445:
conscientious objector. However, it needed to not be solely personal and if they served in a similar way to regular religious views. When someone gained conscientious objector status their draft classification would be changed from 1-A (eligible to be drafted) to 1-O or CO and finally to 1-W (assigned and working an approved alternative service). To be declared a conscientious objector one needed testimonials for others, fill out a form and answer a series of questions before then being granted conscientious objector status which they were informed afterwards.
483:. While enlisting with the intention of becoming a combat medic, Doss tried to claim noncombatant status but was told that the military did not recognize the designation. He was informed that he should register as a conscientious objector. Doss personally preferred to be called a "conscientious cooperator" because he would willingly serve his country, wear a uniform, salute the flag, and help with the war effort. Nevertheless, Doss accepted the designation "conscientious objector" in order to join the army and avoid a
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245:. Although conscientious objection was not initially part of the draft law, individuals could provide a substitute or pay a commutation fee of $ 300 ($ 4,674.34 in 2017) to hire one. A July 4, 1864, amendment to the draft law ended commutation except for those draftees who were "conscientiously opposed to the bearing of arms." Conscientious objectors in
74:. The term "religious training and/or belief" may include solely moral or ethical beliefs even though the applicant may not characterize these beliefs as "religious" in the traditional sense, or may expressly characterize them as not religious. The term "religious training and/or belief" does not include a belief that rests solely upon considerations of
535:"The individual's objections must be to all wars rather than a specific war." Objection to participation in a specific war is called selective conscientious objection, which the United States does not recognize. A conscientious objector may still be willing to participate "in a theocratic or spiritual war between the powers of good and evil".
415:(OSS) with the two reaching the conclusion they should be work in the research division and "studying the food needs of liberated areas and former enemy countries and the repatriation of displaced persons" but this proposal did not go through since conscientious objectors could only serve domestically.
69:
belief, to which all else is subordinate or upon which all else is ultimately dependent, and which has the power or force to affect moral well-being. The external power or "being" need not be one that has found expression in either religious or societal traditions. However, it should sincerely occupy
648:
Conscientious objector applications for enlisted soldiers are reviewed on a case-by-case basis by the individual's respective branch of the military. Between 2001 and 2007, Army acceptance rates for conscientious objector applications varied. Of the few applications the Army received (between 18 and
254:
We were cursed, beaten, kicked, and compelled to go through exercises to the extent that a few were unconscious for some minutes. They kept it up for the greater part of the afternoon, and then those who could possibly stand on their feet were compelled to take cold shower baths. One of the boys was
498:. This medal is the highest award for valor in action against an enemy force. By helping to support and maintain the war, Desmond was the first non-combatant to receive the Medal of Honor. A dramatized account of Doss's life and war experience, as well as testimony from his peers, is portrayed in
444:
During the
Vietnam War, about 170,000 men were classified as conscientious objectors and 300,000 were denied that status. In 1964, 18,000 conscientious objector deferments were given and during 1971 61,000 were given. Until the Vietnam War era, one needed to have religious convictions to become a
630:
Noncombatant service is any military service that is unarmed at all times and does not require weapons training. Service aboard an armed ship or aircraft or in a combat zone is considered to be noncombatant unless the service requires personal and direct involvement in the operation of weapons.
249:
initially had few options. Responses included moving to northern states, hiding in the mountains, joining the army but refusing to use a weapon, or being imprisoned. Between late 1862 and 1864 a payment of $ 500 ($ 7,790.56 in 2017) into the public treasury exempted conscientious objectors from
639:
For serving personnel of the United States military, conscientious objection applications are "subject to an investigative process by a senior officer not in the applicant's chain of command", as well as "an interview of the applicant by a military chaplain as well as a psychiatrist or medical
615:
induction notice. The
Selective Service System does not accept requests for classification as a conscientious objector when the draft is not in effect. If the draft is reinstated, a draftee will have a short period of time after enlistment to request classification as a conscientious objector.
614:
When the draft is not in effect, only those who have enlisted themselves can apply for or receive formal conscientious objector status. Such a person is only eligible for classification as a conscientious objector only if their beliefs are determined to have "crystallized" after receipt of an
418:
Although conscientious objectors were prohibited from serving abroad many of them prepared for service overseas with proposals also being made for post-war service rebuilding some did come true. In
January 1946 the Selective Service approved transferring 250 men from the CPS reserves into the
326:
During World War II, all registrants were sent a questionnaire covering basic facts about their identification, physical condition, history and also provided a checkoff to indicate opposition to military service because of religious training or belief. Men marking the latter option received a
538:
United States v. Seeger, 1965, ruled that a person can claim conscientious objector status based on religious study and conviction that has a similar position in that person's life to the belief in God, without a concrete belief in God. United States v. Welsh, five years later, ruled that a
448:
When receiving their work detail they were not given any specifics. A work detail needed to be at least 200 miles (320 km) away from their permanent home and their compensation should not be more than the minimum wage. Most commonly this involved working at a hospital.
294:
In the United States during World War I, conscientious objectors were permitted to serve in noncombatant military roles. About 2000 absolute conscientious objectors refused to cooperate in any way with the military. These men were imprisoned in military facilities such as
379:
Civilian Public
Service was disbanded in 1947. By the early 1950s a replacement program, 1-W service, was in place for conscientious objectors classified as 1-W by Selective Service. The new program eliminated the base camps of CPS and provided wages for the men.
555:
to draftees. A person classified as 1-A is considered available for military service. Conscientious objectors available for noncombatant military service are classified as 1-A-O, while those who oppose all military service are classified as 1-O and available for
399:
was like the
Earning Service but the wages were used for the support of mission, relief or service projects of the draftees choice. The nonpaying services were promoted by church agencies as a sacrifice to enhance the peace witness of conscientious objectors.
127:
A conscientious objector may still be willing to use force to defend themselves or others, and may even support a state's right to go to war, as long as the individual objects to personal participation in such armed conflict between states or groups.
229:, exemptions varied by state. Pennsylvania required conscientious objectors who would not join companies of voluntary soldiers, called Associations, to pay a fine roughly equal to the time they would have spent in military drill.
341:(CPS) provided conscientious objectors in the United States an alternative to military service during World War II. From 1941 to 1947 nearly 12,000 draftees, unwilling to do any type of military service, performed
290:. He was paroled to do dairy work and released after serving five months of his sentence. His diary of army and prison life is published in a collection with three other WWI Mennonite conscientious objectors.
578:, the Selective Service System will consider 1-O (civilian) conscientious objectors to be Alternative Service Workers (ASWs), required to work for members of the Alternative Service Employer Network (ASEN).
431:. Another 100 men were authorized to serve in March. Those who transferred over to become seagoing cowboys were paid $ 150 a trip, had to follow the same regulations as the CPS.
640:
officer". The officer conducts an informal hearing at which the sincerity of the applicant's convictions is examined. By whom the decision is made varies by military branch.
70:
a place of equal or greater value in the life of its possessor. Deeply held moral or ethical beliefs should be valued with the strength and devotion of traditional religious
108:". Any mixture of sincere religious, moral, or ethical beliefs can qualify as conscientious objection. The term "religious training and belief" does not include essentially
464:, a Seventh-day Adventist, was the first of three conscientious objectors who agreed to serve in the US military in noncombatant roles and were subsequently awarded the
318:. A limited number performed alternative service as fire fighters in the Cascade Range in the vicinity of Camp Lewis, Washington and in a Virginia psychiatric hospital.
2602:
2651:
420:
314:
Eventually, because of the shortage of farm labor, the conscientious objectors were granted furloughs either for farm service or relief work in France under the
124:. A conscientious objector may have political, sociological, and philosophical views, but such views are not a replacement for religious and/or moral beliefs.
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2054:
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1414:
1386:
1724:
Tannenbaum, Seth S. (January 2017). "Activism without "Radicalism": American
Activism on Behalf of Conscientious Objectors during World War I".
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2709:
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Conscientious objection must be "sincere and meaningful" and occupy "a place in the life of its possessor parallel to that filled by an
4038:
2641:
1225:
870:
527:. Both Bennett and LaPointe were killed in combat within four months of each other in 1969 and were awarded their medals posthumously.
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2646:
2458:
307:(Kansas). Some were subjected to treatment such as short rations, solitary confinement and physical abuse severe enough as to cause
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2607:
2572:
199:
2749:
2678:
1302:
2724:
2276:
2190:
1071:"Camp 56: An Oral History Project: World War II Conscientious Objectors and the Waldport, Oregon Civilian Public Service Camp"
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A person who is already enlisted can file for classification as a 1-A-O conscientious objector to be assigned to two years of
2377:
1944:
1464:
1365:
931:
137:
1822:
2729:
2582:
2534:
1795:
We Have Just Begun to Not Fight: An Oral
History of Conscientious Objectors in Civilian Public Service During World War II
287:
35:
4028:
2759:
2739:
2325:
2221:
1867:
1612:
816:
315:
41:
The
Department of Defense defines conscientious objection as a "firm, fixed, and sincere objection to participation in
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The
Department of Defense also implements the classification of conscientious objectors into its own system. The
3452:
3086:
2614:
1954:
1904:
1576:
Flynn, George Q. (February 1983). "Lewis
Hershey and the Conscientious Objector: The World War II Experience".
23:
2805:
2754:
2629:
2216:
1070:
940:
357:
246:
1451:
411:
met with Paul Donovan in April 1945 to discuss the possibility of letting members of the CPS serve with the
3612:
3091:
2360:
2281:
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2044:
1964:
1949:
1914:
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666:
552:
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1929:
1397:
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705:
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365:
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service or civilian work "contributing to the maintenance of the national health, safety, or interest".
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3081:
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2619:
2597:
2296:
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1974:
1894:
1826:
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791:
765:
591:
424:
226:
1649:
Howlett, Charles F. (May 2003). "Studying America's Struggle Against War: An Historical Perspective".
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Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War: Moral and Religious Arguments in Support of Pacifism
777:
3665:
2671:
2624:
2592:
2286:
2231:
1752:
731:
603:
1609:
Women Against the Good War: Conscientious Objection and Gender on the American Home Front, 1941-1947
1323:
711:
3460:
3442:
2547:
2480:
2350:
2330:
2313:
1969:
1835:
1708:
691:
657:
Absolutists are objectors, not recognized by law, who refuse to register for the draft altogether.
308:
175:
170:
27:
3794:
751:
3835:
3622:
3111:
3096:
2540:
2226:
2029:
1959:
898:
785:
759:
723:
676:
599:
338:
296:
31:
1026:
995:
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2517:
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1924:
1860:
681:
1068:
3994:
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2100:
1480:
476:
1229:
877:
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979:
484:
83:
71:
8:
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3010:
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2155:
2150:
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Conscription of Conscience: The American State and the Conscientious Objector, 1940-1947
334:
Civilian Public Service firefighting crew at Snowline Camp near Camino, California, 1945
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scrubbed with a scrubbing brush using lye on him. They drew blood in several places.
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3642:
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3000:
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2014:
1994:
1989:
1934:
1735:
1660:
1587:
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428:
304:
160:
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were provided for those who would not fund the war for conscientious reasons. The
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3897:
3885:
3865:
3799:
3777:
3757:
3752:
3732:
3597:
3577:
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3475:
3435:
3146:
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2995:
2980:
2900:
2004:
1212:
America and the Vietnam War: Re-examining the Culture and History of a Generation
1197:
America and the Vietnam War: Re-examining the Culture and History of a Generation
1182:
America and the Vietnam War: Re-examining the Culture and History of a Generation
1167:
America and the Vietnam War: Re-examining the Culture and History of a Generation
1048:. Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn. Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press.
509:
491:
472:
300:
180:
121:
87:
1772:
I Ain't Marching Anymore: Dissenters, Deserters, and Objectors to America's Wars
4001:
3809:
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2135:
2105:
2009:
1999:
1984:
1939:
1880:
1831:
1344:
465:
1845:
1749:
Acts of Conscience: World War II, Mental Institutions, and Religious Objectors
1536:
Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen
391:
was nonpaying work done in similar institutions, mostly within North America.
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3126:
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3015:
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2500:
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2418:
2345:
2320:
2125:
1775:
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for saving the lives of 75 wounded soldiers despite heavy gunfire during the
490:
On October 12, 1945, Desmond Doss received the Medal of Honor from President
117:
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2453:
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2145:
2083:
2049:
2019:
619:
515:
Other conscientious objectors who have been awarded the Medal of Honor are
480:
461:
113:
1716:
1136:""Healing the Bitterness of War and Destruction": CPS and Foreign Service"
542:
387:
involved working in institutions such as hospitals for fairly good wages.
327:
detailed form in which they had to explain the basis for their objection.
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3213:
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2130:
2110:
2024:
524:
283:
165:
1682:
Jailed for Peace: The History of American Draft Law Violators, 1658-1985
1135:
1069:
Siuslaw National Forest; History Department; Portland State University.
581:
146:
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3902:
3782:
3720:
3465:
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3321:
3309:
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3051:
3035:
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2495:
2307:
2185:
2170:
2160:
1979:
1739:
1672:
1599:
499:
190:
79:
1632:
Opposition to War: An Encyclopedia of U.S. Peace and Antiwar Movements
1266:
457:
3880:
3845:
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3762:
3627:
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3512:
3497:
3485:
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349:
109:
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50:
46:
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557:
265:
261:
185:
62:
1840:
1081:
3819:
3767:
3747:
3695:
3507:
3425:
3241:
3203:
3151:
981:
Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service
230:
66:
1108:
Open Doors: A History of the General Conference Mennonite Church
330:
3919:
3772:
3517:
3408:
3403:
3349:
3020:
2443:
2393:
2140:
2070:
452:
345:
in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico.
286:
conscientious objector sentenced to 15 years hard labor in the
278:
75:
54:
833:
3860:
3804:
3710:
3551:
3354:
2853:
2180:
539:
conscientious objector need have no religious belief at all.
1210:
Wiest, Andrew; Robins, Glenn; Barbier, Mary Kathryn (2009).
1195:
Wiest, Andrew; Robins, Glenn; Barbier, Mary Kathryn (2009).
1180:
Wiest, Andrew; Robins, Glenn; Barbier, Mary Kathryn (2009).
606:
each provide their own policies on conscientious objection.
3742:
3690:
3546:
2944:
2860:
233:
who refused this extra tax had their property confiscated.
649:
39 per year), between 49% and 78% were accepted per year.
2814:
479:, desired to perform military service after the start of
105:
42:
543:
Conscientious objection in the Selective Service System
421:
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
395:
was a nonpaying alternative with assignments overseas.
2783:
61:
Belief in an external power or "being" or deeply held
1165:
Wiest, Andrew; Robins, Glenn; Barbier, Mary Kathryn.
582:
Conscientious objection in the United States military
383:
1-W service was divided into several categories. The
57:". It defines "religious training and/or belief" as:
1792:
530:
2491:
Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)
2055:Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
1209:
1194:
1179:
609:
834:"Conscientious Objection and Alternative Service"
4015:
138:Conscription in the United States § History
1875:
1832:Conscientious objection and alternative service
1459:. United Nations Human Rights. pp. 63–64.
1226:"Private First Class Desmond T. Doss Interview"
1214:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 154 & 155.
1199:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 153 & 154.
1099:
973:
971:
969:
967:
965:
963:
961:
959:
957:
241:Conscription in the United States began in the
1507:"U.S. Conscientious Objectors in World War II"
1164:
358:National Service Board for Religious Objectors
2799:
2506:Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces
1861:
1793:Frazer, Heather T.; O'Sullivan, John (1996).
1703:Sibley, Mulford Q.; Jacob, Philip E. (1952).
1014:We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War
220:
954:
865:
863:
861:
859:
857:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
811:
809:
807:
453:Conscientious objectors with Medals of Honor
26:, which delegates its implementation to the
20:Conscientious objection in the United States
1702:
1453:Conscientious objection to military service
1105:
1016:, p. 138, citing the text of the amendment.
871:"Department of Defense Instruction 1300.06"
468:, the nation's highest military decoration.
2806:
2792:
1868:
1854:
1723:
95:Department of Defense, Instruction 1300.06
2459:Global Day of Action on Military Spending
1533:
1251:Benedict, Terry (Director) (March 2004).
1037:
977:
923:
844:
804:
487:on account of his religious convictions.
3951:History of the American legal profession
1769:
1133:
634:
456:
329:
277:
1648:
1606:
1449:
625:
551:, the Selective Service System assigns
4016:
2191:Soviet influence on the peace movement
1746:
1285:"Alternative Service Employer Network"
929:
697:
563:
2787:
2378:World March for Peace and Nonviolence
1849:
1575:
1556:
1129:
1127:
1043:
236:
2535:Third Party Non-violent Intervention
1679:
1629:
1184:. Taylor & Francis. p. 149.
1169:. Taylor & Francis. p. 144.
911:
909:
892:
890:
523:, both medics who served during the
309:the deaths of two Hutterite draftees
141:
1422:United States Department of Defense
1396:. November 30, 1990. Archived from
1394:United States Department of Defense
1134:Robinson, Mitchell L. (Fall 1996).
643:
13:
2760:Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir
2657:Anti-war protests in Russia (2014)
1945:Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp
1823:Conscientious objection fact sheet
1613:University of North Carolina Press
1527:
1124:
1106:Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975).
316:American Friends Service Committee
14:
4050:
4039:Conscription in the United States
2935:Restitution and unjust enrichment
2252:International Day of Non-Violence
1910:Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions
1816:
1352:Federation of American Scientists
1078:Center for Columbia River History
933:The Guide for COs in the Military
906:
887:
687:Conscription in the United States
531:Selective conscientious objection
198:1980 to present. You can help by
3982:
3981:
3967:
2662:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
1607:Goossen, Rachel Waltner (1997).
1424:. March 23, 2015. Archived from
1255:(Motion Picture). United States.
1228:. March 20, 1987. Archived from
282:John T. Neufeld was a Mennonite
145:
3946:History of the legal profession
2035:Social Democratic Party (Japan)
1534:Capozzola, Christopher (2008).
1499:
1473:
1443:
1407:
1379:
1366:"Air Force Instruction 36-3204"
1358:
1337:
1316:
1295:
1277:
1259:
1244:
1218:
1203:
1188:
1173:
1158:
1062:
1046:Smith's Story of the Mennonites
1019:
610:Application within the military
574:During a draft, as part of the
403:
321:
1955:List of pacifist organisations
1841:Center on Conscience & War
1006:
988:
984:. Mennonite Central Committee.
941:Center on Conscience & War
876:. May 31, 2007. Archived from
826:
652:
439:
397:1-W Mission Supporting Service
370:Civilian Public Service stamps
288:military prison at Leavenworth
273:
268:, United States, 16 July 1918.
45:in any form or the bearing of
24:Military Selective Service Act
1:
1324:"Marine Corps Order 1306.16F"
798:
2361:World Peace Bell Association
2262:Dialogue Among Civilizations
1965:New Socialist Party of Japan
1950:Iraq War resisters in Canada
1915:Coalition of Women for Peace
1540:Oxford University Press, USA
930:Galvin, Bill (August 2009).
667:Alternative civilian service
413:Office of Strategic Services
374:War Sufferers' Relief stamps
120:views, or a merely personal
7:
2529:The whole world is watching
2297:Peace & Love (festival)
2247:Imagine Piano Peace Project
706:Cox v. United States (1947)
672:Alternative Service Program
660:
576:Alternative Service Program
570:Alternative Service Program
434:
425:Brethern Service Committees
366:Mennonite Central Committee
343:work of national importance
250:Confederate military duty.
10:
4055:
3613:International legal theory
3092:International slavery laws
3087:International human rights
3082:International criminal law
2652:2011 intervention in Libya
2272:List of places named Peace
2257:International Day of Peace
1975:Peace and conflict studies
1895:Anti-nuclear organizations
1747:Taylor, Steven J. (2009).
1630:Hall, Mitchell K. (2018).
1331:United States Marine Corps
1253:The Conscientious Objector
1027:"500 1865 USD in 2017 USD"
996:"300 1865 USD in 2017 USD"
978:Gingerich, Melvin (1949).
567:
227:American Revolutionary War
221:American Revolutionary War
135:
131:
34:is also recognized by the
4029:United States federal law
3961:
3938:
3828:
3666:Administration of justice
3651:
3560:
3451:
3330:
3232:
2953:
2821:
2768:
2697:
2562:
2386:
2287:Nobel Peace Prize Concert
2282:Mother's Day Proclamation
2232:Dances of Universal Peace
2209:
2063:
2045:The Women's Peace Crusade
1887:
1753:Syracuse University Press
1680:Kohn, Stephen M. (1987).
1481:"Conscientious Objectors"
732:Gillette v. United States
4024:Law of the United States
3443:Basic structure doctrine
3293:Natural and legal rights
3174:Public international law
2548:Violence begets violence
2481:Non-aggression principle
2351:The Non-Violence Project
2331:Promoting Enduring Peace
2314:Promoting Enduring Peace
1970:Pacifist Socialist Party
1836:Selective Service System
1770:Lombardi, Chris (2020).
1709:Cornell University Press
1450:Nations, United (2012).
1345:"Army Regulation 600–43"
1289:Selective Service System
1271:Selective Service System
1110:. Faith and Life Press.
1044:Smith, C. Henry (1981).
838:Selective Service System
724:341 F. Supp. 422
692:Selective Service System
475:, a Virginia native and
28:Selective Service System
4034:Conscientious objection
3623:Principle of typicality
3097:International trade law
2813:
2642:Military action in Iran
2277:Monuments and memorials
2227:Concert Yutel for Peace
2030:React, Include, Recycle
1960:List of peace activists
1925:Conscientious objectors
1557:Eller, Cynthia (1991).
899:United States v. Seeger
786:Witmer v. United States
760:United States v. Seeger
726: (D.D.C. 1972).
677:Civilian Public Service
339:Civilian Public Service
32:Conscientious objection
2563:Opposition to specific
2518:Swords to ploughshares
2512:Soldiers are murderers
1905:Anti-war organizations
1485:The United States Army
1373:Air Force E-Publishing
1310:Navy Personnel Command
917:Welsh v. United States
773:Welsh v. United States
682:Conscientious objector
469:
335:
291:
271:
98:
16:Conscription exemption
3618:Principle of legality
3377:Delegated legislation
3077:Intellectual property
2565:wars or their aspects
2486:Nonviolent resistance
2336:Show of Peace Concert
2101:Anti-nuclear movement
1431:on September 24, 2017
1303:"MILPERSMAN 1900-020"
794: (U.S. 1955).
780: (U.S. 1970).
768: (U.S. 1965).
754: (U.S. 1972).
740: (U.S. 1971).
714: (U.S. 1947).
635:Investigative process
477:Seventh-day Adventist
460:
333:
281:
252:
59:
36:Department of Defense
3836:Barristers' chambers
3778:Legal representation
3716:Justice of the peace
3062:Financial regulation
2647:Sri Lankan Civil War
2541:Turn the other cheek
2356:University for Peace
2267:List of peace prizes
792:348 U.S. 375
778:398 U.S. 333
766:380 U.S. 163
738:401 U.S. 437
712:332 U.S. 442
626:Noncombatant service
176:Spanish–American War
171:Mexican–American War
3871:Election commission
3583:Expressive function
3112:Landlord–tenant law
3011:Consumer protection
2689:Nuclear disarmament
2672:in Russian Far East
2429:Department of Peace
2414:Counter-recruitment
2409:Conflict resolution
2399:Central Park be-ins
2387:Slogans and tactics
2366:Japanese Peace Bell
2156:Non-interventionism
2151:Modern-war pacifism
2089:Christian anarchism
1652:The History Teacher
1415:"COMDTINST M1000.4"
1232:on November 8, 2016
752:405 U.S. 34
698:Supreme Court cases
564:Alternative service
485:Section 8 discharge
3829:Legal institutions
3696:Lawsuit/Litigation
3686:Dispute resolution
3491:Catholic canon law
3199:State of emergency
3162:Will and testament
2886:Law of obligations
2839:Constitutional law
2829:Administrative law
2583:American Civil War
2475:Make love, not war
2449:Economic sanctions
2404:Civil disobedience
2237:Festival for Peace
2210:Media and cultural
2196:Testimony of peace
2116:Christian pacifism
1740:10.1111/pech.12217
1727:Peace & Change
1403:on April 18, 2020.
1387:"COMDTINST 1900.8"
1354:. August 21, 2006.
1312:. August 22, 2002.
1154:– via JSTOR.
746:Parisi v. Davidson
521:Joseph G. LaPointe
470:
354:war savings stamps
336:
292:
247:Confederate States
237:American Civil War
4011:
4010:
3671:Constitutionalism
3593:Law and economics
3431:Act of parliament
3169:Product liability
3122:Legal archaeology
3047:Environmental law
3041:Entertainment law
2881:International law
2781:
2780:
2684:Military taxation
2554:War tax resisters
2121:Deterrence theory
1900:Anti-war movement
1827:GI Rights Hotline
1799:Twayne Publishers
1466:978-92-1-055405-3
1267:"Classifications"
883:on June 28, 2010.
517:Thomas W. Bennett
496:Battle of Okinawa
389:Voluntary Service
303:(California) and
218:
217:
4046:
3986:
3985:
3984:
3972:
3971:
3795:Question of fact
3676:Criminal justice
3006:Construction law
3001:Conflict of laws
2966:Agricultural law
2808:
2801:
2794:
2785:
2784:
2608:list of protests
2469:Lesson of Munich
2424:Demilitarisation
2302:Peace journalism
2096:Anti-imperialism
2079:Anarcho-pacifism
2015:Peace psychology
1995:Peace conference
1990:Peace commission
1935:Culture of Peace
1870:
1863:
1856:
1847:
1846:
1812:
1789:
1766:
1743:
1720:
1699:
1676:
1645:
1626:
1603:
1579:Military Affairs
1572:
1553:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1487:. August 2, 2007
1477:
1471:
1470:
1458:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1430:
1419:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1391:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1375:. April 6, 2017.
1370:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1349:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1333:. June 11, 2013.
1328:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1307:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1131:
1122:
1121:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1086:
1080:. Archived from
1075:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1023:
1017:
1012:James W. Geary,
1010:
1004:
1003:
992:
986:
985:
975:
952:
951:
949:
947:
938:
927:
921:
919:
913:
904:
902:
894:
885:
884:
882:
875:
867:
842:
841:
830:
824:
823:
813:
789:
775:
763:
749:
735:
721:
719:Gardiner v. Tarr
709:
644:Acceptance rates
429:seagoing cowboys
348:Alternatives to
305:Fort Leavenworth
269:
211:
208:
161:Colonial America
149:
142:
96:
53:training and/or
22:is based on the
4054:
4053:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4014:
4013:
4012:
4007:
3980:
3966:
3957:
3934:
3925:Political party
3898:Legal education
3886:Law enforcement
3866:Court of equity
3824:
3800:Question of law
3753:Practice of law
3733:Judicial review
3647:
3598:Legal formalism
3578:Comparative law
3573:Contract theory
3556:
3476:Legal pluralism
3447:
3436:Act of Congress
3360:Executive order
3326:
3228:
3147:Nationality law
3072:Immigration law
2996:Competition law
2949:
2817:
2812:
2782:
2777:
2764:
2693:
2637:Afghanistan War
2588:Second Boer War
2564:
2558:
2382:
2205:
2059:
2005:Peace education
1888:Peace advocates
1883:
1874:
1819:
1809:
1786:
1763:
1696:
1665:10.2307/1555689
1642:
1623:
1592:10.2307/1987825
1569:
1550:
1530:
1528:Further reading
1525:
1516:
1514:
1511:Friends Journal
1505:
1504:
1500:
1490:
1488:
1479:
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1100:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1042:
1038:
1025:
1024:
1020:
1011:
1007:
994:
993:
989:
976:
955:
945:
943:
936:
928:
924:
915:
914:
907:
896:
895:
888:
880:
873:
869:
868:
845:
832:
831:
827:
815:
814:
805:
801:
783:
771:
757:
743:
729:
717:
703:
700:
663:
655:
646:
637:
628:
612:
584:
572:
566:
553:classifications
545:
533:
510:Andrew Garfield
492:Harry S. Truman
473:Desmond T. Doss
455:
442:
437:
406:
385:Earning Service
324:
301:Alcatraz Island
276:
270:
260:Mennonite from
259:
239:
223:
214:
206:
203:
181:Interwar period
155:needs expansion
140:
134:
97:
94:
88:political views
49:, by reason of
17:
12:
11:
5:
4052:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3977:
3974:Law portal
3962:
3959:
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3954:
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3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3832:
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3826:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3810:Trial advocacy
3807:
3802:
3797:
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3522:
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3505:
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3473:
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3384:
3379:
3369:
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3362:
3357:
3347:
3342:
3340:Ballot measure
3336:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3317:Legal treatise
3314:
3313:
3312:
3307:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3285:
3283:Letters patent
3280:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3234:Sources of law
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3219:Unenforced law
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
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3166:
3165:
3164:
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3119:
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3049:
3044:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2991:Commercial law
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2957:
2955:
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2947:
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2788:
2779:
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2769:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2750:United Kingdom
2747:
2742:
2737:
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2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2694:
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2686:
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2676:
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2669:
2659:
2654:
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2644:
2639:
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2612:
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2600:
2595:
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2556:
2551:
2544:
2537:
2532:
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2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
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2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2390:
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2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2373:Women in Black
2370:
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2368:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2317:
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2259:
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2213:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2136:Green politics
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2106:Antimilitarism
2103:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2010:Peace movement
2007:
2002:
2000:Peace congress
1997:
1992:
1987:
1985:Peace churches
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1940:ECOPEACE Party
1937:
1932:
1930:Counterculture
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1884:
1881:peace movement
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1865:
1858:
1850:
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1818:
1817:External links
1815:
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1694:
1677:
1659:(3): 297–330.
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1315:
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1187:
1172:
1157:
1140:Quaker History
1123:
1116:
1098:
1061:
1054:
1036:
1018:
1005:
987:
953:
922:
905:
886:
843:
825:
821:§ 3806(j)
802:
800:
797:
796:
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781:
769:
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741:
727:
715:
699:
696:
695:
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689:
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669:
662:
659:
654:
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636:
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627:
624:
611:
608:
583:
580:
568:Main article:
565:
562:
544:
541:
532:
529:
466:Medal of Honor
454:
451:
441:
438:
436:
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405:
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362:civilian bonds
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299:(Washington),
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3:
2:
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4019:
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3999:
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3990:
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3857:
3856:Civil society
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3831:
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3815:Trier of fact
3813:
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3808:
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3701:Legal opinion
3699:
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3687:
3684:
3682:
3681:Court-martial
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3653:Jurisprudence
3650:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
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3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
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3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3542:Statutory law
3540:
3538:
3537:Socialist law
3535:
3531:
3530:Byzantine law
3528:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3482:
3481:Religious law
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3453:Legal systems
3450:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3421:Statutory law
3419:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
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3392:
3388:
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3308:
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3302:
3301:
3298:
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3289:
3286:
3284:
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3279:
3276:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3251:Statutory law
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3209:Transport law
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
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3163:
3160:
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3155:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3127:Legal fiction
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:Financial law
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3016:Corporate law
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2940:Statutory law
2938:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2907:
2904:
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2899:
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2879:
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2859:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:Core subjects
2820:
2816:
2809:
2804:
2802:
2797:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2755:United States
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2687:
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2682:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2615:War on Terror
2613:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2571:War of 1812 (
2570:
2569:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:Peacebuilding
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2439:Draft evasion
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2419:De-escalation
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
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2376:
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2367:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:Peace One Day
2319:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2126:Direct action
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2084:Anarcho-punks
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2050:War resisters
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1852:
1851:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1810:
1808:9780805791341
1804:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1785:9781620973189
1781:
1777:
1776:The New Press
1773:
1768:
1764:
1762:9780815609155
1758:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1695:9780275927769
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1647:
1643:
1641:9781440845185
1637:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1622:9780807846728
1618:
1614:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1574:
1570:
1568:9780275938055
1564:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1549:9780195335491
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1531:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1468:
1462:
1455:
1454:
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1427:
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1416:
1410:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1382:
1374:
1367:
1361:
1353:
1346:
1340:
1332:
1325:
1319:
1311:
1304:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1254:
1247:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1213:
1206:
1198:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1168:
1161:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1128:
1119:
1117:0-87303-636-0
1113:
1109:
1102:
1087:on 2013-06-04
1083:
1079:
1072:
1065:
1057:
1055:0-87303-069-9
1051:
1047:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1015:
1009:
1001:
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991:
983:
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879:
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848:
839:
835:
829:
822:
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812:
810:
808:
803:
793:
788:
787:
782:
779:
774:
770:
767:
762:
761:
756:
753:
748:
747:
742:
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728:
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713:
708:
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693:
690:
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683:
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665:
664:
658:
650:
641:
632:
623:
621:
616:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
579:
577:
571:
561:
559:
554:
550:
540:
536:
528:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
507:
506:
505:Hacksaw Ridge
502:'s 2016 film
501:
497:
493:
488:
486:
482:
478:
474:
467:
463:
459:
450:
446:
432:
430:
426:
422:
416:
414:
410:
401:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
344:
340:
332:
328:
319:
317:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
289:
285:
280:
267:
263:
256:
251:
248:
244:
234:
232:
228:
210:
201:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
158:
156:
153:This section
151:
148:
144:
143:
139:
129:
125:
123:
119:
118:philosophical
115:
111:
107:
103:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
68:
64:
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
39:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
4000:
3993:
3979:
3965:
3738:Jurisdiction
3706:Legal remedy
3661:Adjudication
3561:Legal theory
3399:Ratification
3394:Promulgation
3365:Proclamation
3345:Codification
3278:Human rights
3266:Divine right
3256:Constitution
3224:Women in law
3142:Military law
3137:Marriage law
3132:Maritime law
3031:Election law
2971:Aviation law
2961:Abortion law
2913:Property law
2849:Criminal law
2598:World War II
2454:Flower power
2306:
2146:Isolationism
2020:Peace treaty
1794:
1771:
1748:
1734:(1): 32–63.
1731:
1725:
1704:
1681:
1656:
1650:
1634:. ABC-CLIO.
1631:
1608:
1583:
1577:
1558:
1535:
1515:. Retrieved
1513:. 2006-12-01
1510:
1501:
1489:. Retrieved
1484:
1475:
1452:
1445:
1433:. Retrieved
1426:the original
1421:
1409:
1398:the original
1393:
1381:
1372:
1360:
1351:
1339:
1330:
1318:
1309:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1252:
1246:
1234:. Retrieved
1230:the original
1220:
1211:
1205:
1196:
1190:
1181:
1175:
1166:
1160:
1148:. Retrieved
1143:
1139:
1107:
1101:
1089:. Retrieved
1082:the original
1077:
1064:
1045:
1039:
1031:WolframAlpha
1030:
1021:
1013:
1008:
1000:WolframAlpha
999:
990:
980:
944:. Retrieved
932:
925:
920: (1970).
916:
903: (1965).
897:
878:the original
837:
828:
784:
772:
758:
744:
730:
718:
704:
656:
647:
638:
629:
620:noncombatant
617:
613:
592:Marine Corps
585:
573:
546:
537:
534:
514:
503:
489:
481:World War II
471:
462:Desmond Doss
447:
443:
417:
407:
404:1945 to 1950
396:
392:
388:
384:
382:
378:
373:
369:
361:
347:
342:
337:
325:
322:World War II
313:
293:
253:
240:
224:
204:
200:adding to it
195:1973 to 1980
157: with:
154:
126:
114:sociological
99:
60:
40:
19:
18:
3910:Legislature
3841:Bureaucracy
3638:Rule of man
3633:Rule of law
3608:Libertarian
3471:Chinese law
3372:Legislation
3322:Regulations
3310:Law reports
3288:Natural law
3184:Reparations
3179:Refugee law
3102:Jurimetrics
3043:(Media law)
2981:Banking law
2976:Amnesty law
2954:Disciplines
2891:Private law
2745:Switzerland
2730:Netherlands
2603:Vietnam War
2593:World War I
2464:Human Be-In
2201:World peace
2166:Nonviolence
2131:Finvenkismo
2111:Appeasement
2025:Peaceworker
1561:. Praeger.
653:Absolutists
604:Coast Guard
525:Vietnam War
508:, starring
440:Vietnam War
409:Paul French
393:Pax Service
284:World War I
274:World War I
225:During the
166:War of 1812
4018:Categories
3903:Law school
3783:Prosecutor
3721:Magistrate
3508:Jewish law
3466:Common law
3387:Rulemaking
3382:Regulation
3332:Law making
3271:Divine law
3247:Legal code
3194:Sports law
3117:Law of war
3067:Health law
3052:Family law
3036:Energy law
2986:Bankruptcy
2923:Punishment
2918:Public law
2710:Costa Rica
2496:Peace walk
2308:Peace News
2186:Satyagraha
2171:Pacificism
2161:Nonkilling
2075:Anarchism
2064:Ideologies
1980:Peace camp
1586:(1): 1–6.
1517:2021-08-28
1146:(2): 24–48
1091:August 15,
799:References
602:, and the
500:Mel Gibson
297:Fort Lewis
191:Korean War
136:See also:
122:moral code
104:belief in
84:expediency
80:pragmatism
72:conviction
3881:Judiciary
3876:Executive
3851:The bench
3788:Solicitor
3763:Barrister
3643:Sociology
3628:Pseudolaw
3568:Anarchist
3525:Roman law
3513:Parsi law
3498:Hindu law
3486:Canon law
3461:Civil law
3414:Concordat
3305:Precedent
3214:Trust law
3189:Space law
3026:Drugs law
2896:Procedure
2834:Civil law
2698:Countries
2679:Landmines
2667:in Russia
2625:Criticism
2434:Desertion
1920:Code Pink
1150:April 14,
817:50 U.S.C.
600:Air Force
547:During a
512:as Doss.
427:becoming
350:war bonds
243:Civil War
110:political
51:religious
3988:Category
3930:Tribunal
3915:Military
3758:Attorney
3728:Judgment
3588:Feminist
3503:Jain law
3300:Case law
3021:Cyberlaw
2928:Corporal
2906:Criminal
2876:Evidence
2866:Doctrine
2844:Contract
2773:Category
2630:Protests
2620:Iraq War
2523:Teach-in
2176:Pacifism
1877:Anti-war
661:See also
558:civilian
435:Cold War
368:offered
364:and the
360:offered
266:Virginia
262:Camp Lee
258:—
207:May 2017
186:Cold War
102:orthodox
93:—
4002:Outline
3939:History
3846:The bar
3820:Verdict
3768:Counsel
3748:Justice
3603:History
3426:Statute
3242:Charter
3204:Tax law
3152:Probate
2715:Germany
2346:Symbols
2292:Museums
1834:at the
1825:at the
1686:Praeger
1673:1555689
1600:1987825
1435:June 2,
231:Quakers
132:History
67:ethical
3920:Police
3891:Agency
3773:Lawyer
3518:Sharia
3409:Treaty
3404:Repeal
3350:Decree
3261:Custom
3157:Estate
3107:Labour
2871:Equity
2720:Israel
2705:Canada
2444:Die-in
2394:Bed-in
2141:Hippie
2071:Ahimsa
1805:
1782:
1759:
1717:285908
1715:
1692:
1671:
1638:
1619:
1598:
1565:
1546:
1491:May 3,
1463:
1236:May 2,
1114:
1052:
946:May 2,
819:
790:,
776:,
764:,
750:,
736:,
722:,
710:,
598:, the
594:, the
590:, the
560:work.
76:policy
55:belief
3995:Index
3861:Court
3805:Trial
3711:Judge
3552:Yassa
3355:Edict
2901:Civil
2854:Crime
2740:Sudan
2735:Spain
2725:Japan
2341:Songs
2326:Plays
2242:Films
2222:Books
2181:Peace
2040:Unity
1669:JSTOR
1596:JSTOR
1457:(PDF)
1429:(PDF)
1418:(PDF)
1401:(PDF)
1390:(PDF)
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