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theory of continental drift. Heezen infamously dismissed his assistant's idea as "girl talk." But she was right, and her thinking helped to vindicate Alfred
Wegener's 1912 theory of moving continents. Yet Tharp's name isn't on any of the key papers that Heezen and others published about plate tectonics between 1959 and 1963, which brought this once-controversial idea to the mainstream of earth sciences.
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204:. The facts indicate that the continent of North America had its surface near tide-level, part above and part below it (p.196); and this will probably be proved to be the condition in Primordial time of the other continents also. And, if the outlines of the continents were marked out, it follows that the outlines of the oceans were no less so". Dana was enormously influential in America—his
504:, who attended university in the second half of the 1940s, recounted an incident illustrating its lack of acceptance then: "I once asked one of my lecturers why he was not talking to us about continental drift and I was told, sneeringly, that if I could prove there was a force that could move continents, then he might think about it. The idea was moonshine, I was informed."
371:
Wegener's estimate of the speed of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was implausibly high. (The currently accepted rate for the separation of the
Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year). Furthermore, Wegener was treated less seriously because he was not a geologist. Even today, the details of the forces propelling the plates are poorly understood.
434:. This conference came to be dominated by the fixists, especially as those geologists specializing in tectonics were all fixists except Willem van der Gracht. Criticism of continental drift and mobilism was abundant at the conference not only from tectonicists but also from sedimentological (Nölke), paleontological (Nölke), mechanical (Lehmann) and oceanographic (
796:, which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, based on continents' current positions and orientations, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations that were contiguous with one another.
342:") and to publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. He suggested that the continents had been pulled apart by the
646:
Without workable alternatives to explain the stripes, geophysicists were forced to conclude that Holmes had been right: ocean rifts were sites of perpetual orogeny at the boundaries of convection cells. By 1967, barely two decades after discovery of the mid-oceanic rifts, and a decade after discovery
670:
is credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate tectonics which encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and the New Global
Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations, including those he set up in the South Pacific.
156:
Abraham
Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus ... suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa ... by earthquakes and floods" and went on to say: "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts
624:
Meanwhile, scientists began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor using devices developed during World War II to detect submarines. Over the next decade, it became increasingly clear that the magnetization patterns were not anomalies, as had been originally supposed. In a
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Wills, Matthew (8 October 2016). "The Mother of Ocean Floor
Cartography". JSTOR. Retrieved 14 October 2016. While working with the North Atlantic data, she noted what must have been a rift between high undersea mountains. This suggested earthquake activity, which then only associated with fringe
370:
Although now accepted, and even with a minority of scientific proponents over the decades, the theory of continental drift was largely rejected for many years, with evidence in its favor considered insufficient. One problem was that a plausible driving force was missing. A second problem was that
165:
remarked, "It was formerly a very general belief, even amongst geologists, that the great features of the earth's surface, no less than the smaller ones, were subject to continual mutations, and that during the course of known geological time the continents and great oceans had, again and again,
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heat and moved the crust at the surface. Holmes' proposal resolved the phase disequilibrium objection (the underlying fluid was kept from solidifying by radioactive heating from the core). However, scientific communication in the 1930s and 1940s was inhibited by
378:
championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection cells which dissipated heat produced by radioactive decay and moved the crust at the surface. His
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collectively realized that the magnetization of the ocean floor formed extensive, zebra-like patterns: one stripe would exhibit normal polarity and the adjoining stripes reversed polarity. The best explanation was the "conveyor belt" or
276:'s 1912 paper. Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas: Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),
390:
spanning the
Atlantic and Indian oceans to account for the similarities of fauna and flora and the divisions of the Asian continent in the Permian period, but failing to account for glaciation in India, Australia and South Africa.
638:
from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. The new crust is magnetized by the Earth's magnetic field, which undergoes
612:
confirmed the existence of a rise in the central
Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the sediments was chemically and physically different from continental crust. As oceanographers continued to
783:
glacial sediments in South
America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented
322:
dragging the crust towards the equator. He was the first to realize that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, attributing the formation of the
Himalayas to the collision between the
560:, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the
775:
will further separate and rotate those two continents. It was that temporary feature that inspired
Wegener to study what he defined as continental drift although he did not live to see his hypothesis generally accepted.
327:
with Asia. Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's had the most similarities to his own. For a time in the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis".
658:, who was initially sceptical of Tharp's observations that her maps confirmed continental drift theory, provided essential corroboration, using her skills in cartography and seismographic data, to confirm the theory.
196:(1863), Dana wrote, "The continents and oceans had their general outline or form defined in earliest time. This has been proved with regard to North America from the position and distribution of the first beds of the
1681:
Wegener's inability to provide an adequate explanation of the forces responsible for continental drift and the prevailing belief that the earth was solid and immovable resulted in the scientific dismissal of his
318:, who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of "continental creep", later proposing a mechanism of increased tidal forces during the
537:
Third, there was the problem of why some parts of the Earth's surface (crust) should have solidified while other parts were still fluid. Various attempts to explain this foundered on other difficulties.
272:
Apart from the earlier speculations mentioned above, the idea that the American continents had once formed a single landmass with Eurasia and Africa was postulated by several scientists before
1239: : 180- 187. From page 183: "This ocean we designate by the name "Tethys", after the sister and consort of Oceanus. The latest successor of the Tethyan Sea is the present Mediterranean."
170:
as saying, "Continents, therefore, although permanent for whole geological epochs, shift their positions entirely in the course of ages." and claims that the first to throw doubt on this was
617:
the ocean basins, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "
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Doel, R.E.; Levin, T.J.; Marker, M.K. (2006). "Extending modern cartography to the ocean depths: military patronage, Cold War priorities, and the Heezen-Tharp mapping project, 1952–1959".
77:
in his 1915 publication, "The Origin of Continents and Oceans". However, at that time his hypothesis was rejected by many for lack of any motive mechanism. In 1931, the English geologist
2000:
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222:, 1872–1876, which showed that contrary to expectation, land debris brought down by rivers to the ocean is deposited comparatively close to the shore on what is now known as the
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would collect at the equator, and stay there. This would explain one, but only one, mountain building episode between any pair of continents; it failed to account for earlier
307:, and the new continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion of the rip-zones, where the oceans now lie. This led Mantovani to propose a now-discredited
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objections. Worse, the most viable forms of the theory predicted the existence of convection cell boundaries reaching deep into the Earth, that had yet to be observed.
331:
Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on 6 January 1912. He proposed that the continents had once formed a single landmass, called
299:; Wegener noted the similarity of Mantovani's and his own maps of the former positions of the southern continents. In Mantovani's conjecture, this continent broke due to
94:
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equilibrium (in which the forces of gravity and buoyancy are in balance). But gravitational measurements showed that many areas are not in isostatic equilibrium.
564:, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Holmes' views were particularly influential: in his bestselling textbook,
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move or drift relative to each other over geologic time. The theory of continental drift has since been validated and incorporated into the science of
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Scalera, G. (2003), "Roberto Mantovani an Italian defender of the continental drift and planetary expansion", in Scalera, G.; Jacob, K.-H. (eds.),
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226:. This suggested that the oceans were a permanent feature of the Earth's surface, rather than them having "changed places" with the continents.
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1990:
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The complementary arrangement of the facing sides of South America and Africa is an obvious and temporary coincidence. In millions of years,
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Mason, Ronald G.; Raff, Arthur D. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the west coast of the United States between 32°N latitude and 42°N latitude".
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just like Reykjanes. Bernauer thought this extension had drifted the continents only 100–200 km apart, the approximate width of the
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Barton, Cathy (2002). "Marie Tharp, oceanographic cartographer, and her contributions to the revolution in the Earth sciences".
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3D visualization of what did Earth look like from 750 million years ago to present (at present location of your choice)
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Carey, S. W. (1958). Carey, S. W. (ed.). "Continental Drift—A symposium". Hobart: Univ. of Tasmania. pp. 177–363.
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1541:
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152:(most notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together. W. J. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way:
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1894:
643:. Formation of new crust then displaces the magnetized crust apart, akin to a conveyor belt – hence the name.
19:
This article is about the development of the continental drift theory before 1958. For the contemporary theory, see
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Heirtzler, James R.; Le Pichon, Xavier; Baron, J. Gregory (1966). "Magnetic anomalies over the Reykjanes Ridge".
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Bremer, Hanna (1983). "Albrecht Penck (1858–1945) and Walther Penck (1888–1923), two German geomorphologists".
343:
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Blakemore, Erin (30 August 2016). "Seeing Is Believing: How Marie Tharp Changed Geology Forever". Smithsonian.
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446:, the organizer of the conference, was also a fixist who together with Troll held the view that excepting the
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Isacks, Bryan; Oliver, Jack; Sykes, Lynn R. (15 September 1968). "Seismology and the New Global Tectonics".
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are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of
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families (such as Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa.
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Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal
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515:—the theory of continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following grounds.
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Some considerations of, and additions to the Taylor-Wegener hypothesis of continental displacement
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series of papers published between 1959 and 1963, Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine, Matthews, and
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Second, masses floating freely in a fluid substratum, like icebergs in the ocean, should be in
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continents were not radically different from oceans in their behaviour. The mobilist theory of
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133:
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Mc Kenzie, D.; Parker, R.L. (1967). "The North Pacific: an example of tectonics on a sphere".
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had written an 1895 paper proposing that the Earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing with
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was criticized by Kurt Leuchs. The few drifters and mobilists at the conference appealed to
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8:
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Evans, R. (November 2002). "Plumbing Depths to Reach New Heights". Retrieved 2 June 2008.
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675:, refining Wegener, explains that there are two kinds of crust of different composition:
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Scheidegger, Adrian E. (1953), "Examination of the physics of theories of orogenesis",
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Henry R. Frankel, "Wegener and Taylor develop their theories of continental drift", in
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This appeared to be confirmed by the exploration of the deep sea beds conducted by the
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Mantovani, R. (1889), "Les fractures de l'écorce terrestre et la théorie de Laplace",
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58:, which studies the movement of the continents as they ride on plates of the Earth's
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1911:
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Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915) (German: "
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to conjecture in 1889 and 1909 that all the continents had once been joined into a
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66:
35:
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1915:
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2858:. Vol. 1. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 321–325.
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1701:
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Pickering, W.H (1907), "The Place of Origin of the Moon – The Volcani Problems",
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55:
20:
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Benjamin Franklin (1782) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1834) noted Continental Drift
2507:
Le Pichon, Xavier (15 June 1968). "Sea-floor spreading and continental drift".
2080:
1757:
772:
730:
687:" mantle. Continental crust is inherently lighter. Oceanic crust is created at
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74:
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1209:"Wir nennen es Gondwána-Land, nach der gemeinsamen alten Gondwána-Flora, ... "
65:
The speculation that continents might have "drifted" was first put forward by
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1140:(Creation and its mysteries revealed) (Paris, France: Frank et Dentu, 1858),
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Continents Adrift and Sea-Floors Spreading: The Revolution of Plate Tectonics
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609:
447:
427:
419:
403:
375:
167:
78:
70:
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in 1596. A pioneer of the modern view of mobilism was the Austrian geologist
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A brief introduction to Plate Tectonics, based on the work of Alfred Wegener
2738:
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2439:
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2406:
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of the striping, plate tectonics had become axiomatic to modern geophysics.
439:
2204:
1995:
1211:(We name it Gondwána-Land, after the common ancient flora of Gondwána ... )
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717:
695:, drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuous
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601:
582:
471:
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459:
237:
229:
1482:"Bearing of the tertiary mountain belt on the origin of the earth's plan"
1375:"Bearing of the Tertiary mountain belt on the origin of the earth's plan"
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Romm, James (3 February 1994), "A New Forerunner for Continental Drift",
651:
577:
407:
399:
387:
253:
245:
59:
2331:"Victor Vacquier Sr., 1907–2009: Geophysicist was a master of magnetics"
1508:
1467:
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1203:(The Face of the Earth), vol. 1 (Leipzig, (Germany): G. Freytag, 1885),
490:, arguing with this that the floor of the Atlantic Ocean was undergoing
2261:. In William Theodore De Bary; Jerry Kisslinger; Tom Mathewson (eds.).
2137:
768:
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708:
692:
614:
443:
435:
351:
319:
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431:
383:, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944.
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is still in print in revised form—and the theory became known as the
145:
51:
712:, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in
2998:
2116:
Frankel, Henry (July 1978). "Arthur Holmes and continental drift".
793:
720:, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land
590:
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he included a chapter on continental drift, proposing that Earth's
531:
291:
The similarity of southern continent geological formations had led
233:
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Vine, F. J. (1966). "Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence".
350:) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of astronomical
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1312:(4 ed.), Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges.
894:
Die virtuelle Welt des Otto Ampferer und die Realität seiner Zeit
789:
721:
696:
586:
524:
483:
475:
354:, but calculations showed that the force was not sufficient. The
335:, before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations.
332:
585:, and the theory still required work to avoid foundering on the
2854:. In Munn, Ted; MacCracken, Michael C.; Perry, John S. (eds.).
808: – The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past
734:
713:
703:
415:
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opposed the idea of continental drift and worked on a "fixist"
47:
2999:
Maps of continental drift, from the Precambrian to the future
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Electrical Condition; Or, How and where Our Earth was Created
752:
738:
635:
520:
430:. In 1939 an international geological conference was held in
365:
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Holmes, Arthur (1928). "Radioactivity and Earth movements".
1566:
Four Revolutions in the Earth Sciences: From Heresy to Truth
519:
First, it had been shown that floating masses on a rotating
73:. The concept was independently and more fully developed by
837:"Historical perspective [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]"
95:
Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)
2384:
10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[1259:MSOTWC]2.0.CO;2
1431:
Why expanding Earth? – A book in honour of O.C. Hilgenberg
244:
between the present continents submerged in the form of a
2055:
10.1130/0016-7606(1953)64[127:EOTPOT]2.0.CO;2
1821:
See map based on the work of the American paleontologist
561:
478:
measurements (Wegener, K). F. Bernauer correctly equated
2753:"Rejoined continents [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]"
2259:"Maurice Ewing and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory"
2228:"Maurice Ewing and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory"
1456:
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1454:
Lane, A. C. (1944), "Frank Bursley Taylor (1860–1938)",
1233:
Natural Science: A Monthly Review of Scientific Progress
2994:
Animation of continental drift for last 1 billion years
2684:"Jack Oliver, Who Proved Continental Drift, Dies at 87"
2471:
1167:, Theodore Bliss & Co, Philadelphia, p. 732,
418:. Other geologists who opposed continental drift were
50:, originating in the early 20th century, that Earth's
2160:
Wessel, P.; MĂĽller, R. D. (2007), "Plate Tectonics",
1801:(1st ed.). Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson & Sons.
16:
Movement of Earth's continents relative to each other
314:
Continental drift without expansion was proposed by
106:
Early modern Netherlandish cartography and geography
1827:Wells, H. G.; Huxley, Julian; Wells, G. P. (1931),
792:, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of
144:), and others had noted earlier that the shapes of
2796:
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929:: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309, archived from
552:From the 1930s to the late 1950s, works by
166:changed places with each other." He quotes
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1970:
1958:
1943:
1922:
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366:Rejection of Wegener's theory, 1910s–1950s
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992:
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184:'s Illustration of the closed and opened
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751:
595:
426:, Rollin Chamberlin, Walther Bucher and
386:Geological maps of the time showed huge
263:
176:
132:), Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756),
129:
109:
2846:
2639:
2578:
2323:
2164:, vol. 6, Elsevier, pp. 49–98
2115:
1522:
1422:
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1080:
913:
865:
507:As late as 1953—just five years before
414:playing a key role in the formation of
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2500:
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2398:
2292:
2286:
2102:(3 ed.). Wiley. pp. 640–41.
2094:
2066:
2060:
2026:
1891:
1793:
1733:
1707:
1687:
1595:
1562:
1473:
1410:Mantovani, R. (1909), "L'Antarctide",
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1102:
2917:; Aki, Keiiti; Şengör, Celâl (eds.).
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1991:"David Attenborough: force of nature"
1988:
1982:
1873:
1861:
1849:
1837:
1727:
1403:
1108:
1004:
1000:(in German). University of Frankfurt.
923:Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen
683:, both floating above a much deeper "
608:In 1947, a team of scientists led by
541:
362:in 1920 and found to be implausible.
2939:La Création et ses mystères dévoilés
2745:
2676:
2464:
2238:from the original on 12 January 2018
2174:
2168:
2003:from the original on 31 October 2013
1657:
1615:
1453:
1160:
1154:
1138:La Création et ses mystères dévoilés
1038:
1010:
946:
859:
2936:Snider-Pellegrini, Antonio (1858).
2759:from the original on 25 August 2010
2343:from the original on 8 January 2014
1775:from the original on 9 October 2019
1739:"Radioactivity and Earth Movements"
1412:Je M'instruis. La Science Pour Tous
1373:Frank Bursley Taylor (3 June 1910)
1367:
1316:
1284:The Origin of Continents and Oceans
1242:
1130:
940:
600:Fossil patterns across continents (
13:
2824:The Rejection of Continental Drift
914:Wegener, Alfred (6 January 1912),
699:and areas of isostatic imbalance.
661:
14:
3035:
2948:
2784:The Continental Drift Controversy
2317:10.1038/scientificamerican1060-98
1530:The Continental Drift Controversy
1119:from the original on 6 April 2016
1069:from the original on 8 April 2011
1027:from the original on 3 March 2016
847:from the original on 27 July 2018
2696:from the original on 26 May 2013
2692:. 12 January 2011. p. A16.
1989:McKie, Robin (28 October 2012).
1583:from the original on 3 June 2016
1171:from the original on 15 May 2015
733:of the same age at locations in
99:
2909:
2902:(First edition published 1570,
2795:Le Grand, Homer Eugene (1988).
2718:Journal of Geophysical Research
2648:Journal of Historical Geography
2509:Journal of Geophysical Research
1879:
1867:
1855:
1843:
1563:Powell, James Lawrence (2015).
1090:Wallace, Alfred Russel (1889),
779:The widespread distribution of
632:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
566:Principles of Physical Geology,
358:hypothesis was also studied by
340:die Verschiebung der Kontinente
2100:Principles of Physical Geology
1895:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Geomorphologie
1799:Principles of Physical Geology
1397:Bull. Soc. Sc. Et Arts RĂ©union
1286:, Courier Dover Publications,
897:. In: Geo. Alp., Vol. 1, 2004.
885:
871:
394:
381:Principles of Physical Geology
232:had proposed a supercontinent
1:
2607:10.1144/gsl.sp.2002.192.01.11
2197:10.1126/science.154.3755.1405
1222:"Are ocean depths permanent?"
2974:Resources in other libraries
2788:Wegener and the Early Debate
2781:
2494:10.1016/0011-7471(66)91078-3
1976:
1964:
1952:
1937:
1549:10.1017/CBO9780511842368.004
1534:Wegener and the Early Debate
1323:Coxworthy, Franklin (1924).
1151:(between pages 314 and 315).
817:
260:Wegener and his predecessors
7:
2888:Ortelius, Abraham (1596) .
2827:. Oxford University Press.
2263:Living Legacies at Columbia
2257:Lippsett, Laurence (2006).
2226:Lippsett, Laurence (2001).
1136:Antonio Snider-Pellegrini,
880:Ampferer, Otto (1875–1947)
806:Geological history of Earth
799:
10:
3040:
2782:Frankel, Henry R. (2012).
2081:10.1144/transglas.18.3.559
1758:10.1144/transglas.18.3.559
1695:Alfred Wegener (1880–1930)
1220:Edward Suess (March 1893)
545:
103:
92:
88:
25:
18:
3019:Obsolete geology theories
2969:Resources in your library
2942:. Paris: Frank and Dentu.
2921:. John Wiley & Sons.
2776:General and cited sources
2660:10.1016/j.jhg.2005.10.011
2130:10.1017/S0007087400016551
1724:(accessed 30 April 2015).
1704:(accessed 30 April 2015).
1623:Coming Apart at the Seams
1112:Principles of Geology ...
993:Schmeling, Harro (2004).
759:skeleton, MacGregor, 1908
511:introduced the theory of
280:(between 1889 and 1909),
256:on the age of the Earth.
182:Antonio Snider-Pellegrini
148:on opposite sides of the
138:Antonio Snider-Pellegrini
28:Continental Drift (novel)
2803:. Cambridge University.
2339:: B24, 24 January 2009,
1647:"Wegener and his proofs"
1098:, Macmillan, p. 341
1047:"Historical perspective"
654:, in collaboration with
496:volcanic zone in Iceland
32:Continental Drift (film)
26:Not to be confused with
2847:Oreskes, Naomi (2002).
2739:10.1029/JB073i018p05855
2529:10.1029/JB073i012p03661
2457:10.5670/oceanog.2003.30
2424:10.5670/oceanog.1995.29
2405:Korgen, Ben J. (1995).
1916:10.1127/zfg/27/1983/129
1715:Plate Motion Calculator
1700:8 December 2017 at the
1227:5 February 2017 at the
1161:Dana, James D. (1863),
1147:5 February 2017 at the
1109:Lyell, Charles (1872),
691:, and this, along with
344:centrifugal pseudoforce
282:William Henry Pickering
2890:Thesaurus Geographicus
2162:Treatise on Geophysics
771:, and other forces of
760:
605:
374:The English geologist
309:Expanding Earth theory
269:
189:
159:
142:Snider-Pellegrini 1858
134:Alexander von Humboldt
122:
1720:25 April 2015 at the
1605:, Los Angeles, 1946.
1480:Taylor, F.B. (1910),
1282:Wegener, A. (1966) ,
755:
671:The modern theory of
599:
267:
180:
163:Alfred Russel Wallace
154:
113:
93:Further information:
1306:Wegener, A. (1929),
1263:17 February 2015 at
1201:Das Antlitz der Erde
788:and deposits called
641:occasional reversals
462:(Kirsch, Wittmann),
316:Frank Bursley Taylor
286:Frank Bursley Taylor
240:in 1893, assuming a
206:Manual of Mineralogy
85:for that mechanism.
2904:1587 edition online
2883:on 4 February 2012.
2849:"Continental Drift"
2731:1968JGR....73.5855I
2599:2002GSLSP.192..215B
2556:1967Natur.216.1276M
2550:(5122): 1276–1280.
2521:1968JGR....73.3661L
2486:1966DSRA...13..427H
2376:1961GSAB...72.1259M
2309:1960SciAm.203d..98H
2296:Scientific American
2189:1966Sci...154.1405V
2183:(3755): 1405–1415.
2047:1953GSAB...64..127S
1908:1983ZGm....27..129B
1830:The Science of life
1628:14 May 2016 at the
1509:10.1130/GSAB-21-179
1501:1910GSAB...21..179T
1362:1907PA.....15..274P
1267:, 341–342, 582–585.
1011:Brusatte, Stephen,
961:1994Natur.367..407R
781:Permo-Carboniferous
360:Paul Sophus Epstein
325:Indian subcontinent
303:activity caused by
2689:The New York Times
936:on 4 October 2011.
891:Helmut W. FlĂĽgel:
877:Kalliope Verbund:
786:glacial striations
761:
606:
542:Road to acceptance
502:David Attenborough
488:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
270:
190:
123:
2960:Continental drift
2955:Library resources
2865:978-0-471-97796-4
2834:978-0-19-511732-5
2810:978-0-521-31105-2
2725:(18): 5855–5899.
2564:10.1038/2161276a0
2474:Deep-Sea Research
2336:Los Angeles Times
2272:978-0-231-13884-0
2109:978-0-471-07251-5
1823:Charles Schuchert
1808:978-0-17-448020-4
1636:, 24 January 1980
1576:978-0-231-53845-9
1350:Popular Astronomy
1293:978-0-486-61708-4
1164:Manual of Geology
1062:978-0-16-048220-5
955:(6462): 407–408,
689:spreading centers
677:continental crust
619:Great Global Rift
576:which dissipated
424:Charles Schuchert
412:Earth contraction
305:thermal expansion
293:Roberto Mantovani
278:Roberto Mantovani
224:continental shelf
210:Permanence theory
200:, – those of the
194:Manual of Geology
172:James Dwight Dana
136:(1801 and 1845),
119:Peter Paul Rubens
83:mantle convection
44:Continental drift
3031:
2943:
2932:
2928:978-0-471-103769
2915:Miyashiro, Akiho
2901:
2884:
2882:
2876:. Archived from
2853:
2838:
2814:
2802:
2791:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2680:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
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2619:
2618:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2539:
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2532:
2504:
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2497:
2468:
2462:
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2435:
2429:
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2426:
2402:
2396:
2395:
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2353:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2327:
2321:
2320:
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2284:
2283:
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2279:
2254:
2248:
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2245:
2243:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2157:
2151:
2149:
2113:
2092:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1986:
1980:
1974:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1941:
1935:
1920:
1919:
1889:
1883:
1877:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1774:
1743:
1731:
1725:
1711:
1705:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1678:
1676:
1671:on 11 April 2011
1667:. Archived from
1661:
1655:
1654:
1649:. Archived from
1643:
1637:
1619:
1613:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1560:
1551:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1511:, archived from
1486:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1451:
1442:
1441:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1392:
1386:
1385: : 179–226.
1371:
1365:
1364:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1303:
1297:
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1279:
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1246:
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1218:
1212:
1197:
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1186:
1180:
1179:
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1158:
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1134:
1128:
1127:
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1106:
1100:
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1078:
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1076:
1074:
1042:
1036:
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1032:
1026:
1019:
1008:
1002:
1001:
999:
990:
981:
980:
969:10.1038/367407a0
944:
938:
937:
935:
920:
911:
898:
889:
883:
875:
869:
863:
857:
856:
854:
852:
833:
574:convection cells
464:paleoclimatology
442:) perspectives.
236:in 1885 and the
126:Abraham Ortelius
115:Abraham Ortelius
67:Abraham Ortelius
36:Continental drip
3039:
3038:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3028:
3024:Plate tectonics
3009:
3008:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2951:
2929:
2880:
2866:
2851:
2835:
2817:
2811:
2794:
2786:. Vol. I:
2778:
2773:
2772:
2762:
2760:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2713:
2709:
2699:
2697:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2667:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2583:
2579:
2540:
2536:
2515:(12): 3661–97.
2505:
2501:
2470:See summary in
2469:
2465:
2436:
2432:
2403:
2399:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2291:
2287:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2255:
2251:
2241:
2239:
2232:Living Legacies
2224:
2220:
2173:
2169:
2158:
2154:
2110:
2065:
2061:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2006:
2004:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1951:
1944:
1936:
1923:
1890:
1886:
1878:
1874:
1866:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1792:
1788:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1741:
1732:
1728:
1722:Wayback Machine
1712:
1708:
1702:Wayback Machine
1692:
1688:
1674:
1672:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1630:Wayback Machine
1620:
1616:
1601:Hansen, L. T.,
1600:
1596:
1586:
1584:
1577:
1561:
1554:
1527:
1523:
1515:
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1478:
1474:
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1423:
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1393:
1389:
1372:
1368:
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1342:
1332:
1330:
1329:. J.S. Phillips
1321:
1317:
1304:
1300:
1294:
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1247:
1243:
1229:Wayback Machine
1219:
1215:
1198:
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1155:
1149:Wayback Machine
1142:plates 9 and 10
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901:
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886:
876:
872:
864:
860:
850:
848:
835:
834:
825:
820:
812:Israel C. White
802:
673:plate tectonics
664:
662:Modern evidence
550:
548:Plate tectonics
544:
513:plate tectonics
397:
368:
262:
157:of the three ."
108:
102:
97:
91:
56:plate tectonics
39:
24:
21:Plate tectonics
17:
12:
11:
5:
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3021:
3007:
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2996:
2991:
2986:
2977:
2976:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2953:
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2950:
2949:External links
2947:
2946:
2945:
2933:
2927:
2907:
2885:
2864:
2844:
2833:
2819:Oreskes, Naomi
2815:
2809:
2792:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2744:
2707:
2675:
2665:
2654:(3): 605–626.
2638:
2629:
2620:
2593:(1): 215–228.
2577:
2534:
2499:
2463:
2430:
2397:
2370:(8): 1259–66.
2354:
2322:
2285:
2271:
2249:
2218:
2167:
2152:
2108:
2096:Holmes, Arthur
2075:(3): 559–606.
2059:
2041:(2): 127–150,
2025:
2014:
1981:
1977:Frankel (2012)
1969:
1965:Frankel (2012)
1957:
1953:Frankel (2012)
1942:
1938:Frankel (2012)
1921:
1902:(2): 129–138.
1884:
1872:
1860:
1848:
1836:
1814:
1807:
1795:Holmes, Arthur
1786:
1752:(3): 559–606.
1735:Holmes, Arthur
1726:
1706:
1686:
1656:
1653:on 5 May 2006.
1638:
1614:
1594:
1575:
1552:
1521:
1518:on 1 June 2018
1495:(2): 179–226,
1472:
1462:(6): 176–178,
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1199:Eduard Suess,
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1079:
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884:
870:
868:, p. 324.
858:
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798:
773:tectonophysics
663:
660:
554:Vening-Meinesz
546:Main article:
543:
540:
539:
538:
535:
528:
482:in south-west
456:Alpine orogeny
396:
393:
367:
364:
297:supercontinent
274:Alfred Wegener
268:Alfred Wegener
261:
258:
198:Lower Silurian
186:Atlantic Ocean
150:Atlantic Ocean
101:
98:
90:
87:
75:Alfred Wegener
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2911:Şengör, Celâl
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2480:(3): 427–32.
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1880:Şengör (1982)
1876:
1869:
1868:Şengör (1982)
1864:
1857:
1856:Şengör (1982)
1852:
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1844:Şengör (1982)
1840:
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838:
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681:oceanic crust
678:
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669:
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659:
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650:In addition,
648:
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628:
622:
620:
616:
611:
610:Maurice Ewing
603:
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445:
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429:
428:Walther Penck
425:
421:
420:Bailey Willis
417:
413:
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404:Leopold Kober
401:
392:
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168:Charles Lyell
164:
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147:
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130:Ortelius 1596
127:
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100:Early history
96:
86:
84:
80:
79:Arthur Holmes
76:
72:
71:Otto Ampferer
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
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37:
33:
29:
22:
2959:
2938:
2918:
2889:
2878:the original
2855:
2823:
2798:
2790:. Cambridge.
2787:
2783:
2761:. Retrieved
2747:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2698:. Retrieved
2687:
2678:
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2508:
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2477:
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2466:
2450:(3): 45–54.
2447:
2444:Oceanography
2443:
2433:
2417:(1): 19–20.
2414:
2411:Oceanography
2410:
2400:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2345:, retrieved
2334:
2325:
2300:
2294:
2288:
2276:. Retrieved
2262:
2252:
2240:. Retrieved
2231:
2221:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2161:
2155:
2121:
2117:
2099:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2038:
2035:GSA Bulletin
2034:
2028:
2017:
2005:. Retrieved
1996:The Observer
1994:
1984:
1972:
1960:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1875:
1863:
1851:
1839:
1829:
1817:
1798:
1789:
1777:. Retrieved
1749:
1745:
1729:
1709:
1689:
1680:
1673:. Retrieved
1669:the original
1659:
1651:the original
1641:
1633:
1621:R. M. Wood,
1617:
1611:1247437 OCLC
1602:
1597:
1585:. Retrieved
1565:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1513:the original
1492:
1489:GSA Bulletin
1488:
1475:
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1430:
1424:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1396:
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1378:
1369:
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1349:
1343:
1331:. Retrieved
1325:
1318:
1308:
1301:
1283:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1216:
1208:
1200:
1195:
1189:Oreskes 2002
1184:
1173:, retrieved
1163:
1156:
1137:
1132:
1121:, retrieved
1111:
1104:
1095:
1071:, retrieved
1051:
1040:
1029:, retrieved
1013:
1006:
995:"Geodynamik"
952:
948:
942:
931:the original
926:
922:
892:
887:
878:
873:
866:Oreskes 2002
861:
849:. Retrieved
840:
778:
762:
756:
726:Lystrosaurus
724:
718:South Africa
707:
701:
665:
656:Bruce Heezen
649:
645:
634:. New
623:
607:
602:Gondwanaland
583:World War II
565:
551:
506:
500:
474:(Gerth) and
472:paleontology
460:biogeography
452:Émile Argand
398:
388:land bridges
385:
380:
373:
369:
347:
339:
337:
330:
313:
290:
271:
238:Tethys Ocean
230:Eduard Suess
228:
217:
214:
209:
205:
193:
191:
160:
155:
124:
64:
43:
42:
40:
2093:; see also
1356:: 274–287,
1175:16 February
1123:16 February
1096:Darwinism …
668:Jack Oliver
652:Marie Tharp
578:radioactive
410:model with
408:geosyncline
400:Hans Stille
395:The fixists
284:(1907) and
254:Lord Kelvin
246:geosyncline
242:land-bridge
60:lithosphere
3013:Categories
2007:29 October
1999:. London.
1779:15 January
1587:20 October
1532:Volume 1:
1333:6 December
1235:(London),
1073:29 January
851:29 January
769:ridge-push
757:Mesosaurus
743:Antarctica
709:Mesosaurus
693:subduction
615:bathymeter
572:contained
556:, Holmes,
468:Wegener, K
444:Hans Cloos
352:precession
320:Cretaceous
250:John Perry
220:expedition
218:Challenger
146:continents
104:See also:
52:continents
2898:214324616
2874:633880622
2615:131340403
2392:0016-7606
2146:145405854
2089:122872384
1766:122872384
1682:theories.
1675:23 August
1439:2122/2017
1418:: 595–597
1205:page 768.
818:Citations
765:slab pull
747:earthworm
532:isostatic
527:episodes.
492:extension
486:with the
480:Reykjanes
432:Frankfurt
356:Polflucht
348:Polflucht
174:in 1849.
161:In 1889,
81:proposed
2821:(1999).
2757:Archived
2755:. USGS.
2694:Archived
2341:archived
2236:Archived
2213:44362406
2205:17821553
2098:(1978).
2001:Archived
1979:, p. 409
1967:, p. 407
1955:, p. 405
1940:, p. 403
1797:(1944).
1770:Archived
1737:(1931).
1718:Archived
1698:Archived
1626:Archived
1581:Archived
1468:20023483
1261:Archived
1256: :
1225:Archived
1169:archived
1145:Archived
1117:archived
1067:archived
1022:archived
845:Archived
800:See also
794:Gondwana
790:tillites
591:isostasy
558:Umbgrove
525:orogenic
476:geodetic
454:for the
301:volcanic
288:(1908).
234:Gondwana
2919:Orogeny
2763:22 July
2727:Bibcode
2595:Bibcode
2572:4193218
2552:Bibcode
2517:Bibcode
2482:Bibcode
2372:Bibcode
2305:Bibcode
2278:22 June
2242:4 March
2185:Bibcode
2177:Science
2138:4025726
2043:Bibcode
1904:Bibcode
1882:, p. 31
1870:, p. 29
1858:, p. 28
1846:, p. 30
1713:Unavco
1497:Bibcode
1399:: 41–53
1358:Bibcode
1258:224–227
977:4281585
957:Bibcode
722:reptile
704:fossils
697:orogeny
685:plastic
587:orogeny
484:Iceland
416:orogens
333:Pangaea
192:In his
89:History
46:is the
2957:about
2925:
2896:
2872:
2862:
2831:
2807:
2700:6 June
2613:
2570:
2544:Nature
2390:
2347:20 May
2269:
2211:
2203:
2144:
2136:
2106:
2087:
1805:
1764:
1609:
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1466:
1290:
1250:Nature
1059:
1031:16 May
975:
949:Nature
741:, and
735:Africa
714:Brazil
627:Morley
570:mantle
248:, and
188:(1858)
121:, 1633
48:theory
2881:(PDF)
2852:(PDF)
2839:(pb:
2611:S2CID
2568:S2CID
2209:S2CID
2142:S2CID
2134:JSTOR
2085:S2CID
1773:(PDF)
1762:S2CID
1742:(PDF)
1516:(PDF)
1485:(PDF)
1464:JSTOR
1025:(PDF)
1018:(PDF)
998:(PDF)
973:S2CID
934:(PDF)
919:(PDF)
739:India
731:rocks
636:magma
521:geoid
509:Carey
436:Troll
34:, or
2923:ISBN
2894:OCLC
2870:OCLC
2860:ISBN
2829:ISBN
2805:ISBN
2765:2010
2702:2013
2388:ISSN
2349:2018
2280:2010
2267:ISBN
2244:2008
2201:PMID
2114:and
2104:ISBN
2009:2012
1803:ISBN
1781:2014
1677:2006
1607:OCLC
1589:2015
1571:ISBN
1538:ISBN
1335:2014
1288:ISBN
1177:2015
1125:2015
1092:"12"
1075:2008
1057:ISBN
1033:2016
853:2008
716:and
679:and
589:and
440:WĂĽst
402:and
2735:doi
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2603:doi
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2560:doi
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2525:doi
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2301:203
2193:doi
2181:154
2126:doi
2077:doi
2051:doi
1912:doi
1825:in
1754:doi
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