List of liberal theorists

2903: 5853:(Latvia/United Kingdom, 1909–1997) is most famous for his attempt to distinguish 'two conceptions of liberty'. Berlin argued that what he called 'positive' and 'negative' liberty were mutually opposing concepts. Positive conceptions assumed that liberty could only be achieved when collective power (in the form of church or state) acted to 'liberate' mankind from its worst aspects. These, Berlin felt, tended towards totalitarianism. Negative conceptions, by contrast, argued that liberty was achieved when individuals were given maximal freedom from external constraints (so long as these did not infringe on the freedom of others to achieve the same condition). Berlin was also a critic of dogmatic Enlightenment rationalism on the grounds that it was unable to accommodate value pluralism. 5028: 3291: 2247: 3666: 4551: 3934: 6315:(United States, 1931–2007) was one of the leading contemporary philosophers of liberalism. His fundamental claims, among others, are that liberalism is best defined as the attempt to avoid cruelty to others; that liberals need to accept the historical 'irony' that there is no metaphysical justification for their belief that not being cruel is a virtue; that literature plays a crucial role in developing the empathy necessary to promote solidarity (and therefore lack of cruelty) between humans; and that private philosophising and public political discourse are separate practices and should remain so. 3029: 2399: 2363: 3071: 4362: 4514: 3225: 2497: 5580: 4194:(Netherlands, 1798–1872) was the main theorist of Dutch liberalism in the nineteenth century, outlining a more democratic alternative to the absolute monarchy, the constitutional monarchy. The constitution of 1848 was mainly his work. His main theoretical article specifically labeled as 'liberal' was 'Over het hedendaagsche staatsburgerschap' (On Modern Citizenship) from 1844. He became prime minister in 1849, thus starting numerous fundamental reforms in Dutch politics. 4949: 1766: 4630: 1754: 5995:. He argues for equal basic liberties, equality of opportunity, and facilitating the maximum benefit to the least advantaged members of society in any case where inequalities may occur. Rawls's argument for these principles of social justice uses a thought experiment called the "original position", in which people deliberately select what kind of society they would choose to live in if they did not know which social position they would personally occupy. 3556: 153: 3984: 3790: 2754: 1985: 3889: 4072: 3703: 1888: 36: 5315:(Britain, 1870–1944) An Italian-born economic theorist who moved to Britain in the 1890s, where he made his name as a politician, journalist and author. In the early years of the 20th century his views attracted the interest of two future Prime Ministers, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. After a spell as Lloyd George's parliamentary private secretary, he was a Government minister in the latter stages of the First World War. 2867: 3602: 2768:, Montesquieu expounded the separation of powers in government and society. In government, Montesquieu encouraged division into the now standard legislative, judicial and executive branches; in society, he perceived a natural organization into king, the people and the aristocracy, with the latter playing a mediating role. "I do not write to censor that which is established in any country whatsoever," Montesquieu disclaimed in the 3504: 2305: 4444: 2970: 2444: 2194: 3414: 7974: 2511:, did not advocate this viewpoint, but instead that only a strong government could restrain unchecked interest: it did, however, advance a proto-liberal position in arguing for an inalienable "right of nature," the right to defend oneself, even against the state. Though his own ideological position is open to debate, his work influenced Spinoza, Locke, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison and many other liberals. 6394:). He advocated an unapologetically reductionist political philosophy characterized by meticulous analysis of the moral aspects of each social interaction, and did not shy away from addressing hard philosophical issues such as the original appropriation of property. Nozick is best known for providing the justification of a minimal state by showing that it can be established without any unjust steps. 2269:—as an essential characteristic of stable government. He argued that liberty was the central good which government should protect, and that "good people" would make good laws, whereas people who had lost their virtue could maintain their liberties only with difficulty. His Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored "Republics" over "Principalities". 6421:(Peru, 1941– ) is an advocate of transparency and private property rights, arguing that intransparent government leads to property not being given proper title, and therefore being "dead capital" which cannot be used as the basis of credit. Argues that laws which allocate property to those most able to use them for economic growth, so called "squatter's rights", are an important innovation. 3161: 2618: 4528:/Mexico 1794 – 1850) was a priest, lawyer, historian, politician and liberal ideologist. Considered one of the first supporters of liberalism in Mexico, he fought for the separation of church and state. Mora has been deemed "the most significant liberal spokesman for his generation his thought epitomizes the structure and the predominant orientation of Mexican liberalism." Some works: 5144:. Veblen was influential to a generation of American liberalism searching for a rational basis for the economy beyond corporate consolidation and "cut throat competition". Veblen's central argument was that individuals require sufficient non-economic time to become educated citizens. He caustically attacked pure material consumption for its own sake, and the idea that utility equalled 4700: 2535: 4106:(Poland-Lithuania 1770–1867) was a statesman, and international politician. He began as a foreign minister to the Russian Tsar Alexander I and built an anti-Napoleon coalition. He became a leader of the Polish government in exile, and an enemy of Russian Tsar Nicholas I. In exile he was an activist on the Polish Question across Europe, and stimulated early Balkan independence. 2507:(England, 1588–1679) theorized that government is the result of individual actions and human traits, and that it was motivated primarily by "interest", a term which would become crucial in the development of a liberal theory of government and political economy, since it is the foundation of the idea that individuals can be self-governing and self-regulating. His work 3713:(Smyrna, 1748–1833) A major figure of the Greek Enlightenment, Korais helped shape the modern Greek state with his theories on classical education, language, religion, secular law and constitutional government, with passionate views on the necessity of democracy. He corresponded with leading figures of the American republic, especially with Thomas Jefferson. 4839:, and he made the education of the literate Ottoman public his personal vocation. Though many of Şinasi's projects were incomplete at the time of his death, "he was at the forefront of a number of fields and put his stamp on the development of each field so long as it contained unsolved problems." Şinasi, influenced by Enlightenment thought, saw 5590:(Austria/United Kingdom/United States/Germany, 1899–1992) In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. Also a Nobel Prize winner in economics and predicter of the Great Depression like fellow Austrian School economist and mentor Ludwig von Mises. 3899:(United Kingdom, 1759–1797) is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. Works: 5716:(United States, 1905–1982) was a radical and influential moral and political philosopher. Her advocacy of strong self-interest in ethics was influenced, she claimed, by the thinkers Aristotle, Aquinas, and Locke. Her advocacy of pure laissez-faire capitalism was influenced by the classical liberal economists Mises and Hayek. 3532:. Ideologically, he was a champion of inalienable individual rights, although excluded women from his formulation, and as a Virginia planter, he held many enslaved persons. He advocated the separation of church and state. His ideas were repeated in many other liberal revolutions around the world, including the (early) 5813: 5636:, characterized by respect for a wide variety of opinions and behaviors and a preference for audacious but piecemeal political reform over either conservative stasis or revolutionary utopianism. In his view, all simplistic and grandiose theories of history and society shared a common feature he called 2272:

Machiavelli differed from true liberal thinking however, in that he still noted the benefits of princely governance. He states that republican leaders need to "act alone" if they want to reform a republic, and offers the example of Romulus, who killed his brother and co-ruler to found a great city.

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authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or "good Egyptian"; and his ideas on public interest and public good. Tahtawi's work was the first effort in what became an Egyptian renaissance

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before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitutes liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Theorists whose ideas were mainly typical for one country

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Montesquieu's work had a seminal impact on the American and French revolutionaries. Ironically, the least liberal element of his thought—his privileging of the aristocracy—was belied by both revolutions. Montesquieu's system came to fruition in America, a country with no aristocracy; in France,

4561:(United States, 1803–1882) was an American philosopher who argued that the basic principles of government were mutable, and that government is required only insofar as people are not self-governing. Proponent of Democracy, and of the idea that a democratic people must have a democratic ethics. 3689:

and several political leaders. Bentham demanded economic and individual freedom, including the separation of the state and church, freedom of expression, completely equal rights for women, the end of slavery and colonialism, uniform democracy, the abolition of physical punishment of adults and

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Adam Smith outlined the key idea that if the economy is basically left to its own devices, limited and finite resources will be put to ultimately their most efficient use through people acting purely in their self-interest. This concept has been quoted out of context by later economists as the

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His Stoic, Cato, advocated for Greek Stoicism in Cicero's books. It's a development of Aristotle's ethics and goes further, advocating equal rights for all people. It was found to be scientifically true on inspection in the '90s, by Becker (1998). He was also a major influence to John Locke.

5197: 6324: 3193:, including stopping slavery, which today partly form the basic liberal ideology. He was also opposed to stock-holding companies, what today is called a "corporation", because he predicated the self-policing of the free market upon the free association of moral individuals. 2141:

Ibn Rushd, a Spanish-Arab philosopher, advocated for the compatibility of reason and philosophy with Islamic faith. His commentaries on Aristotle and independent works promoted the separation of reason and revelation, profoundly influencing both Islamic and Western thought.

4735:." He supported a state limited in its duties to the defense of persons and their property. For Spencer, voluntary cooperation was the hallmark of the most vibrant form of society, accommodating the widest diversity of members and the greatest diversity of goals. Spencer's 5035:

Lester Ward was a botanist, paleontologist, and sociologist. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Association. Ward was a fierce and unrelenting critic of the laissez-faire policies advocated by Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner.

2772:; however, he did pay special attention to what he felt was the positive example of the constitutional system in England, which in spite of its evolution toward a fusion of powers, had moderated the power of the monarch, and divided Parliament along class lines. 2115:(8th to 14th century) was marked by a flourishing of intellectual activity in the Islamic world. Several scholars and thinkers from this era contributed to ideas that align with certain liberal principles, emphasizing reason, justice, and individual rights. 2153:

Ibn Sina, a polymath known for contributions to medicine and metaphysics, delved into political philosophy. In *The Book of Healing*, he discussed the need for a well-ordered state, emphasizing the role of a philosopher-king guided by reason and wisdom.

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society in which family and property are held in common: Aristotle makes the argument that when one's own son or land is rightfully one's own, one puts much more effort into cultivating that item, to the ultimate betterment of society. He references

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as a fundamental right and used journalism in order to engage, communicate with, and educate the public. By speaking directly to the public about government affairs, Şinasi declared that state actions were not solely the interest of the government.

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as 'bad' forms. Considering each in turn, Aristotle rejects Monarchy as infantilizing of citizens, Oligarchy as too profit-motivated, Tyranny as against the will of the people, Democracy as serving only to the poor, and Aristocracy (known today as

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under the leadership of Steve Radford and Meadowcroft joined the Liberal Democrats in 2007. He has regularly argued for the importance of political philosophy and that members of the Liberal Democrats require more conviction in their beliefs.

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Anti-statist liberals consider Machiavelli's distrust as his main message, noting his call for a strong state under a strong leader, who should use any means to establish his position, whereas liberalism is an ideology of

3694:: he supported an inheritance tax, restrictions on monopoly power, pensions, health insurance, and other social security, but he called for prudence and careful consideration in any such governmental intervention. 2265:

government, citizen armies, protection of personal property, and restraint of government expenditure as being necessary to the liberties of a republic. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative—

5943:(United States, 1919–2013) is known for his economic theories of the political process, which were among the first to take seriously the concept of politicians as rational actors that respond to incentives. 5337:. He was an influential person in the Egyptian nationalist movement and used his position in the media to strive and gain an independent Egypt from British rule. He was also one of the architects of modern 5218:(Germany, 1864–1920) was a theorist of state power and the relationship of culture to economics. Argued that there was a moral component to capitalism rooted in "Protestant" values. Weber was along with 2273:

Republics need to refer to arbitrary and violent measures if it is necessary to maintain the structure of the government, as Machiavelli says that they have to ignore thoughts of justice and fairness.

2373:(France, 1530–1563) was a French writer, magistrate and political theorist. According to Etienne the chief question of political philosophy was the question of how people come to accept the will of 3869:, he supported many reforms in Poland. He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the "Great (Four-Year) Sejm" (1788–92) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791. 3632:(1788), calling for better treatment of black slaves. Her most famous quote is “A woman has the right to mount the scaffold. She must possess equally the right to mount the speaker's platform.” 4811:. He was the innovator of several fields: he wrote one of the earliest examples of an Ottoman play, he encouraged the trend of translating poetry from French into Turkish, he simplified the 1332: 4539:

Disertación sobre la naturaleza y aplicación de las rentas y bienes eclesiásticas, y sobre la autoridad a que se hallan sujetos en cuanto a su creación, aumento, sustencia o supresión

3865:(Poland-Lithuania, 1755–1826) was a Catholic priest, philosopher, geologist, writer, poet, translator and statesman. A physiocrat, monist, pan-Slavist (after 1815) and an advocate of 4320:

published after Tahtawi's death, recording a comprehensive account of the life of Prophet Mohammed and the political, legal and administrative foundations of the first Islamic state.

2037:) as ideal but ultimately impossible. Aristotle finally concludes that a polity—a combination between democracy and oligarchy, where most can vote but must choose among the rich and 3827:'s wartime legislation and defended the liberty of religious minorities and political radicals. After Pitt's death in January 1806, Fox served briefly as Foreign Secretary in the ' 3448:

sought the origins of poverty, locating them in inequitable distribution of land, "a violation of humankind's natural rights," which could be remedied through an estate tax.

5483:, detailing the importance of differentiating between the management of corporations and the share holders who are the owners. Influential in the theory of New Deal policy. 4267:. In 1831, Tahtawi was part of the statewide effort to modernize the Egyptian infrastructure and education. Three of his published volumes were works of political and moral 1869:. Generally only thinkers are listed whereas politicians are only listed when they also made substantial contributions to liberal theory beside their active political work. 2126:

Al-Farabi, known as "the Second Teacher," was a philosopher influential in transmitting Greek philosophy to the Islamic world. His political philosophy, seen in works like

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against the power of religious authorities. Spinoza laid the philosophical groundwork for the emancipation of Jews, putting them on an equal footing as other citizens.

6098: 5640:, which he traces back to Plato, while the open society mirrors the methodological fallibilism pioneered by Popper in his earlier works on philosophy of science. 2319:, critic of entrenched interests, irrationality and superstition. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the 4480:, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. Mill was also a champion of women's rights. 2065:

tribes of his time in which property was held in common, and the laziest of the bunch would always take away large amounts of food grown by the most diligent.

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as "the main, indeed very nearly the only, philosopher of applied Liberalism within the old Liberal Party from the late 1960s onwards". On the merger of the

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According to Isaiah Berlin, the most eloquent of all defenders of freedom and privacy Benjamin Constant, who had not forgotten the Jacobin dictatorship.

5353:, insisting that Egyptians are Egyptians and not Arabs. He is considered one of the most influential scholars and intellectuals in the history of Egypt. 3760: 3620: 2127: 1096: 3243: 5238: 4462:

helped lay the foundation for advancements in empirical science and public policy based on verifiable improvements. Strongly influenced by Bentham's

5991:(United States, 1921–2002) One of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century, largely responsible for the rebirth of normative 4023: 7422: 1829:, the primacy of the individual and the nation as opposed to the state and religion as being the fundamental units of law, politics and economy. 17: 7287: 7240: 6300:

as an attempt to convert the Labour Party to a tradition of radical liberalism, in which he included Karl Popper. He later followed this with

1121: 1091: 5889:(United States, 1912–2006), winner of a Nobel Prize in Economics and a self-identified Classical Liberal and libertarian, was known for the 3436:

he returned to England then fled to France, to avoid arrest because advocated the right of the people to overthrow their government. In the

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who spent most of his career in opposition. He opposed tyranny of any sort or the threat of it. For this reason he was a staunch critic of

1796: 1173: 2099:, James A. Dorn wrote that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals 7828: 1952: 100: 7218: 3284: 2289: 1905: 53: 7626:"The Protestan Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism | PART I. THE PROBLEM | CHAPTER I | RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION" 6925: 6719:

he argues that certain "group-differentiated rights" of minority cultures can be consistent with these liberal-democratic principles.

2001:. He made invaluable contributions to liberal theory through his observations on different forms of government and the nature of man. 1924: 72: 6343: 3543: 3519: 2325: 1126: 246: 7939:"The Liberal Democrats: A Study for a Relevant Basis of Philosophy and Political Values – And for Reviving and Developing the Party" 6889:

Ibn Rushd. *Averroes' Middle Commentary on Aristotle's 'De Anima'*. Translated by Alfred L. Ivry, Cambridge University Press, 2006.

1516: 7945: 7651: 1821:. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late 18th century as a movement towards self-government and away from 5917: 2688: 1931: 1106: 79: 7878: 7603: 4819:, and he was one of the first of the Ottoman writers to write specifically for the broader public. Şinasi used his newspapers, 4608: 4314:, the first part of the History Encyclopedia published in 1868 and tracing the history of ancient Egypt till the dawn of Islam. 3904: 3529: 1595: 6715:

are compatible with liberal-democratic principles of individual freedom, social equality and political democracy. In his book

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with others who did not want to compromise the philosophy of liberalism. However, the new Liberal Party became increasingly

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Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.

3994:(France, 1767–1830) Regarded by some as one of the fathers of modern liberalism, he was initially a republican during the 3958:

Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la république en France

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and freedom in the late 20th century. He was involved with various political movements throughout his life, notably with

4435:. American liberal theorists who also had influence on liberalism outside the United States are included in this section. 4208:

Claude Frédéric Bastiat was a French classical liberal theorist, political economist, and member of the French assembly.

1583: 1295: 1146: 748: 2987: 2461: 2211: 7978: 6798: 6647: 6019: 3912: 1506: 1404: 1352: 1290: 1285: 1223: 5027: 2130:, stressed the importance of justice and the common good in governance, influencing both Muslim and European thought. 1920: 68: 6745: 6054: 3009: 2483: 2233: 2046: 1971: 1511: 1136: 891: 119: 7426: 7219:"1785 | FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS by Immanuel Kant | translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott" 4466:, he disagrees with Kant's intuitive notion of right and formulates the "highest normative principle" of morals as: 7313: 5648: 5043:(1883) Dynamic Sociology: Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences. 3812: 3444:, promoted reason and freethought, and argued against religion in general and Christian doctrine in particular. In 3398: 2384: 1789: 1546: 7851: 4874: 3941: 2672:. Locke developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility. 6522: 6218: 6115: 4432: 3804: 1573: 478: 2776:

political maneuvering by the aristocracy led to the convocation of the 1789 Estates-General and popular revolt.

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children, the right to divorce, free prices, free trade, and no restrictions on interest. Bentham was not a

3376: 2246: 1454: 6457: 6418: 6293: 5894: 5785: 5614: 4672: 3251: 3113:(together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades) 3087:(together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades) 2931:(together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades) 2891:(together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades) 2799:(together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades) 2169:. The novel discussed a person raised in isolation, emphasizing themes of individual pursuit of knowledge. 1853: 4179: 3290: 7733: 5606: 4866: 3828: 1782: 1444: 1021: 488: 382: 4650:(Economic and rentistic system of the Argentine Confederation, according to its 1853 Constitution), 1854 3175:, was a key figure in formulating and advancing economic doctrine of free trade and competition. In his 911: 6880:

Al-Farabi. *The Political Writings*. Translated by Charles Butterworth, Cornell University Press, 2001.

6402: 5349:. He was fondly known as the "Professor of the Generation". Lutfi was one of the fiercest opponents of 4731:" and argued against liberal theory promoting more activist government, which he dubbed "a new form of 4454:(United Kingdom, 1806–1873) is one of the first champions of modern "liberalism." As such, his work on 3777: 3098: 2991: 2980: 2465: 2454: 2215: 2204: 1945: 1496: 1161: 946: 628: 473: 93: 7348: 6844:"Al-Farabi's Virtuous City and its Contemporary Significance (Social State in Al-Farabi's Philosophy)" 6114:(Poland, 1927–2009), philosopher and historian of ideas. He was a leading inspiration behind Poland's 4727:(United Kingdom, 1820–1903), philosopher, psychologist, and sociologist, advanced what he called the " 8003: 7295: 7248: 6843: 5724: 5253: 4521: 3665: 2370: 1607: 1501: 1111: 901: 3752: 6465: 4816: 4550: 3851: 3824: 3772: 1394: 1379: 1245: 1141: 392: 199: 7683: 7241:"1788 | THE CRITIQUE OF PRACTICAL REASON by Immanuel Kant | translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott" 5090: 4930:(Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences: with special reference to economics), 1883 4928:

Untersuchungen über die Methode der Sozialwissenschaften und der Politischen Ökonomie insbesondere

4821: 4133:, with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and conversations with Palmerston in 1832 3933: 996: 881: 7708: 7604:"The Project Gutenberg Etext of Democracy and Education, by Dewey #1 in our series by John Dewey" 7569:

Nergis Ertürk, Grammatology and Literary Modernity in Turkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP, 2011. Print.

6066: 5227: 5145: 4003: 3041: 2703: 2633: 2519: 2262: 1898: 1699: 1578: 1521: 1409: 1374: 1233: 1188: 1101: 936: 326: 291: 172: 46: 5437: 778: 6461: 5909: 5820: 5068: 4812: 4596: 4191: 4103: 3049: 2810: 2423: 2320: 1612: 1588: 1556: 1526: 1491: 1486: 1461: 1322: 1240: 1116: 1086: 311: 7591: 4644:(Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), 1852 3428:, political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary. His ideas reflected 2937:, 1756 (Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History) 2254: 27:

Contributors to the ideology favoring individual rights, democracy and equality before the law

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Wendell, C; P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C. E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W. P. Heinrichs (2011).

6615: 6090: 5777: 5461: 5414: 5223: 4961: 4840: 4623: 4399: 3201: 3022: 2944: 2822: 2715: 2398: 1733: 1655: 1630: 1602: 1561: 1541: 1531: 1476: 1414: 1389: 1305: 1300: 1265: 1250: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1183: 1178: 1131: 1026: 1001: 991: 896: 728: 713: 613: 555: 7288:"1785 | INTRODUCTION TO THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS by Immanuel Kant | translated by W. Hastie" 7226: 7193: 7004: 6898:

Ibn Sina. *Avicenna's Political Philosophy*. Translated by Reza Pourjavady, Routledge, 2018.

2879: 2362: 871: 6917: 6627: 6557: 6355: 6082: 6011: 5992: 5338: 5323: 4854:(1859, translation of poems from the French of La Fontaine, Lamartine, Gilbert, and Racine) 4832: 4728: 4648:

Sistema económico y rentistico de la Confederación Argentina, según su Constitución de 1853

4410: 4272: 4245: 4079: 3808: 3764: 3579: 3563: 3429: 3261:, 1793 (On the common saying: this may be true in theory but it does not apply in practice) 3259:Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis 3028: 2329:(1524), he analyzes the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom. 1997: 1866: 1818: 1810: 1721: 1536: 1481: 1471: 1449: 1429: 1424: 1384: 1369: 1347: 1310: 1260: 1218: 1208: 1168: 688: 653: 562: 515: 360: 234: 229: 224: 167: 6358:. And is an advocate of rationality as the fundamental safe guard of freedom and justice. 6130:

The Individual and the Infinite: Freedom and Antinomies of Freedom in Spinoza's Philosophy

6111: 4858: 3862: 678: 152: 8: 7993: 7469: 6509: 6449: 6003: 5598: 5346: 5342: 5057: 4827: 4804: 4661: 4558: 4219: 3896: 3768: 3464: 3433: 2560: 2341: 1716: 1364: 1337: 1280: 1228: 1011: 783: 723: 673: 446: 365: 306: 239: 209: 204: 177: 136: 5052:(1906) Applied Sociology. A Treatise on the Conscious Improvement of Society by Society. 3070: 2860: 7655: 6863: 6453: 6210: 6058: 6038: 5793: 5079: 5049:(1903) Pure Sociology. A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society. 4308:, published in 1873 and reflecting the main precepts of Tahtawi's educational thoughts. 3970:

Appel aux souverains réunis à Paris pour en obtenir l'abolition de la traite des nègres

3877: 2278: 2112: 1826: 1439: 1342: 1255: 1051: 986: 886: 441: 421: 258: 7938: 7262: 6296:, he wrote in his autobiography that he considered himself a liberal. He saw his book 6288:(1930-2019) wrote some books of political philosophy. Although he was a member of the 4743:'s "invisible hand" explanation of economic order; his extensive work on sympathy (in 703: 7882: 7800: 7775: 7750: 7056:

A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age

6867: 6812: 6804: 6794: 6741: 6711:(Canada, 1962– ) tries in his philosophy to determine if forms of ethnic or minority 6518: 6351: 6339: 6289: 6074: 5940: 5361: 5312: 5219: 5185: 5021: 4889: 4473: 4455: 4361: 4355: 4264: 4047: 3995: 3991: 3832: 3820: 3800: 3756: 3710: 3682: 3625: 3571: 3533: 3480: 3177: 2845: 2826: 2788: 2738: 2719: 2100: 1832:

Since then liberalism broadened to include a wide range of approaches from Americans

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The methodology of Egyptians minds with regard to the marvels of modern literature

2576:, Spinoza articulates a strong critique of religious intolerance and a defense of 926: 7541: 6975: 6946: 6778: 6762: 6651: 6603: 6179: 6042: 6034: 5886: 5587: 5277: 5109:(The positive theory of capital and its critics), in three volumes, 1895 and 1896 4900: 4724: 4642:

Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina

4513: 3794: 3575: 3567: 3190: 1770: 1066: 1056: 1041: 961: 951: 931: 823: 803: 763: 738: 648: 542: 530: 520: 461: 321: 316: 187: 7169:"The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project" 3363:

Observations on Civil Liberty and the Nature and Justice of the War with America

3147:

Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America

3109: 3083: 2927: 2887: 2795: 7494: 6790: 6782: 6631: 6580: 6387: 6256: 5925: 5488: 5126: 4771: 4463: 3691: 3678: 3674: 3659: 3224: 3183: 2637: 2546: 2539: 2096: 1995:(Athens, 384–322 BC) is revered among political theorists for his seminal work 1833: 1738: 1711: 1706: 1679: 1635: 981: 916: 768: 743: 708: 658: 598: 525: 426: 387: 377: 251: 219: 7389:

The Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of Commons

7102: 3840:

The Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of Commons

2165:

Ibn Tufail, a philosopher and physician, explored individualism and reason in

971: 793: 7987: 7309: 6816: 6766: 6708: 6655: 6643: 6383: 6335: 6312: 5898: 5890: 5850: 5204: 4344:, a collection of congratulatory writings to some princes, published in 1872. 4144: 3866: 3472: 3387: 3232: 3124: 3064: 2504: 1837: 1694: 1016: 976: 906: 876: 843: 838: 818: 698: 623: 535: 398: 214: 6126:

Jednostka i nieskończoność. Wolność i antynomie wolności w filozofii Spinozy

5676:

to a clear anti-apartheid stand of South African liberalism. His party, the

4126:

Alexander I. et Czartoryski: correspondence ... et conversations (1801–1823)

3612:(French, 1748–1793) is best known as an advocate of women's rights, writing 3110: