4032: 3974: 3954: 3933: 3813:

took the first shot at a new standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was

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content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a

2497: 2340: 2172: 2168: 2164:

facilitating a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches.

1950: 1682: 1633: 1547: 1460: 1456: 1440:

Most modern computer networks use protocols based on packet-mode transmission. A

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is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data via lasers and

1857: 1568:

LAN, where each client connects to a central network switch, and logically in a

27:

Network that allows computers to share resources and communicate with each other

8333: 8237: 8136: 7982: 7954: 7359: 7283: 7245: 7117: 6628:"Bigger Monster, Weaker Chains: The Growth of an American Surveillance Society" 6026: 5979: 5928: 5546: 5523: 5012: 4618: 4579: 3882: 3703: 3657:—have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a 3615: 3561: 3496: 3436: 3390: 3373:

delays can range from less than a microsecond to several hundred milliseconds.

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for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.

3114: 2971: 2702: 2493: 2324: 2238: 2158: 2154: 2043: 2039: 1850: 1697:

have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all

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Kirstein, Peter T. (2009). "The early history of packet switching in the UK".

5359:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. p. 11. Archived from 5292: 4595: 4528: 4343: 1463:

codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in

8401: 8222: 7510: 7268: 7225: 7064: 7018: 6840: 5965: 5833: 5504: 4886: 4743: 4642: 4603: 4403: 4351: 3943: 3565: 3500: 3411: 3338: 3307: 3283: 2979: 2594: 2246: 2220: 2085: 1868: 1803: 1798:

The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking.

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There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.

2296: 8318: 7977: 7152: 3842: 3638: 3588: 3448: 3235:(DHCP) to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address. 3166: 3086: 3027: 2690: 2680: 2552: 2488:. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet protocol suite or 2460: 2317: 2250: 2142: 2035: 1833: 1694: 1638: 1605: 1593: 1579: 1569: 1561: 1265: 1102: 1091: 879: 620: 517: 372: 6240: 5578: 5561: 5331: 1070:

In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. military

8308: 7934: 7846: 7278: 7260: 7043: 7033: 7023: 5510:

S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.

3757: 3440: 3396:

In circuit-switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the

3216: 2851: 2645: 2441: 2413: 2405: 2397: 2336: 2277: 2093: 1956: 1942: 1818: 1764: 1624: 1531: 1365: 1342: 1315: 1207: 1035: 891: 859: 3347: – time it takes to push the packet's bits onto the link 2343:

and the home user's personal computer when the user is surfing the web.

1975:

is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.

8328: 8258: 7851: 7584: 7440: 6561:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3285. pp. 317–323. 5137:

Heart, F.; McKenzie, A.; McQuillian, J.; Walden, D. (January 4, 1978).

4073: 3923: 3874: 3788: 3691: 3668: 3452: 3382: 3370: 3263: 3212: 3078: 2567: 2519:

There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including:

2485: 2429: 2242: 2135: 1884:

to interconnect continents. There are two basic types of fiber optics,

1760: 1583: 1311: 1295: 1174: 555: 512: 502: 5397: 5184:. Internet Archive. Wiley. pp. See page refs highlighted at url. 4300:

How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet

3335: – time it takes a router to process the packet header 3207:

are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as

3081:. The length of the lines indicates the delay between those two nodes. 941:

to communicate with each other. These interconnections are made up of

7833: 7794: 7215: 7122: 7048: 7013: 6737: 6399: 6365: 5538: 4778:"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)" 4042: 3734: 3462:

same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as

3362: 2813: 1921: 1794:

are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another.

1745: 1713: 1330: 849: 720: 276: 6850: 5884: 5562:"Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks" 3626:

program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and

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published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

2288: 1905:

Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links.

1511: 991:

Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the

173: 49: 7894: 7377: 7344: 6660:"Anonymous hacks UK government sites over 'draconian surveillance'" 6493: 4007: 3866: 3861: 3765: 3619: 3353: – time for a signal to propagate through the media 3200: 3093: 3061: 3048: 2809: 2734: 2590: 2532: 2489: 2445: 2385: 2211: 2202: 2122:, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is 2113: 2031: 1971:

uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases,

1901: 1838: 1730:

The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the

1690: 1642: 1535: 1303: 1299: 1261: 981: 923: 5377: 4818: 2171:(layer 2) of the OSI model and bridge traffic between two or more 1399:

In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard.

7339: 7038: 6556: 3642: 3365:. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to 3267: 3146: 3137:(BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. 3098: 2575: 2528: 2459:(SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized 1686: 1660: 1543: 1539: 1432: 1253:

In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on experimental

1222: 6211: 5986:. 7.1.3 Connectivity to unauthenticated systems. February 2020. 5600: 5559: 5248:

Proceedings of the 2009 workshop on Re-architecting the internet

3946: – International standard for electrical and optical cables 6835: 6033:. 4.2.5 Interaction with other IEEE 802 layers. February 2021. 4003:

Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

3854: 3540:

is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of

3488: 3386: 3196: 2258: 1524:

which is the map of logical interconnections of network hosts.

1390: 5238: 4856:"The National Physical Laboratory Data Communications Network" 4325:"The beginnings of packet switching: some underlying concepts" 2184:

except the source, and discovers the location from the reply.

2175:

to form a single local network. Both are devices that forward

1393:, a token-passing network first used to share storage devices. 7288: 6272: 5146:(Technical report). Burlington, MA: Bolt, Beranek and Newman. 5136: 5002:

Prominently cites Baran and Davies as sources of inspiration.

4234: 3718: 3710: 3512: 3381:

The parameters that affect performance typically can include

3259: 3184:

are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to

3121:, video transfer, and a broad range of information services. 2942:(WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks. 2833: 2232: 1960: 1811: 1787: 1083: 1075: 5522:

Cerf, Vinton; dalal, Yogen; Sunshine, Carl (December 1974).

4554:"NIHF Inductee Donald Davies, Who Invented Packet Switching" 4103:

The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide]

3618:, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent or investigate 1602:: each node is connected to every other node in the network. 6625: 5042: 4719:. National Museum of Science and Industry. pp. 132–4. 4270:"Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich. Russian Virtual Computer Museum" 3730: 3515: 3341: – time the packet spends in routing queues 3262:

may refer to consumed bandwidth, corresponding to achieved

2836: 2685: 2409: 2374: 2370: 2328: 2207: 2118:

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network

1814: 1768: 1613: 1445: 1379: 1375: 1310:

and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. Metcalfe, with

1138: 6806:

Computer Networking with Internet Protocols and Technology

6792:

Shelly, Gary, et al. "Discovering Computers" 2003 Edition.

5790: 4853: 1736:) used to link devices to form a computer network include 1194:. Davies' hierarchical network design included high-speed 1170:

that implemented computer control in the switching fabric.

7324: 6186: 4915:"The real story of how the Internet became so vulnerable" 4529:"NIHF Inductee Paul Baran, Who Invented Packet Switching" 2805: 2601:

techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.

1572:, where each wireless client associates with the central 1287:, the first international heterogeneous computer network. 1043: 5099: 3604:

authorization from a court or other independent agency.

3323:

for a bit of data to travel across the network from one

2141:

An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an

1250:

remains critical to the operation of the Internet today.

6031:

IEEE STD 802.11-2020 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.11-2016)

5525:

Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol

5105: 3529:

addresses the subject of congestion control in detail.

1337:

published their seminal 1974 paper on internetworking,

1046:, and use of email and instant messaging applications. 6694:"Hacktivists in the frontline battle for the internet" 6596: 6594: 6212:"IEEE P802.3ba 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s Ethernet Task Force" 5241:"HAIR: Hierarchical architecture for internet routing" 6286:

Mansfield-Devine, Steve (December 2009). "Darknets".

6245:

IEEE 802.20 — Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)

4239:

How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web

3109:. The Internet utilizes copper communications and an 2400:) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a 2339:(the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the 3451:

lead either to only a small increase in the network

2850:, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on 6591: 6447: 3583:consists of provisions and policies adopted by the 3455:or to a potential reduction in network throughput. 1144:In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system 74:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6602:"Is the U.S. Turning Into a Surveillance Society?" 6075:"Design Principles for DSL-Based Access Solutions" 5662: 5478:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" 4985: 4236: 3622:activity. With the advent of programs such as the 2206:A typical home or small office router showing the 1054:Computer networking may be considered a branch of 5816:CompTIA Network+ exam guide : (Exam N10-005) 5521: 4828:. ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. 4619:"Principles and lessons in packet communications" 3632:Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act 2098:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1339:A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication. 8399: 6657: 6285: 5656: 5654: 5560:Robert M. Metcalfe; David R. Boggs (July 1976). 3315:is a design and performance characteristic of a 6390:Domain names – Implementation and Specification 5881:"Bergen Linux User Group's CPIP Implementation" 4069:AN/FSQ-7: the computer that shaped the Cold War 3610:Surveillance is very useful to governments and 1374:in Europe, North America and Japan began using 824: 6626:Jay Stanley; Barry Steinhardt (January 2003). 6619: 6179:"New global standard for fully networked home" 5898: 4872: 4775: 2257:technology and cable television systems using 1637:that of the underlying one. For example, many 30:"Datacom" redirects here. For other uses, see 7417:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 7393: 6866: 6420: 6315:"The Darknet: A Digital Copyright Revolution" 5809: 5807: 5651: 5215:. Internet Archive. Wiley. pp. 110–111. 4986:Norberg, Arthur L.; O'Neill, Judy E. (1996). 4178:"Reminiscences on the Theory of Time-Sharing" 3165:Darknets are distinct from other distributed 2985: 2759: 2475: 1216:National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) 953:methods that may be arranged in a variety of 899: 791: 6724: 5904: 5789:. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from 5712: 5639:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4854:Scantlebury, R. A.; Wilkinson, P.T. (1974). 4030: 2945: 2549:Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications 2092:In Ethernet networks, each NIC has a unique 1829:) to create a high-speed local area network. 1302:, a networking system that was based on the 1146:semi-automatic business research environment 960:The nodes of a computer network can include 926:sharing resources located on or provided by 6715: 6474:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6386: 5747:D. Andersen; H. Balakrishnan; M. Kaashoek; 4875:"Internet pioneers airbrushed from history" 4207:"Computer - Time-sharing and minicomputers" 2331:(the World Wide Web protocol) running over 1666:Another example of an overlay network is a 7400: 7386: 6873: 6859: 6720: 6718: 6688: 6147: 5804: 5643:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5013:A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade 4653: 4149:"Computer Pioneers - Christopher Strachey" 3709:Examples of end-to-end encryption include 3158:) — using non-standard protocols and 2997: 2766: 2752: 2545:Universal Mobile Telecommunications System 2360: 2283: 2000:. It was implemented in real life in 2001. 1378:in the late 1970s and interconnected with 972:, or other specialized or general-purpose 906: 892: 798: 784: 6736: 6398: 6364: 5956: 5950: 5605:The Unpredictable Certainty: White Papers 5577: 5537: 5160:Packet and circuit-switched data networks 4662:"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969" 4616: 3099:Advanced Research Projects Agency Network 2484:and encodes data into small, fixed-sized 1546:. This is still a common topology on the 134:Learn how and when to remove this message 5846: 5660: 5475: 5456:"Oral History of Robert (Bob) W. Taylor" 5418: 5383: 5290: 5036: 4742: 4580:"On Distributed Communications Networks" 4434:. Simon and Schuster. pp. 237–246. 4427: 3999: 3678: 3435:. Typical effects of congestion include 3072: 2795: 2566: 2295: 2287: 2201: 2080:A network interface controller (NIC) is 2067: 1900: 1856: 1853:, designed for use in various scenarios. 1786: 1623: 1558:links instead, forming a star or a tree. 1510: 1431: 1406:, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus, and Yogen Dalal. 1115:UNESCO Information Processing Conference 945:technologies based on physically wired, 6821:, "Data Networks," Prentice Hall, 1992. 6427:(5th ed.). Elsevier. p. 372. 6380: 6352: 6241:"IEEE 802.20 Mission and Project Scope" 6097: 5818:(5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 5742: 5740: 5691:"Introduction to Ethernet Technologies" 5386:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5351: 5318: 5059: 4945: 4682: 4468: 4464: 4462: 4374: 4096: 3595: 3033: 2881: 2812:connections while technologies such as 2521:Global System for Mobile Communications 2148: 1148:(SABRE) went online with two connected 1011:mechanisms, and organizational intent. 14: 8400: 8117:Knowledge representation and reasoning 6841:IEEE Ethernet manufacturer information 6322:Richmond Journal of Law and Technology 5813: 5718: 5465:, CHM Reference number: X5059.2009: 28 5453: 5208: 5177: 5156: 5060:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 5022:from the original on 1 December 2012. 4946:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 4469:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 4375:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 4297: 4090: 4065: 4000:Sterling, Christopher H., ed. (2008). 3919:Comparison of network diagram software 3376: 3245: 3017: 2893: 2335:over IP (the Internet protocols) over 1181:independently invented the concept of 8142:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 7381: 6880: 6854: 6725:Rosen, E.; Rekhter, Y. (March 1999). 6424:Computer Networks: A Systems Approach 5212:Computer networks and their protocols 5181:Computer networks and their protocols 5053: 4771: 4769: 4712: 4577: 4322: 3548:and challenges to normal operation." 3532: 3418: 2823: 2541:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution 2514: 2351:Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol 2107: 2057: 1221:In 1969, the first four nodes of the 7461:Energy consumption (Green computing) 7407: 6490:"Telecommunications Magazine Online" 6421:Peterson, L.L.; Davie, B.S. (2011). 6312: 6306: 6122: 5737: 4459: 4243:. Oxford University Press. pp. 3828: 2961: 2861: 2782: 2245:by the digital signal to produce an 2167:Bridges and switches operate at the 1755:that uses copper and fiber media in 1590:(FDDI), made use of such a topology. 1345:, and Carl Sunshine wrote the first 72:adding citations to reliable sources 43: 8147:Distributed artificial intelligence 7419:ACM Computing Classification System 6846:A computer networking acronym guide 5759:Association for Computing Machinery 5485:IEEE Transactions on Communications 5352:Bennett, Richard (September 2009). 5202: 5062:"The evolution of packet switching" 4979: 4948:"The Evolution of Packet Switching" 4939: 4907: 4676: 4584:IEEE Transactions on Communications 4556:. National Inventors Hall of Fame. 4531:. National Inventors Hall of Fame. 4471:"The evolution of packet switching" 4377:"The evolution of packet switching" 4368: 4316: 4276:. Translated by Alexander Nitusov. 3575: 3556:Computer networks are also used by 3233:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 3127:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority 3107:United States Department of Defense 2912: 2616: 2557:Integrated Digital Enhanced Network 2492:that use variable-sized packets or 2355: 1500: 1361:as a shorthand for internetworking. 1141:economy management network project. 24: 7652:Integrated development environment 6786: 6633:. American Civil Liberties Union. 6604:. American Civil Liberties Union. 6535:. ResiliNets Research Initiative. 6072: 5469: 5447: 5330:. pp. 171–185. Archived from 5171: 5150: 4812: 4782:Annals of the History of Computing 4766: 4706: 4659: 4298:Peters, Benjamin (25 March 2016). 4267: 3176: 2094:Media Access Control (MAC) address 2084:that connects the computer to the 1771:signals as a transmission medium. 1681:guarantees achieve higher-quality 1619: 1364:In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and 1007:, the network size, the topology, 820: 25: 8419: 8127:Automated planning and scheduling 7657:Software configuration management 6825: 6448:ITU-D Study Group 2 (June 2006). 6387:Mockapetris, P. (November 1987). 6216:IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET WORKING GROUP 5293:"The Origins of Packet Switching" 4361:from the original on 2022-10-10. 4066:Ulmann, Bernd (August 19, 2014). 4038:A New History of Modern Computing 1427: 1283:(UCL), connecting the ARPANET to 1166:introduced the first widely used 1072:Semi-Automatic Ground Environment 8381: 8371: 8362: 8361: 6977:Object-oriented operating system 6762: This article incorporates 6757: 6451:Teletraffic Engineering Handbook 6125:Nanoscale Communication Networks 6102:. Boston, London: Artech House. 5454:Taylor, Bob (October 11, 2008), 5106:F.E. Froehlich, A. Kent (1990). 3892:Over the Internet, there can be 3301: 3238:Services are usually based on a 2858:, standardized by IEEE in 2010. 2634: 2015: 2004:The last two cases have a large 1968:Free-space optical communication 1719: 1588:Fiber Distributed Data Interface 1490:and waits until a link is free. 172: 48: 8372: 7775:Computational complexity theory 6775:General Services Administration 6704:from the original on 2018-03-14 6682: 6658:Emil Protalinski (2012-04-07). 6651: 6640:from the original on 2022-10-09 6608:from the original on 2017-03-14 6550: 6539:from the original on 2020-11-06 6525: 6500: 6482: 6441: 6414: 6346: 6335:from the original on 2012-04-15 6279: 6257: 6233: 6222:from the original on 2011-11-20 6204: 6171: 6160:from the original on 2023-02-04 6141: 6116: 6091: 6066: 6055:from the original on 2022-05-17 6019: 6008:from the original on 2023-02-04 5972: 5939:from the original on 2008-04-08 5921: 5883:. Blug.linux.no. Archived from 5873: 5840: 5775: 5765:from the original on 2011-11-24 5701:from the original on 2018-04-10 5683: 5622:from the original on 2023-02-04 5594: 5553: 5515: 5463:Computer History Museum Archive 5412: 5345: 5312: 5284: 5232: 5130: 5030: 5005: 4893:from the original on 2020-01-01 4866: 4847: 4835:from the original on 2022-10-10 4776:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1987). 4736: 4610: 4571: 4560:from the original on 2022-02-12 4546: 4535:from the original on 2022-02-12 4521: 4507:from the original on 2023-02-04 4448:from the original on 2023-02-04 4421: 4291: 4280:from the original on 2023-02-04 4217:from the original on 2015-01-02 4159:from the original on 2019-05-15 4126:from the original on 2012-05-27 3630:software, and laws such as the 2820:typically form a wireless PAN. 2604:Routing can be contrasted with 2435: 1246:in the late 1970s with student 1101:filed a patent application for 1036:application and storage servers 1014:Computer networks support many 59:needs additional citations for 7559:Network performance evaluation 6987:Supercomputer operating system 6492:. January 2003. Archived from 4860:Proceedings of the 2nd ICCC 74 4261: 4228: 4199: 4170: 4141: 4059: 4024: 3993: 3655:American Civil Liberties Union 3651:Electronic Frontier Foundation 2507:ATM still plays a role in the 2457:Synchronous optical networking 1882:undersea communications cables 1157:Intergalactic Computer Network 1119:Compatible Time-Sharing System 1082:. It was the first commercial 13: 1: 7930:Multimedia information system 7915:Geographic information system 7905:Enterprise information system 7494:Computer systems organization 6356:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 6300:10.1016/S1361-3723(09)70150-2 6288:Computer Fraud & Security 6150:"personal area network (PAN)" 5669:. O'Reilly & Associates. 5665:Ethernet The Definitive Guide 5661:Spurgeon, Charles E. (2000). 5297:Computer Resurrection Issue 5 5209:Davies, Donald Watts (1979). 5178:Davies, Donald Watts (1979). 4873:Guardian Staff (2013-06-25). 4749:A Brief History of the Future 4689:. Stripe Press. p. 286. 4683:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018). 3986: 3791:. E2EE also does not address 3696:application service providers 3292:bandwidth allocation protocol 2581:In packet-switched networks, 2028:network interface controllers 1763:. Wireless LAN standards use 1685:. Previous proposals such as 1347:Transmission Control Protocol 1127:Dartmouth Time Sharing System 8289:Computational social science 7877:Theoretical computer science 7690:Software development process 7466:Electronic design automation 7451:Very Large Scale Integration 6962:Just enough operating system 6947:Distributed operating system 6567:10.1007/978-3-540-30176-9_41 6353:Klensin, J. (October 2008). 6189:. 2008-12-12. Archived from 6039:10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9363693 5992:10.1109/IEEESTD.2020.9018454 5608:. National Academies Press. 5421:IEEE Communications Magazine 4332:IEEE Communications Magazine 3503:in devices such as routers. 3361:a packet serially through a 3296:dynamic bandwidth allocation 3250: 3219:(people remember names like 2842:A LAN can be connected to a 2525:General Packet Radio Service 2451: 2264: 2064:Network interface controller 1988:was a humorous April fool's 1410:factor to its continued use. 1306:, developed in the 1960s by 7: 8112:Natural language processing 7900:Information storage systems 7075:User space and kernel space 6508:"State Transition Diagrams" 5847:A. Hooke (September 2000), 5476:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). 3965:Network planning and design 3911: 3624:Total Information Awareness 3551: 3495:and the original Ethernet, 3068: 3055: 3042: 2423: 2380: 2371:Internet Protocol Version 4 1896: 1090:in 1958. The modem allowed 1086:for computers, released by 10: 8424: 8028:Human–computer interaction 7998:Intrusion detection system 7910:Social information systems 7895:Database management system 6982:Real-time operating system 5907:"bridge – network bridges" 5754:Resilient Overlay Networks 5112:. CRC Press. p. 344. 3851:application-layer gateways 3802: 3798: 3518:home networking standard. 3405:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 3317:telecommunications network 3305: 3186:provide some functionality 3140: 2992:enterprise private network 2986:Enterprise private network 2562: 2482:time-division multiplexing 2476:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 2470:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 2440:Wireless LAN based on the 2348: 2268: 2230: 2195: 2191: 2152: 2111: 2061: 2019: 1908: 1878:wave division multiplexing 1837:cabling is used for wired 1723: 1703:Internet service providers 1504: 1105:in the United Kingdom and 1049: 36: 29: 8357: 8294:Computational engineering 8269:Computational mathematics 8246: 8193: 8155: 8102: 8064: 8026: 7968: 7885: 7831: 7793: 7738: 7675: 7608: 7572: 7529: 7493: 7426: 7415: 7317: 7254: 7200: 7178:Multilevel feedback queue 7173:Fixed-priority preemptive 7161: 7096: 7087: 7057: 7004: 6995: 6957:Hobbyist operating system 6952:Embedded operating system 6934: 6888: 6808:, Pearson Education 2004. 6533:"Definitions: Resilience" 6098:Paetsch, Michael (1993). 5719:Pelkey, James L. (2007). 5566:Communications of the ACM 5497:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 5433:10.1109/MCOM.2009.4785372 5140:Arpanet Completion Report 4596:10.1109/TCOM.1964.1088883 4428:Isaacson, Walter (2014). 4344:10.1109/MCOM.2002.1018006 3647:Reporters Without Borders 3412:state transition diagrams 3223:better than numbers like 2952:metropolitan area network 2946:Metropolitan area network 2226: 2214:network cable connections 1973:line-of-sight propagation 1930:Communications satellites 1886:single-mode optical fiber 1847:electromagnetic induction 1817:technology uses existing 1744:, and free space. In the 1515:Common network topologies 1495:maximum transmission unit 1285:British academic networks 1281:University College London 1236:Bolt Beranek & Newman 976:. They are identified by 943:telecommunication network 651:Exponential random (ERGM) 318:Informational (computing) 8304:Computational healthcare 8299:Differentiable computing 8218:Graphics processing unit 7637:Domain-specific language 7506:Computational complexity 7221:General protection fault 6972:Network operating system 6926:User features comparison 4752:. Phoenix. p. 292. 4713:Yates, David M. (1997). 3805:Transport Layer Security 3785:random number generators 3570:denial-of-service attack 2718:Municipal wireless (MWN) 2537:Evolution-Data Optimized 1890:multi-mode optical fiber 1782: 1773:Power line communication 1628:A sample overlay network 1385:In 1976, John Murphy of 1022:, such as access to the 1001:communications protocols 338:Scientific collaboration 32:Datacom (disambiguation) 8279:Computational chemistry 8213:Photograph manipulation 8104:Artificial intelligence 7920:Decision support system 6967:Mobile operating system 5850:Interplanetary Internet 5256:10.1145/1658978.1658990 5081:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 5069:Proceedings of the IEEE 4794:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023 4635:10.1109/PROC.1978.11143 4623:Proceedings of the IEEE 4490:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 4478:Proceedings of the IEEE 4396:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 4384:Proceedings of the IEEE 4211:Encyclopedia Britannica 3970:Network traffic control 3929:History of the Internet 3906:communications security 3879:Border Gateway Protocol 3587:to prevent and monitor 3433:reliable communications 3135:Border Gateway Protocol 3113:backbone to enable the 3101:(ARPANET) developed by 3004:virtual private network 2998:Virtual private network 2876:digital subscriber line 2740:Interplanetary Internet 2608:in its assumption that 2367:Internet protocol suite 2361:Internet protocol suite 2284:Communication protocols 2255:digital subscriber line 1980:Interplanetary Internet 1600:Fully connected network 1527:Common topologies are: 1450:packet-switched network 1444:is a formatted unit of 1341:Later that year, Cerf, 1294:wrote a formal memo at 1202:and the essence of the 1200:communication protocols 1123:BBN Time-Sharing System 995:used to carry signals, 932:communication protocols 930:. Computers use common 767:Category:Network theory 287:Preferential attachment 8344:Educational technology 8175:Reinforcement learning 7925:Process control system 7823:Computational geometry 7813:Algorithmic efficiency 7808:Analysis of algorithms 7456:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 7070:Loadable kernel module 6770:Federal Standard 1037C 6764:public domain material 6313:Wood, Jessica (2010). 5783:"End System Multicast" 5328:Proceedings of ICCC 74 5157:Clarke, Peter (1982). 4617:Kleinrock, L. (1978). 4100:; et al. (1963). 3950:Minimum-Pairs Protocol 3939:Information revolution 3777:technical exploitation 3688:digital communications 3499:reduction in TCP, and 3325:communication endpoint 3082: 2818:infrared communication 2572: 2418:Network Access Control 2402:Spanning Tree Protocol 2306:communication protocol 2301: 2293: 2215: 2077: 1986:IP over Avian Carriers 1906: 1862: 1795: 1668:distributed hash table 1629: 1516: 1437: 1414: 1238:. In the early 1970s, 1173:Throughout the 1960s, 831: 656:Random geometric (RGG) 8314:Electronic publishing 8284:Computational biology 8274:Computational physics 8170:Unsupervised learning 8084:Distributed computing 7960:Information retrieval 7867:Mathematical analysis 7857:Mathematical software 7740:Theory of computation 7705:Software construction 7695:Requirements analysis 7573:Software organization 7501:Computer architecture 7471:Hardware acceleration 7436:Printed circuit board 7138:Process control block 7104:Computer multitasking 6942:Disk operating system 5814:Meyers, Mike (2012). 5697:. WideBand Products. 5579:10.1145/360248.360253 4035:(14 September 2021). 3839:community of interest 3684:End-to-end encryption 3679:End to end encryption 3585:network administrator 3487:in protocols such as 3290:(using, for example, 3211:(DNS) give names for 3076: 2872:cable Internet access 2802:personal area network 2796:Personal area network 2570: 2416:defines a port-based 2349:Further information: 2299: 2291: 2205: 2071: 2010:two-way communication 2006:round-trip delay time 1904: 1860: 1790: 1724:Further information: 1627: 1574:wireless access point 1514: 1505:Further information: 1435: 1422:Distributed computing 1387:Datapoint Corporation 1349:(TCP) specification, 1324:PARC Universal Packet 1264:network, directed by 830: 772:Category:Graph theory 8074:Concurrent computing 8046:Ubiquitous computing 8018:Application security 8013:Information security 7842:Discrete mathematics 7818:Randomized algorithm 7770:Computability theory 7748:Model of computation 7720:Software maintenance 7715:Software engineering 7677:Software development 7627:Programming language 7622:Programming paradigm 7539:Network architecture 7309:Virtual tape library 6901:Forensic engineering 6123:Bush, S. F. (2010). 5958:Tanenbaum, Andrew S. 4323:Baran, Paul (2002). 4153:history.computer.org 3902:consumer-to-consumer 3898:business-to-consumer 3894:business-to-business 3823:symmetric-key cipher 3601:Network surveillance 3596:Network surveillance 3477:congestion avoidance 3471:Modern networks use 3288:bandwidth allocation 3280:bandwidth throttling 3276:bandwidth management 3205:network file sharing 3034:Organizational scope 2888:storage area network 2882:Storage area network 2271:Firewall (computing) 2149:Bridges and switches 1990:Request for Comments 1372:Public data networks 1326:for internetworking. 1260:In 1973, the French 1255:public data networks 1244:hierarchical routing 1204:end-to-end principle 1099:Christopher Strachey 1088:AT&T Corporation 1060:computer engineering 68:improve this article 37:For other uses, see 8349:Document management 8339:Operations research 8264:Enterprise software 8180:Multi-task learning 8165:Supervised learning 7887:Information systems 7710:Software deployment 7667:Software repository 7521:Real-time computing 7318:Supporting concepts 7304:Virtual file system 4964:on 31 December 2018 4862:. pp. 223–228. 3664:Hepting v. AT&T 3485:exponential backoff 3465:congestive collapse 3377:Performance metrics 3319:. It specifies the 3246:Network performance 3024:global area network 3018:Global area network 2924:network performance 2900:campus area network 2894:Campus area network 2848:data transfer rates 2555:(IS-136/TDMA), and 2310:connection-oriented 2210:telephone line and 2008:, which gives slow 1710:Akamai Technologies 1674:) indexed by keys. 1357:, coining the term 1322:also developed the 993:transmission medium 970:networking hardware 576:Degree distribution 227:Community structure 18:Computer Networking 8132:Search methodology 8079:Parallel computing 8036:Interaction design 7945:Computing platform 7872:Numerical analysis 7862:Information theory 7647:Software framework 7610:Software notations 7549:Network components 7446:Integrated circuit 7241:Segmentation fault 7089:Process management 5935:. September 1996. 5905:Bradley Mitchell. 4955:IEEE Invited Paper 4578:Baran, P. (1964). 4274:computer-museum.ru 4045:. pp. 87–89. 3960:Network simulation 3887:Domain Name System 3815:Netscape Navigator 3538:Network resilience 3533:Network resilience 3521:For the Internet, 3508:quality of service 3473:congestion control 3424:Network congestion 3419:Network congestion 3367:network congestion 3345:Transmission delay 3209:Domain Name System 3131:address registries 3119:Internet of things 3111:optical networking 3083: 2940:wide area networks 2928:network congestion 2830:local area network 2824:Local area network 2713:Metropolitan (MAN) 2573: 2515:Cellular standards 2302: 2294: 2216: 2198:Router (computing) 2127:kilometers apart. 2108:Repeaters and hubs 2078: 2058:Network interfaces 1907: 1874:optical amplifiers 1863: 1825:, phone lines and 1796: 1792:Fiber-optic cables 1779:to transmit data. 1775:uses a building's 1757:local area network 1679:quality of service 1657:Address resolution 1630: 1586:networks, and the 1550:, although modern 1517: 1478:With packets, the 1438: 1212:local area network 1187:data communication 1111:J. C. R. Licklider 1064:telecommunications 962:personal computers 955:network topologies 845:Process management 832: 760:Network scientists 686:Soft configuration 83:"Computer network" 8408:Computer networks 8395: 8394: 8324:Electronic voting 8254:Quantum Computing 8247:Applied computing 8233:Image compression 8003:Hardware security 7993:Security services 7950:Digital marketing 7730:Open-source model 7642:Modeling language 7554:Network scheduler 7375: 7374: 7231:Memory protection 7202:Memory management 7196: 7195: 7188:Shortest job next 7083: 7082: 6882:Operating systems 6815:Dimitri Bertsekas 6802:William Stallings 6576:978-3-540-23659-7 6559:Applied Computing 6434:978-0-1238-5060-7 6134:978-1-60807-003-9 6109:978-0-8900-6688-1 6048:978-1-5044-7283-8 6001:978-1-5044-6440-6 5962:Computer Networks 5615:978-0-309-17414-5 5398:10.1109/85.759368 5265:978-1-60558-749-3 5222:978-0-471-99750-4 5191:978-0-471-99750-4 4997:978-0-8018-5152-0 4726:978-0-901805-94-2 4696:978-1-953953-36-0 4686:The Dream Machine 4660:Pelkey, James L. 4629:(11): 1320–1329. 4254:978-0-19-286207-5 4116:978-0-262-03008-3 4083:978-3-486-85670-5 4017:978-1-85109-737-1 3980:Network on a chip 3881:. Typically, the 3829:Views of networks 3819:root certificates 3727:instant messaging 3713:for web traffic, 3659:mass surveillance 3459:Network protocols 3351:Propagation delay 3272:bandwidth shaping 2968:wide area network 2962:Wide area network 2956:metropolitan area 2936:Internet backbone 2868:home area network 2862:Home area network 2844:wide area network 2789:nanoscale network 2783:Nanoscale network 2776: 2775: 2610:network addresses 2599:Multipath routing 2587:packet forwarding 2583:routing protocols 2466:digital telephony 2132:propagation delay 2082:computer hardware 2022:Node (networking) 1938:Cellular networks 1751:A widely adopted 1726:Data transmission 1653:telephone network 1566:switched Ethernet 1457:network addresses 1279:into practice at 1240:Leonard Kleinrock 1234:team working for 1125:in 1962, and the 1113:at the inaugural 1078:system using the 986:Internet Protocol 978:network addresses 916: 915: 855:Memory management 814:Operating systems 808: 807: 728: 727: 636:Bianconi–Barabási 530: 529: 348:Artificial neural 323:Telecommunication 144: 143: 136: 118: 16:(Redirected from 8415: 8385: 8384: 8375: 8374: 8365: 8364: 8185:Cross-validation 8157:Machine learning 8041:Social computing 8008:Network security 7803:Algorithm design 7725:Programming team 7685:Control variable 7662:Software library 7600:Software quality 7595:Operating system 7544:Network protocol 7409:Computer science 7402: 7395: 7388: 7379: 7378: 7330:Computer network 7094: 7093: 7002: 7001: 6875: 6868: 6861: 6852: 6851: 6783: 6782: 6777:. Archived from 6761: 6760: 6750: 6749: 6740: 6738:10.17487/RFC2547 6722: 6713: 6712: 6710: 6709: 6686: 6680: 6679: 6677: 6675: 6666:. Archived from 6655: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6645: 6639: 6632: 6623: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6613: 6598: 6589: 6588: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6544: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6519: 6510:. Archived from 6504: 6498: 6497: 6486: 6480: 6479: 6473: 6465: 6463: 6457:. Archived from 6456: 6445: 6439: 6438: 6418: 6412: 6411: 6402: 6400:10.17487/RFC1035 6384: 6378: 6377: 6368: 6366:10.17487/RFC5321 6350: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6340: 6334: 6319: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6271:. Archived from 6269:The Opto Project 6261: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6251: 6237: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6227: 6208: 6202: 6201: 6199: 6198: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6165: 6148:Margaret Rouse. 6145: 6139: 6138: 6127:. Artech House. 6120: 6114: 6113: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6080:. Archived from 6079: 6073:Martin, Thomas. 6070: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6060: 6023: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6013: 5976: 5970: 5969: 5964:(4th ed.). 5954: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5944: 5925: 5919: 5918: 5913:. Archived from 5902: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5892: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5862: 5855: 5844: 5838: 5837: 5811: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5787:project web site 5779: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5770: 5751:(October 2001), 5744: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5731: 5716: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5706: 5687: 5681: 5680: 5668: 5658: 5649: 5648: 5638: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5581: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5541: 5539:10.17487/RFC0675 5519: 5513: 5512: 5482: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5460: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5365: 5358: 5349: 5343: 5342: 5340: 5339: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5304: 5303: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5245: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5175: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5145: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5066: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5045:. Archived from 5034: 5028: 5027: 5017: 5009: 5003: 5001: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4969: 4963: 4957:. Archived from 4952: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4931: 4930: 4921:. Archived from 4911: 4905: 4904: 4899: 4898: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4851: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4834: 4827: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807:high-speed lines 4788:(3/4): 221–247. 4773: 4764: 4763: 4740: 4734: 4733: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4614: 4608: 4607: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4541: 4540: 4525: 4519: 4518: 4513: 4512: 4506: 4475: 4466: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4381: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4360: 4329: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4285: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4242: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4222: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4193: 4184:. Archived from 4182:jmc.stanford.edu 4174: 4168: 4167: 4165: 4164: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4125: 4108: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4033:Ceruzzi, Paul E. 4028: 4022: 4021: 3997: 3793:traffic analysis 3581:Network Security 3576:Network security 3562:computer viruses 3558:security hackers 3398:grade of service 3333:Processing delay 3240:service protocol 3229: 3228: 3182:Network services 2919:backbone network 2913:Backbone network 2878:(DSL) provider. 2768: 2761: 2754: 2651:Near-field (NFC) 2638: 2625:Computer network 2621: 2620: 2617:Geographic scale 2356:Common protocols 2179:of data between 2173:network segments 1911:Wireless network 1851:category ratings 1738:electrical cable 1522:network topology 1507:Network topology 1501:Network topology 1484:circuit switched 1183:packet switching 1168:telephone switch 1164:Western Electric 1056:computer science 1034:, shared use of 939:interconnections 920:computer network 908: 901: 894: 823: 810: 809: 800: 793: 786: 671:Stochastic block 661:Hyperbolic (HGN) 610: 609: 473: 462: 394: 393: 302:Social influence 176: 148: 147: 139: 132: 128: 125: 119: 117: 76: 52: 44: 21: 8423: 8422: 8418: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8413: 8412: 8398: 8397: 8396: 8391: 8382: 8353: 8334:Word processing 8242: 8228:Virtual reality 8189: 8151: 8122:Computer vision 8098: 8094:Multiprocessing 8060: 8022: 7988:Security hacker 7964: 7940:Digital library 7881: 7832:Mathematics of 7827: 7789: 7765:Automata theory 7760:Formal language 7734: 7700:Software design 7671: 7604: 7590:Virtual machine 7568: 7564:Network service 7525: 7516:Embedded system 7489: 7422: 7411: 7406: 7376: 7371: 7313: 7274:Defragmentation 7259: 7250: 7236:Protection ring 7205: 7192: 7164: 7157: 7079: 7053: 6991: 6930: 6884: 6879: 6828: 6819:Robert Gallager 6789: 6787:Further reading 6767: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6723: 6716: 6707: 6705: 6687: 6683: 6673: 6671: 6656: 6652: 6643: 6641: 6637: 6630: 6624: 6620: 6611: 6609: 6600: 6599: 6592: 6577: 6555: 6551: 6542: 6540: 6531: 6530: 6526: 6517: 6515: 6506: 6505: 6501: 6488: 6487: 6483: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6454: 6446: 6442: 6435: 6419: 6415: 6385: 6381: 6351: 6347: 6338: 6336: 6332: 6317: 6311: 6307: 6284: 6280: 6263: 6262: 6258: 6249: 6247: 6239: 6238: 6234: 6225: 6223: 6210: 6209: 6205: 6196: 6194: 6177: 6176: 6172: 6163: 6161: 6146: 6142: 6135: 6121: 6117: 6110: 6096: 6092: 6084: 6077: 6071: 6067: 6058: 6056: 6049: 6025: 6024: 6020: 6011: 6009: 6002: 5978: 5977: 5973: 5955: 5951: 5942: 5940: 5929:"Define switch" 5927: 5926: 5922: 5903: 5899: 5890: 5888: 5879: 5878: 5874: 5866: 5864: 5860: 5853: 5845: 5841: 5826: 5812: 5805: 5796: 5794: 5781: 5780: 5776: 5768: 5766: 5745: 5738: 5729: 5727: 5717: 5713: 5704: 5702: 5689: 5688: 5684: 5677: 5659: 5652: 5632: 5631: 5625: 5623: 5616: 5599: 5595: 5558: 5554: 5520: 5516: 5480: 5474: 5470: 5458: 5452: 5448: 5417: 5413: 5382: 5378: 5369: 5367: 5363: 5356: 5350: 5346: 5337: 5335: 5317: 5313: 5301: 5299: 5289: 5285: 5266: 5243: 5237: 5233: 5223: 5207: 5203: 5192: 5176: 5172: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5135: 5131: 5120: 5104: 5100: 5075:(11): 1307–13. 5064: 5058: 5054: 5035: 5031: 5015: 5011: 5010: 5006: 4998: 4984: 4980: 4967: 4965: 4961: 4950: 4944: 4940: 4928: 4926: 4919:Washington Post 4913: 4912: 4908: 4896: 4894: 4871: 4867: 4852: 4848: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4825: 4817: 4813: 4774: 4767: 4760: 4741: 4737: 4727: 4711: 4707: 4697: 4681: 4677: 4658: 4654: 4615: 4611: 4576: 4572: 4563: 4561: 4552: 4551: 4547: 4538: 4536: 4527: 4526: 4522: 4510: 4508: 4504: 4484:(11): 1307–13. 4473: 4467: 4460: 4451: 4449: 4442: 4426: 4422: 4390:(11): 1307–13. 4379: 4373: 4369: 4358: 4327: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4296: 4292: 4283: 4281: 4266: 4262: 4255: 4233: 4229: 4220: 4218: 4205: 4204: 4200: 4191: 4189: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4162: 4160: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4106: 4095: 4091: 4084: 4064: 4060: 4053: 4031:Haigh, Thomas; 4029: 4025: 4018: 4010:. p. 399. 3998: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3955:Network mapping 3934:Information Age 3914: 3831: 3807: 3801: 3783:, poor quality 3762:Yahoo Messenger 3700:confidentiality 3681: 3645:groups—such as 3612:law enforcement 3598: 3578: 3554: 3544:in the face of 3535: 3481:traffic control 3421: 3379: 3310: 3304: 3253: 3248: 3226: 3225: 3179: 3177:Network service 3143: 3071: 3058: 3045: 3036: 3020: 3008:overlay network 3000: 2988: 2976:data link layer 2972:common carriers 2964: 2948: 2915: 2896: 2884: 2864: 2856:100 Gbit/s 2826: 2798: 2785: 2772: 2681:Wireless (WLAN) 2628: 2619: 2565: 2517: 2502:virtual circuit 2478: 2454: 2438: 2426: 2383: 2373:(IPv4) and for 2363: 2358: 2353: 2341:wireless router 2316:, they may use 2286: 2273: 2267: 2239:carrier signals 2235: 2229: 2200: 2194: 2169:data link layer 2161: 2153:Main articles: 2151: 2116: 2110: 2066: 2060: 2024: 2018: 1951:spread spectrum 1913: 1899: 1785: 1733:physical medium 1728: 1722: 1683:streaming media 1634:overlay network 1622: 1620:Overlay network 1548:data link layer 1509: 1503: 1461:error detection 1430: 1417: 1318:, Ed Taft, and 1308:Norman Abramson 1292:Robert Metcalfe 1277:internetworking 1052: 1009:traffic control 1005:network traffic 951:radio-frequency 949:, and wireless 912: 837:Common features 829: 821: 804: 742: 707:Boolean network 681:Maximum entropy 631:Barabási–Albert 548: 465: 454: 242:Controllability 207:Complex network 194: 181: 180: 179: 178: 177: 161:Network science 140: 129: 123: 120: 77: 75: 65: 53: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8421: 8411: 8410: 8393: 8392: 8390: 8389: 8379: 8369: 8358: 8355: 8354: 8352: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8250: 8248: 8244: 8243: 8241: 8240: 8238:Solid modeling 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8199: 8197: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8161: 8159: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8137:Control method 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8108: 8106: 8100: 8099: 8097: 8096: 8091: 8089:Multithreading 8086: 8081: 8076: 8070: 8068: 8062: 8061: 8059: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8032: 8030: 8024: 8023: 8021: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7983:Formal methods 7980: 7974: 7972: 7966: 7965: 7963: 7962: 7957: 7955:World Wide Web 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7891: 7889: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7838: 7836: 7829: 7828: 7826: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7799: 7797: 7791: 7790: 7788: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7756: 7755: 7744: 7742: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7681: 7679: 7673: 7672: 7670: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7618: 7616: 7606: 7605: 7603: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7576: 7574: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7535: 7533: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7497: 7495: 7491: 7490: 7488: 7487: 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7432: 7430: 7424: 7423: 7416: 7413: 7412: 7405: 7404: 7397: 7390: 7382: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7363: 7362: 7360:User interface 7357: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7321: 7319: 7315: 7314: 7312: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7284:File attribute 7281: 7276: 7271: 7265: 7263: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7248: 7246:Virtual memory 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7212: 7210: 7198: 7197: 7194: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7169: 7167: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7118:Context switch 7115: 7100: 7098: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7061: 7059: 7055: 7054: 7052: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7010: 7008: 6999: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6938: 6936: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6892: 6890: 6886: 6885: 6878: 6877: 6870: 6863: 6855: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6827: 6826:External links 6824: 6823: 6822: 6812: 6809: 6799: 6796: 6793: 6788: 6785: 6781:on 2022-01-22. 6752: 6751: 6714: 6692:(2012-04-20). 6681: 6650: 6618: 6590: 6575: 6549: 6524: 6499: 6496:on 2011-02-08. 6481: 6464:on 2007-01-11. 6440: 6433: 6413: 6379: 6345: 6305: 6278: 6275:on 2005-01-15. 6256: 6232: 6203: 6170: 6140: 6133: 6115: 6108: 6090: 6087:on 2011-07-22. 6065: 6047: 6018: 6000: 5971: 5949: 5920: 5917:on 2008-03-28. 5897: 5872: 5839: 5824: 5803: 5774: 5736: 5711: 5682: 5675: 5650: 5614: 5593: 5572:(5): 395–404. 5552: 5514: 5491:(5): 637–648. 5468: 5446: 5411: 5376: 5344: 5311: 5291:Derek Barber. 5283: 5264: 5231: 5221: 5201: 5190: 5170: 5149: 5129: 5118: 5098: 5052: 5049:on 2008-03-08. 5037:Chris Sutton. 5029: 5004: 4996: 4978: 4938: 4906: 4865: 4846: 4811: 4765: 4758: 4744:Naughton, John 4735: 4725: 4705: 4695: 4675: 4652: 4609: 4570: 4545: 4520: 4458: 4440: 4420: 4367: 4315: 4309:978-0262034180 4308: 4290: 4260: 4253: 4227: 4198: 4169: 4140: 4115: 4098:Corbató, F. J. 4089: 4082: 4058: 4052:978-0262542906 4051: 4023: 4016: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3883:human-readable 3845:technologies. 3830: 3827: 3803:Main article: 3800: 3797: 3680: 3677: 3637:However, many 3616:social control 3597: 3594: 3577: 3574: 3566:computer worms 3553: 3550: 3534: 3531: 3437:queueing delay 3429:retransmission 3420: 3417: 3391:bit error rate 3378: 3375: 3355: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3306:Main article: 3303: 3300: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3193:World Wide Web 3178: 3175: 3142: 3139: 3115:World Wide Web 3070: 3067: 3057: 3054: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3019: 3016: 2999: 2996: 2987: 2984: 2963: 2960: 2947: 2944: 2914: 2911: 2895: 2892: 2883: 2880: 2863: 2860: 2825: 2822: 2797: 2794: 2784: 2781: 2774: 2773: 2771: 2770: 2763: 2756: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2721: 2720: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2694: 2693: 2688: 2686:Virtual (VLAN) 2683: 2678: 2668: 2663: 2661:Personal (PAN) 2658: 2653: 2648: 2640: 2639: 2631: 2630: 2618: 2615: 2595:routing tables 2564: 2561: 2516: 2513: 2477: 2474: 2472:(ATM) frames. 2453: 2450: 2437: 2434: 2425: 2422: 2382: 2379: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2325:protocol stack 2314:connectionless 2285: 2282: 2269:Main article: 2266: 2263: 2231:Main article: 2228: 2225: 2196:Main article: 2193: 2190: 2159:Network switch 2155:Network bridge 2150: 2147: 2112:Main article: 2109: 2106: 2062:Main article: 2059: 2056: 2050:, modems, and 2020:Main article: 2017: 2014: 2002: 2001: 1983: 1976: 1964: 1946: 1934: 1926: 1909:Main article: 1898: 1895: 1894: 1893: 1855: 1854: 1830: 1809: 1784: 1781: 1721: 1718: 1621: 1618: 1610: 1609: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1577: 1559: 1556:point-to-point 1552:physical layer 1502: 1499: 1465:packet headers 1442:network packet 1436:Network Packet 1429: 1428:Network packet 1426: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1407: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1383: 1369: 1362: 1327: 1320:Butler Lampson 1288: 1273:Peter Kirstein 1269: 1258: 1251: 1219: 1171: 1160: 1153: 1142: 1130: 1095: 1080:Bell 101 modem 1051: 1048: 1024:World Wide Web 914: 913: 911: 910: 903: 896: 888: 885: 884: 883: 882: 877: 872: 867: 865:Device drivers 862: 857: 852: 847: 839: 838: 834: 833: 817: 816: 806: 805: 803: 802: 795: 788: 780: 777: 776: 775: 774: 769: 763: 762: 757: 752: 744: 743: 741: 740: 737: 733: 730: 729: 726: 725: 724: 723: 714: 709: 701: 700: 696: 695: 694: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 646:Watts–Strogatz 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 615: 614: 606: 605: 601: 600: 599: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 550: 549: 547: 546: 541: 535: 532: 531: 528: 527: 526: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 482: 481: 477: 476: 475: 474: 467:Incidence list 463: 456:Adjacency list 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 425:Data structure 422: 417: 412: 407: 399: 398: 390: 389: 383: 382: 381: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 353:Interdependent 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 312: 311: 307: 306: 305: 304: 299: 297:Network effect 294: 292:Balance theory 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 252:Social capital 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 196: 195: 193: 192: 186: 183: 182: 171: 170: 169: 168: 167: 164: 163: 157: 156: 142: 141: 56: 54: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8420: 8409: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8388: 8380: 8378: 8370: 8368: 8360: 8359: 8356: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8245: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8223:Mixed reality 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8196: 8192: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8162: 8160: 8158: 8154: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8109: 8107: 8105: 8101: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8071: 8069: 8067: 8063: 8057: 8056:Accessibility 8054: 8052: 8051:Visualization 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8031: 8029: 8025: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7975: 7973: 7971: 7967: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7890: 7888: 7884: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7839: 7837: 7835: 7830: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7800: 7798: 7796: 7792: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7754: 7751: 7750: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7743: 7741: 7737: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7682: 7680: 7678: 7674: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7577: 7575: 7571: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7511:Dependability 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7498: 7496: 7492: 7486: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7433: 7431: 7429: 7425: 7420: 7414: 7410: 7403: 7398: 7396: 7391: 7389: 7384: 7383: 7380: 7368: 7365: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7352: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7322: 7320: 7316: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7266: 7264: 7262: 7257: 7253: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7226:Memory paging 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7203: 7199: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7168: 7166: 7160: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7086: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7065:Device driver 7063: 7062: 7060: 7056: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7011: 7009: 7007: 7006:Architectures 7003: 7000: 6998: 6994: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6939: 6937: 6933: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6876: 6871: 6869: 6864: 6862: 6857: 6856: 6853: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6833: 6830: 6829: 6820: 6816: 6813: 6810: 6807: 6803: 6800: 6797: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6771: 6765: 6747: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6730: 6729: 6728:BGP/MPLS VPNs 6721: 6719: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6685: 6670:on 2013-04-03 6669: 6665: 6661: 6654: 6636: 6629: 6622: 6607: 6603: 6597: 6595: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6553: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6514:on 2003-10-15 6513: 6509: 6503: 6495: 6491: 6485: 6477: 6471: 6460: 6453: 6452: 6444: 6436: 6430: 6426: 6425: 6417: 6409: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6391: 6383: 6375: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6358: 6357: 6349: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6316: 6309: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6260: 6246: 6242: 6236: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6207: 6193:on 2009-02-21 6192: 6188: 6184: 6183:ITU-T Newslog 6180: 6174: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6136: 6130: 6126: 6119: 6111: 6105: 6101: 6094: 6083: 6076: 6069: 6054: 6050: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6007: 6003: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5975: 5967: 5966:Prentice Hall 5963: 5959: 5953: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5924: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5901: 5887:on 2014-02-15 5886: 5882: 5876: 5863:on 2012-01-13 5859: 5852: 5851: 5843: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5825:9780071789226 5821: 5817: 5810: 5808: 5793:on 2005-02-21 5792: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5755: 5750: 5743: 5741: 5726: 5722: 5721:"Yogen Dalal" 5715: 5700: 5696: 5695:www.wband.com 5692: 5686: 5678: 5676:1-56592-660-9 5672: 5667: 5666: 5657: 5655: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5621: 5617: 5611: 5607: 5606: 5597: 5589: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5556: 5548: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5526: 5518: 5511: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5479: 5472: 5464: 5457: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5366:on 2019-08-29 5362: 5355: 5348: 5334:on 2013-10-20 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5315: 5308: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5280: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5228: 5224: 5218: 5214: 5213: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5187: 5183: 5182: 5174: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5142: 5141: 5133: 5126: 5121: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5102: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5063: 5056: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5033: 5026: 5021: 5014: 5008: 4999: 4993: 4989: 4982: 4975: 4968:September 10, 4960: 4956: 4949: 4942: 4935: 4925:on 2015-05-30 4924: 4920: 4916: 4910: 4903: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4869: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4831: 4824: 4823: 4815: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4772: 4770: 4761: 4759:9780753810934 4755: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4739: 4732: 4728: 4722: 4718: 4717: 4709: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4688: 4687: 4679: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4656: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4613: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4574: 4559: 4555: 4549: 4534: 4530: 4524: 4517: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4463: 4447: 4443: 4441:9781476708690 4437: 4433: 4432: 4424: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4378: 4371: 4364: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4326: 4319: 4311: 4305: 4302:. MIT Press. 4301: 4294: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4264: 4256: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4240: 4231: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4202: 4188:on 2020-04-28 4187: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4144: 4137: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4109:. MIT Press. 4105: 4104: 4099: 4093: 4085: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4070: 4062: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4039: 4034: 4027: 4019: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3945: 3944:ISO/IEC 11801 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3870: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3806: 3796: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3608: 3605: 3602: 3593: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3530: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3502: 3501:fair queueing 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3467: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3416: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3401: 3399: 3394: 3393:and latency. 3392: 3388: 3384: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3339:Queuing delay 3337: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3313:Network delay 3309: 3308:Network delay 3302:Network delay 3299: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3284:bandwidth cap 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3243: 3241: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3227:210.121.67.18 3222: 3218: 3217:MAC addresses 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3189: 3187: 3183: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3138: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3088: 3080: 3075: 3066: 3063: 3053: 3050: 3040: 3031: 3029: 3028:wireless LANs 3025: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3005: 2995: 2993: 2983: 2981: 2980:network layer 2977: 2973: 2969: 2959: 2957: 2953: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2931: 2929: 2925: 2920: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2901: 2891: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2835: 2831: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2793: 2790: 2780: 2769: 2764: 2762: 2757: 2755: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2676:Storage (SAN) 2674: 2673: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2632: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2614: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2577: 2569: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2512: 2510: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2473: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2458: 2449: 2447: 2443: 2433: 2431: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2392:For example, 2390: 2387: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2352: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2298: 2290: 2281: 2279: 2278:cyber attacks 2272: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2251:audio signals 2248: 2247:analog signal 2244: 2240: 2234: 2224: 2222: 2221:routing table 2213: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2189: 2185: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2125: 2124:retransmitted 2121: 2115: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2087: 2086:network media 2083: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2016:Network nodes 2013: 2011: 2007: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1965: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1917: 1916: 1912: 1903: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1870: 1869:optical fiber 1865: 1864: 1859: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1835: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1823:coaxial cable 1820: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1806: 1805: 1804:Coaxial cable 1801: 1800: 1799: 1793: 1789: 1780: 1778: 1777:power cabling 1774: 1770: 1767:, others use 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1742:optical fiber 1739: 1735: 1734: 1727: 1720:Network links 1717: 1715: 1711: 1708:For example, 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1626: 1617: 1615: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554:variants use 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1513: 1508: 1498: 1496: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1448:carried by a 1447: 1443: 1434: 1425: 1423: 1408: 1405: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1363: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1304:Aloha network 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1248:Farouk Kamoun 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1179:Donald Davies 1176: 1172: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1154: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1135: 1134:Anatoly Kitov 1131: 1128: 1124: 1121:in 1961, the 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1107:John McCarthy 1104: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1068: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1028:digital video 1025: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 989: 987: 983: 980:and may have 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 958: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 937: 933: 929: 928:network nodes 925: 921: 909: 904: 902: 897: 895: 890: 889: 887: 886: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 842: 841: 840: 836: 835: 819: 818: 815: 812: 811: 801: 796: 794: 789: 787: 782: 781: 779: 778: 773: 770: 768: 765: 764: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 747: 746: 745: 738: 735: 734: 732: 731: 722: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 704: 703: 702: 698: 697: 692: 691:LFR Benchmark 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 676:Blockmodeling 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 641:Fitness model 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 618: 617: 616: 612: 611: 608: 607: 603: 602: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 581:Assortativity 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 552: 551: 545: 542: 540: 537: 536: 534: 533: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 485: 484: 483: 479: 478: 472: 468: 464: 461: 457: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 402: 401: 400: 396: 395: 392: 391: 388: 385: 384: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 315: 314: 313: 310:Network types 309: 308: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 257:Link analysis 255: 253: 250: 248: 247:Graph drawing 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 198: 197: 191: 188: 187: 185: 184: 175: 166: 165: 162: 159: 158: 154: 150: 149: 146: 138: 135: 127: 116: 113: 109: 106: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: – 84: 80: 79:Find sources: 73: 69: 63: 62: 57:This article 55: 51: 46: 45: 40: 33: 19: 8319:Cyberwarfare 7978:Cryptography 7530: 7329: 7261:file systems 7153:Time-sharing 6805: 6779:the original 6769: 6755: 6727: 6706:. Retrieved 6698:The Guardian 6697: 6684: 6672:. Retrieved 6668:the original 6663: 6653: 6642:. Retrieved 6621: 6610:. Retrieved 6558: 6552: 6541:. Retrieved 6527: 6516:. Retrieved 6512:the original 6502: 6494:the original 6484: 6459:the original 6450: 6443: 6423: 6416: 6389: 6382: 6355: 6348: 6337:. Retrieved 6325: 6321: 6308: 6291: 6287: 6281: 6273:the original 6268: 6259: 6248:. Retrieved 6244: 6235: 6224:. Retrieved 6215: 6206: 6195:. Retrieved 6191:the original 6182: 6173: 6162:. Retrieved 6153: 6143: 6124: 6118: 6099: 6093: 6082:the original 6068: 6057:. Retrieved 6030: 6021: 6010:. Retrieved 5983: 5974: 5961: 5952: 5941:. Retrieved 5932: 5923: 5915:the original 5910: 5900: 5889:. Retrieved 5885:the original 5875: 5865:, retrieved 5858:the original 5849: 5842: 5815: 5795:. Retrieved 5791:the original 5786: 5777: 5767:, retrieved 5753: 5728:. Retrieved 5724: 5714: 5703:. Retrieved 5694: 5685: 5664: 5624:. 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