Counterfactual conditional

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breakfast, he does not feel hungry at 11 am. Although it is controversial, Lewis rejected the limit assumption (and therefore the uniqueness assumption) because it rules out the possibility that there might be worlds that get closer and closer to the actual world without limit. For example, there might be an infinite series of worlds, each with a coffee cup a smaller fraction of an inch to the left of its actual position, but none of which is uniquely the closest. (See Lewis 1973: 20.)

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sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e.g., "Mark did not leave home early" and "Mark did not catch the train". In other experiments, participants were asked to read short stories that contained counterfactual conditionals, e.g., "If there had been roses in the flower shop then there would have been lilies". Later in the story, they read sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e.g., "there were no roses and there were no lilies". The counterfactual conditional

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in all accessible worlds. If this same model were used to evaluate a subsequent utterance of "If Hannah had drunk coffee and the coffee had gasoline in it...", this second conditional would come out as trivially true, since there are no accessible worlds where its antecedent holds. Warmbrōd's idea was that speakers will switch to a model with a more permissive accessibility relation in order to avoid this triviality.

2708: 1423:. This definition has been shown to be compatible with the axioms of possible world semantics and forms the basis for causal inference in the natural and social sciences, since each structural equation in those domains corresponds to a familiar causal mechanism that can be meaningfully reasoned about by investigators. This approach was developed by 1321:

worlds where the fair coin lands heads are no more or less close than the worlds where they land tails. For Lewis, "If the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads or tails" is true, but this does not entail that "If the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads, or: If the coin had been flipped it would have landed tails."

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On Lewis's account, A > C is (a) vacuously true if and only if there are no worlds where A is true (for example, if A is logically or metaphysically impossible); (b) non-vacuously true if and only if, among the worlds where A is true, some worlds where C is true are closer to the actual world than

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Sarah Moss (2012) and Karen Lewis (2018) have responded to these arguments, showing that a version of the variably strict analysis can account for these patterns, and arguing that such an account is preferable since it can also account for apparent exceptions. As of 2020, this debate continues in the

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is widely used as an umbrella term for the kinds of sentences shown above. However, not all conditionals of this sort express contrary-to-fact meanings. For instance, the classic example known as the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but does not

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are the terms used in the philosophical literature on conditionals and because we will refer to that literature in the course of this paper, I have decided to keep these terms in the present discussion... however, it would be wrong to believe that mood choice is a necessary component of the semantic

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that encompass two possibilities when they understand, and reason from, a counterfactual conditional, e.g., "if Oswald had not shot Kennedy, then someone else would have". They envisage the conjecture "Oswald did not shoot Kennedy and someone else did" and they also think about the presupposed facts

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them to read the sentence corresponding to the presupposed facts very rapidly; no such priming effect occurred for indicative conditionals. They spent different amounts of time 'updating' a story that contains a counterfactual conditional compared to one that contains factual information and focused

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the limit assumption, but the limit assumption does not entail the uniqueness assumption.) On Stalnaker's account, A > C is non-vacuously true if and only if, at the closest world where A is true, C is true. So, the above example is true just in case at the single, closest world where he ate more

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logic, but in fact can rather be explained by speakers switching to more permissive accessibility relations as the sequence proceeds. In his system, a counterfactual like "If Hannah had drunk coffee, she would be happy" would normally be evaluated using a model where Hannah's coffee is gasoline-free

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is not. The strict conditional is also context-dependent, at least when given a relational semantics (or something similar). In the relational framework, accessibility relations are parameters of evaluation which encode the range of possibilities which are treated as "live" in the context. Since the

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analysis, a natural language conditional, a statement of the form "if P then Q", is true whenever its antecedent, P, is false. Since counterfactual conditionals are those whose antecedents are false, this analysis would wrongly predict that all counterfactuals are vacuously true. Goodman illustrates

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On Stalnaker's analysis, there is a closest world where the fair coin mentioned in (1) and (2) is flipped and at that world either it lands heads or it lands tails. So either (1) is true and (2) is false or (1) is false and (2) true. On Lewis's analysis, however, both (1) and (2) are false, for the

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On Lewis's account, the truth of this statement consists in the fact that, among possible worlds where he ate more for breakfast, there is at least one world where he is not hungry at 11 am and which is closer to our world than any world where he ate more for breakfast but is still hungry at 11 am.

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Experiments have compared the inferences people make from counterfactual conditionals and indicative conditionals. Given a counterfactual conditional, e.g., "If there had been a circle on the blackboard then there would have been a triangle", and the subsequent information "in fact there was no

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is true, then all instances of the formula (A > C) ∨ (A > ¬C) are true. The law of excluded middle is the thesis that for all propositions p, p ∨ ¬p is true. If the uniqueness assumption is true, then for every antecedent A, there is a uniquely closest world where A is true. If the law of

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Participants in experiments were asked to read sentences, including counterfactual conditionals, e.g., "If Mark had left home early, he would have caught the train". Afterwards, they were asked to identify which sentences they had been shown. They often mistakenly believed they had been shown

1614:. In the indicative example, the bolded words are present tense forms. In the counterfactual example, both words take their past tense form. This use of the past tense cannot have its ordinary temporal meaning, since it can be used with the adverb "tomorrow" without creating a contradiction. 289:

have sometimes been repurposed for more specific uses. For instance, the term "counterfactual" is sometimes applied to conditionals that express a contrary-to-fact meaning, regardless of their grammatical structure. Along similar lines, the term "subjunctive" is sometimes used to refer to

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There is no standard system of terminology for these grammatical forms in English. Pullum and Huddleston (2002, pp. 85-86) adopt the term "irrealis" for this morphological form, reserving the term "subjunctive" for the English clause type whose distribution more closely parallels that of

2010:, i.e. which component of the sentence's meaning is shifted to an earlier time. When a sentence has "real" past marking, it discusses something that happened at an earlier time; when a sentence has so-called fake past marking, it discusses possibilities that were 277:

that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals.

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is consistent with the current beliefs, but can be hard otherwise. Every semantics for belief revision can be used for evaluating conditional statements. Conversely, every method for evaluating conditionals can be seen as a way for performing revision.

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These conditionals differ in both form and meaning. The indicative conditional uses the present tense form "owns" and therefore conveys that the speaker is agnostic about whether Sally in fact owns a donkey. The counterfactual example uses the

2071:, since they are identical except that the first uses past imperfective marking where the second uses past perfective marking. As a result of this morphological difference, the first has a counterfactual meaning, while the second does not. 413:

More generally, such examples show that counterfactuals are not truth-functional. In other words, knowing whether the antecedent and consequent are actually true is not sufficient to determine whether the counterfactual itself is true.

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excluded middle is true, any consequent C is either true or false at that world where A is true. So for every counterfactual A > C, either A > C or A > ¬C is true. This is called conditional excluded middle (CEM). Example:

162:"would" in the "then" clause. As a result, it conveys that Sally does not in fact own a donkey. English has several other grammatical forms whose meanings are sometimes included under the umbrella of counterfactuality. One is the 1585:, or a combination thereof. Since the early 2000s, linguists, philosophers of language, and philosophical logicians have intensely studied the nature of this grammatical marking, and it continues to be an active area of study. 1031:

The strict conditional analysis encounters many known problems, notably monotonicity. In the classical relational framework, when using a standard notion of entailment, the strict conditional is monotonic, i.e. it validates

3085:"The terminology is of course linguistically inept ( the morphological marking is one of tense and aspect, not of indicative vs. subjunctive mood), but it is so deeply entrenched that it would be foolish not to use it." 1291:

to the actual world. The limit assumption is the thesis that, for a given antecedent A, if there is a chain of possible worlds where A is true, each closer to the actual world than its predecessor, then the chain has a

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inference "there was no circle" more often than they do from an indicative conditional. Given the counterfactual conditional and the subsequent information "in fact there was a circle", participants make the

96:. Other research has addressed their metaphysical, psychological, and grammatical underpinnings, while applying some of the resultant insights to fields including history, marketing, and epidemiology. 88:

approach, in which a counterfactual's truth hinges on its consequent holding at certain possible worlds where its antecedent holds. More recent formal analyses have treated them using tools such as

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treats the past tense as having an inherently temporal denotation. On this approach, so-called fake tense is not actually fake. It differs from "real" tense only in how it takes

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frequently. Experimental evidence indicates that people's thoughts about counterfactual conditionals differ in important ways from their thoughts about indicative conditionals.

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which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactuals are contrasted with

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truth of a strict conditional can depend on the accessibility relation used to evaluate it, this feature of the strict conditional can be used to capture context-dependence.

1060: 1183:. However, subsequent work has revived the strict conditional analysis by appealing to context sensitivity. This approach was pioneered by Warmbrōd (1981), who argued that 684: 3630: 3812: 3201: 1244:

is given by some function on the relative closeness of worlds where A is true and B is true, on the one hand, and worlds where A is true but B is not, on the other.

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or temporal content. For instance, the particular past as modal proposal of Iatridou (2000), the past tense's core meaning is what is shown schematically below:

1080: 1025: 1005: 985: 965: 910: 861: 1383:. In a system of equations, each variable is assigned a value that is an explicit function of other variables in the system. Given such a model, the sentence " 1999:

is a world, it will convey that the sentence is talking about a potentially non-actual possibility. The latter is what allows for a counterfactual meaning.

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held that counterfactuals are not strictly logical, and do not make true or false claims about the world. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, work by

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of fake tense along with other morphemes. For this reason, fake tense has often been treated as the locus of the counterfactual meaning itself.

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analysis of conditionals, which treats them all as trivially true. Starting in the 1960s, philosophers and linguists developed the now-classic

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Unlike the material conditional, the strict conditional is not vacuously true when its antecedent is false. To see why, observe that both

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this point using the following pair in a context where it is understood that the piece of butter under discussion had not been heated.

4298: 1427:(2000) as a means of encoding fine-grained intuitions about causal relations which are difficult to capture in other proposed systems. 4772: 2777: 1195:

Subsequent work by Kai von Fintel (2001), Thony Gillies (2007), and Malte Willer (2019) has formalized this idea in the framework of

1283:. The uniqueness assumption is the thesis that, for any antecedent A, among the possible worlds where A is true, there is a single ( 1257: 587:

is often taken as the standard within linguistics. However, there are numerous possible worlds approaches on the market, including

49:, which are generally restricted to discussing open possibilities. Counterfactuals are characterized grammatically by their use of 4248:

Thompson, Valerie A.; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (2002). "Reasoning counterfactually: Making inferences about things that didn't happen".

1296:: a possible world where A is true that is closer to the actual worlds than all worlds in the chain. (The uniqueness assumption 2446:

In ordinary non-conditional sentences, such adverbials are compatible with perfective aspect but not with imperfective aspect:

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in the sense that their truth values can be changed by adding extra material to their antecedents. This fact is illustrated by

253:, though this term is likewise acknowledged as a misnomer even by those who use it. Many languages do not have a morphological 1228:

literature, with accounts such as Willer (2019) arguing that a strict conditional account can cover these exceptions as well.

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holds across some set of possible worlds where A is true. They vary mainly in how they identify the set of relevant A-worlds.

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Fake past is extremely prevalent cross-linguistically, either on its own or in combination with other morphemes. Moreover,

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If Hannah had drunk coffee and the coffee had gasoline in it and Hannah were a gasoline-drinking robot, she would be happy.

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X-marked desires or: What wanting and wishing crosslinguistically can tell us about the ingredients of counterfactuality

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If Hannah had drunk coffee with gasoline in it, she would not be happy. But if she had drunk coffee, she would be happy.

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counterfactual, which contrasts with indicatives and simple past counterfactuals in its use of pluperfect morphology:

4150: 4123: 4087: 4060: 3388: 3184: 1930:, fake past is regarded as a puzzle, since it is not obvious why so many unrelated languages would repurpose a tense 2689: 498: 4727: 3069: 1457: 1356: 1200: 20: 1995:

is a time, the past tense will convey that the sentence is talking about non-current times, i.e. the past. When

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Ginsberg (1986) has proposed a semantics for conditionals which assumes that the current beliefs form a set of

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tra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as

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morphology. Since these uses of the past tense do not convey their typical temporal meaning, they are called

717: 1199:, and given a number of linguistic arguments in favor. One argument is that conditional antecedents license 432:. For example, either of the following statements can be reasonably held true, though not at the same time: 5014: 5009: 3566: 1085: 915: 614: 4189:

Kożuchowski, Adam (2015). "More than true: The rhetorical function of counterfactuals in historiography".

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Languages use different strategies for expressing counterfactuality. Some have a dedicated counterfactual

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to each. The rationale is that each of these maximal sets represents a possible state of belief in which

245:: If Jones had taken arsenic, he would have shown just exactly those symptoms which he does in fact show. 4868: 4530: 4351: 4230: 3690: 3427:, vol. 30, FIZ Karlsruhe – Leibniz Institute for Information Infrastructure GmbH, pp. 13–14, 3260: 2798: 3421:"Review of the paper: M. L. Ginsberg, "Counterfactuals," Artificial Intelligence 30 (1986), pp. 35–79" 1942:. These approaches differ in whether or not they take the past tense's core meaning to be about time. 4873: 4823: 4585: 4474: 4284: 2742: 1911: 1610:. English is one language which uses fake past to mark counterfactuality, as shown in the following 1380: 1179:

This fact led to widespread abandonment of the strict conditional, in particular in favor of Lewis's

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English fake past is sometimes erroneously referred to as "subjunctive", even though it is not the

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it was unclear what he meant by 'closeness', in later writings, Lewis made it clear that he did

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This imperfective marking has been argued to be fake on the grounds that it is compatible with

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conditionals that bear fake past or irrealis marking, regardless of the meaning they convey.

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Fillenbaum, Samuel (1974). "Information amplified: Memory for counterfactual conditionals".

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hold for any connective > intended as a formalization of natural language conditionals.

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The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically

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The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically

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iff the corresponding material conditional is true throughout the worlds accessible from

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have argued that other languages' strategies for marking counterfactuality are actually

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One consequence of Stalnaker's acceptance of the uniqueness assumption is that, if the

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is true that is as similar as possible to the original one. The conditional statement

4948: 4903: 4883: 4843: 4782: 4752: 4732: 4525: 4454: 4265: 4234: 4210: 4181: 4173: 4146: 4119: 4083: 4056: 4052: 4025: 3932: 3888: 3797: 3762: 3543: 3440: 3432: 3384: 3180: 3022: 2923: 2898: 2827: 2713: 2442:"If you built this house in a month, you would be able to sell it before the summer." 2049: 2037: 1574: 1196: 588: 557:. Broadly speaking, these approaches have in common that they treat a counterfactual 381: 93: 3944: 3675: 3521: 3327: 3158: 3123: 2872:. Semantics and Linguistic Theory. Linguistic Society of America. pp. 547–570. 2028:

often accompanies fake tense in languages that mark aspect. In some languages (e.g.

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to mark counterfactuality. Proposed solutions to this puzzle divide into two camps:

4994: 4953: 4878: 4767: 4545: 4257: 4198: 4169: 4138: 4111: 4048: 4015: 4005: 3974: 3922: 3908:"Canceling updating in the comprehension of counterfactuals embedded in narratives" 3880: 3846: 3785: 3750: 3721: 3663: 3509: 3444: 3428: 3353: 3307: 3239: 3146: 3111: 3051: 2967: 2873: 2813: 2727: 2680: 2428:

An eχtizes to spiti (mesa) se ena mina θa prolavenes na to pulisis prin to kalokeri

2053: 1980: 1582: 1316:(2) If the fair coin had been flipped, it would have landed tails (i.e. not heads). 695: 584: 357: 114: 62: 4757: 4660: 4555: 4520: 4202: 4077: 3776:

Ippolito, Michela (2003). "Presuppositions and implicatures in counterfactuals".

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is another language where counterfactuality is marked with a fake past morpheme:

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Schulz, Katrin (2014). "Fake tense in conditional sentences: A modal approach".

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Anderson, Alan (1951). "A Note on Subjunctive and Counterfactual Conditionals".

1407:) is defined as the assertion: If we replace the equation currently determining 4943: 4938: 4858: 4742: 4620: 4515: 4356: 2971: 2818: 1988: 1275:

Stalnaker's account differs from Lewis's most notably in his acceptance of the

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If Hannah had drunk coffee and the coffee had gasoline in it, she would be sad.

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Another kind of conditional uses the form "were", generally referred to as the

85: 3978: 3789: 3754: 3667: 3150: 4983: 4630: 4605: 4439: 4142: 3994:"Deductive reasoning with factual, possible, and counterfactual conditionals" 3866:"Counterfactual and Semifactual Conditionals Prime Alternative Possibilities" 3055: 2767: 2722: 2693: 2664: 2033: 437: 262: 3960:"Anomalies in real and counterfactual worlds: An eye-movement investigation" 3741:

Arregui, Ana (2007). "When aspect matters: the case of would-conditionals".

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framework, counterfactuals are treated using a formal implementation of the

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analysis treats natural language counterfactuals as being equivalent to the

265:) and many that do have it do not use it for this sort of conditional (e.g. 4898: 4818: 4685: 4565: 4449: 4429: 4269: 4029: 3936: 3892: 2669: 2068: 2064: 2029: 1611: 1248:

any world where C is not true; or (c) false otherwise. Although in Lewis's

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has built on this insight, taking it in a variety of different directions.

117: 89: 3691:"Supplement to "Counterfactuals": Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals" 1537:, considering the maximal sets of these formulae that are consistent with 1267:

If he had eaten more at breakfast, he would not have been hungry at 11 am.

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is considered the classic analysis within philosophy. The closely related

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If that piece of butter had been heated to 150°, it would not have melted.

4813: 4787: 4670: 4434: 4361: 4218: 3014: 2762: 1424: 1169:{\displaystyle \Box (P\rightarrow Q)\models \Box (P\land R\rightarrow Q)} 608: 254: 1500:

as a consequence. This condition relates counterfactual conditionals to

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The most common logical accounts of counterfactuals are couched in the

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Conditionals that discuss what would have been if things were otherwise

4020: 2688:"Oswald did shoot Kennedy and someone else did not". According to the 406:

If that piece of butter had been heated to 150°, it would have melted.

4762: 4580: 4505: 4484: 4414: 4366: 4346: 3850: 2732: 2060:, counterfactuals can have either perfective or imperfective aspect. 1570: 1256:

intend the metric of 'closeness' to be simply our ordinary notion of

447:

If Caesar had been in command in Korea, he would have used catapults.

365: 3726: 3631:"In search of (im)perfection: the illusion of counterfactual aspect" 3357: 3344:

Lewis, David (1973). "Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility".

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of the past tense is not fundamentally about time. Rather, it is an

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

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Lewis, David (1979). "Counterfactual dependence and time's arrow".

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contrast between indicative and subjunctive conditionals." Also,

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One way of formalizing this fact is to say that the principle of

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showed that these problems are surmountable given an appropriate

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Counterfactuals are infected with vagueness, as everyone agrees.

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In the variably strict approach, the semantics of a conditional

1203:, which are thought to be licensed only by monotonic operators. 3864:

Santamaría, Carlos; Espino, Orlando; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (2005).

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Another argument in favor of the strict conditional comes from

1082:, the monotonicity of the material conditional guarantees that 2943:

morphological subjunctives in languages that have such a form.

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inference as often as they do from an indicative conditional.

53:, which some languages use in combination with other kinds of 4540: 428: 2953:

Bhatt, Rajesh; Pancheva, Roumyana (2006). Everaert, Martin;

2854: 3710:"Modal interpretation of tense in subjunctive conditionals" 4076:

Johnson-Laird, Philip Nicholas; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (1991).

1770:"If Dani had been home tomorrow, we would've visited him." 3906:

De Vega, Manuel; Urrutia, Mabel; Riffo, Bernardo (2007).

1573:, while others recruit morphemes which otherwise express 1512:

can be done by first revising the current knowledge with

68:

Counterfactuals are one of the most studied phenomena in

1898:"If he had been home tomorrow, we would've visited him." 352:. Because of these problems, early work such as that of 4306: 158:

form "owned" in the "if" clause and the past-inflected

213:

Past perfect and irrealis counterfactuals can undergo

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Egré, Paul; Cozic, Mikaël (2016). "Conditionals". In

1120: 1088: 1068: 1042: 1013: 993: 973: 953: 918: 898: 869: 849: 811: 764: 720: 672: 652: 617: 501: 19:"Counterfactual" redirects here. For other uses, see 3137:

Kaufmann, Stefan (2005). "Conditional predictions".

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Fake imperfective aspect is demonstrated by the two

702:, this means that the strict conditional is true at 3905: 2648:on different parts of counterfactual conditionals. 1564: 1207:

If Hannah had drunk any coffee, she would be happy.

417: 4222: 4075: 3624: 3622: 3495:"The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality" 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3097:"The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality" 2850:(Thesis). Universiteit van Amsterdam. p. 186. 1598:In many languages, counterfactuality is marked by 1168: 1106: 1074: 1054: 1019: 999: 979: 959: 939: 904: 881: 855: 835: 797: 750: 678: 658: 638: 537: 4133:Morgan, Stephen L.; Winship, Christopher (2007). 3288:, Vol. 44, No. 5, (27 February 1947), pp. 113–28. 392: 316:of a conditional is sometimes referred to as its 249:Such conditionals are also widely referred to as 238:convey that its antecedent is false or unlikely. 113:and counterfactual conditionals is the following 80:. They were first discussed as a problem for the 4981: 4773:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT) 4160:Ginsberg, Matthew L. (1986). "Counterfactuals". 2990:"The Presupposition of Subjunctive Conditionals" 2917: 2892: 2870:Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory 1520:is true in what results. Revising is easy when 1379:analyzes counterfactuals in terms of systems of 1180: 798:{\displaystyle M,w\models \Box (P\rightarrow Q)} 297:has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the 3957: 3628: 3619: 3245: 2435:the house {} in one month FUT have-time-enough. 1215:observation that Sobel Sequences are generally 470:If Hannah had drunk coffee, she would be happy. 328:of a conditional is sometimes referred to as a 3561: 3559: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3412: 3008: 3006: 2897:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86. 1802: 1677: 1415:, and solve the set of equations for variable 1231: 690:. This approach was first proposed in 1912 by 4292: 4247: 4132: 3992:Byrne, Ruth M. J.; Tasso, Alessandra (1999). 3636:. In Keine, Stefan; Sloggett, Shayne (eds.). 2999:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–44. 2983: 2981: 2952: 2920:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language 2895:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language 1891:.3S.M in the-house tomorrow be.PST.1PL visit. 538:{\displaystyle P>Q\models (P\land R)>Q} 3958:Ferguson, Heather; Sanford, Anthony (2008). 3813:"On Indicative And Subjunctive Conditionals" 3276: 3274: 3202:"On Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals" 2173:'If he took this syrup, he would get better' 1869: 1845: 1716: 745: 727: 440:had been in command in Korea, he would have 221:Had it rained, Sally would have been inside. 4225:Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference 4217: 4188: 3649: 3647: 3629:Bjorkman, Bronwyn; Halpert, Claire (2013). 3601: 3599: 3556: 3473: 3383:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3179:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3021:. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. 3003: 2922:. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. 2621:"She was building this house in one month." 2548: 2373: 2302: 2276:"If he took this syrup, he must be better." 2144: 2093: 548: 4299: 4285: 3991: 3836: 3830: 3565:von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine (2020). 3533: 3531: 3282:The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals 3170: 3168: 2995:. In Sauerland, Uli; Percus, Oren (eds.). 2987: 2978: 2918:Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoff (2002). 2893:Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoff (2002). 2796: 4019: 4009: 3926: 3725: 3640:. NELS. Vol. 42. UMass Amherst GLSA. 3460: 3458: 3397: 3271: 3012: 2877: 2817: 2778:Simplification of disjunctive antecedents 2675: 2611:* Eχtize afto to spiti (mesa) se ena mina 2456: 2247: 2196: 2014:at an earlier time but may no longer be. 1865: 836:{\displaystyle M,v\models P\rightarrow Q} 4159: 3775: 3701: 3644: 3605: 3596: 3492: 3418: 3136: 3094: 3041: 2840: 2159:An eperne afto to sirpoi θa γinotan kala 2052:. However, in other languages including 1806: 1681: 595:analysis originally dismissed by Lewis. 340:Counterfactuals were first discussed by 4105: 3740: 3695:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3537: 3528: 3265:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3165: 2960:The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Syntax 2866:"Fake Perfect in X-Marked Conditionals" 2519:Eχtise afto to spiti (mesa) se ena mina 2067:sentences below. These examples form a 1742: 751:{\displaystyle M=\langle W,R,V\rangle } 224:Were it raining, Sally would be inside. 4982: 3707: 3653: 3464: 3455: 3019:Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics 2863: 1437:Belief revision § The Ramsey test 368:logical framework. Work since then in 335: 4728:Discourse representation theory (DRT) 4280: 4108:A Philosophical Guide to Conditionals 4042: 3688: 3615:(Thesis). Universiteit van Amsterdam. 3403: 3378: 3343: 3297: 3258: 3227:Prolegomena to a theory of X-marking 3174: 1731: 1496:to the current body of knowledge has 1492:holds if and only if the addition of 1484:. In these systems, a counterfactual 1114:will be too. Thus, we will have that 1107:{\displaystyle P\land R\rightarrow Q} 1062:holds at every world accessible from 940:{\displaystyle \Box (P\rightarrow Q)} 639:{\displaystyle \Box (P\rightarrow Q)} 598: 109:An example of the difference between 4135:Counterfactuals and Causal Inference 3810: 3567:Prolegomena to a Theory of X-Marking 3199: 2529:"She built this house in one month." 2361: 2262:An ipχe afto to sirpoi θa eγine kala 2231: 2128: 1440: 1339: 5020:Formal semantics (natural language) 4641:Quantificational variability effect 4308:Formal semantics (natural language) 3238:von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. 3225:von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. 1957:skeleton which can apply either to 1336:Causal model § Counterfactuals 451: 13: 3839:Journal of Experimental Psychology 2696:of the alternative possibilities. 2243: 2192: 2140: 2089: 1917: 1860: 1841: 1797: 1711: 1672: 1430: 967:if there is some accessible world 387: 14: 5036: 2663:triangle", participants make the 1979:Depending on how this denotation 1972:is not the contextually-provided 1324: 1219:(i.e. sound strange) in reverse. 2706: 2690:mental model theory of reasoning 2637: 1727: 1565:The grammar of counterfactuality 1444: 1419:, the solution obtained will be 1343: 1329: 418:Context dependence and vagueness 4069: 4036: 3985: 3951: 3899: 3857: 3804: 3769: 3734: 3682: 3583: 3372: 3337: 3291: 3232: 3219: 3193: 3130: 3088: 3062: 3035: 1557:therefore holds if and only if 305:conditionals, reflecting their 50: 21:Counterfactual (disambiguation) 4723:Combinatory categorial grammar 4053:10.7551/mitpress/5756.001.0001 3967:Journal of Memory and Language 3346:Journal of Philosophical Logic 2946: 2936: 2911: 2886: 2834: 2790: 2017: 1593: 1163: 1157: 1145: 1136: 1130: 1124: 1098: 1055:{\displaystyle P\rightarrow Q} 1046: 1036:. To see why, observe that if 934: 928: 922: 827: 792: 786: 780: 673: 633: 627: 621: 526: 514: 393:The problem of counterfactuals 228: 1: 4501:Antecedent-contained deletion 4099: 3693:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 3469:. Cambridge University Press. 3465:Palmer, Frank Robert (1986). 3419:Ginsberg, Matthew L. (1989), 3408:. Cambridge University Press. 3263:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 2683:argues that people construct 2625: 2618:this {} house in {} one month 2526:this {} house in {} one month 1588: 4203:10.1080/13642529.2014.893663 4174:10.1016/0004-3702(86)90067-6 3433:10.1016/0004-3702(86)90067-6 2799:"Counterfactuality and past" 2784: 2651: 2439:to it sell before the summer 1987:can be a time interval or a 679:{\displaystyle \rightarrow } 7: 4990:Conditionals in linguistics 4262:10.1037/0278-7393.28.6.1154 4116:10.1093/0199258872.001.0001 3885:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1149 3542:. Oxford University Press. 3425:Zentralblatt für Mathematik 3242:Unpublished lecture slides. 3229:Unpublished lecture slides. 2699: 2044:. In other languages (e.g. 1629:Counterfactual: If Natalia 1528: 1232:Variably strict conditional 577:variably strict conditional 332:-clause or as an apodosis. 171:Past perfect counterfactual 104: 99: 27:Counterfactual conditionals 10: 5041: 4382:Syntax–semantics interface 4231:Cambridge University Press 4106:Bennett, Jonathan (2003). 4043:Byrne, Ruth M. J. (2005). 3778:Natural Language Semantics 3743:Natural Language Semantics 3656:Natural Language Semantics 3139:Linguistics and Philosophy 2972:10.1002/9780470996591.ch16 2819:10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6 2806:Linguistics and Philosophy 2655: 1763:.3S.M in-home tomorrow be. 1561:is true in all such sets. 1516:and then checking whether 1434: 1333: 698:to modal logic. In modern 235:counterfactual conditional 139:Simple past counterfactual 18: 4916: 4874:Question under discussion 4824:Conversational scoreboard 4801: 4705: 4698: 4601:Intersective modification 4586:Homogeneity (linguistics) 4493: 4402: 4395: 4314: 3979:10.1016/j.jml.2007.06.007 3755:10.1007/s11050-007-9019-6 3668:10.1007/s11050-013-9102-0 3493:Iatridou, Sabine (2000). 3286:The Journal of Philosophy 3151:10.1007/s10988-005-3731-9 3095:Iatridou, Sabine (2000). 2797:von Prince, Kilu (2019). 2743:David Lewis (philosopher) 2269:this {} syrup FUT become. 2166:this {} syrup FUT become. 4934:Distributional semantics 4143:10.1017/CBO9780511804564 4045:The Rational Imagination 3714:Semantics and Pragmatics 3606:Karawani, Hadil (2014). 2988:von Fintel, Kai (1998). 2841:Karawani, Hadil (2014). 2284:such as "in one month": 1908:philosophers of language 1767:.1PL visit.PTC.PL he.ACC 1181:variably strict analysis 1034:Antecedent Strengthening 666:expresses necessity and 555:possible world semantics 549:Possible worlds accounts 493:Antecedent Strengthening 482:Antecedent Strengthening 251:subjunctive conditionals 4929:Computational semantics 4666:Subsective modification 4470:Propositional attitudes 4162:Artificial Intelligence 3790:10.1023/A:1024411924818 3514:10.1162/002438900554352 3116:10.1162/002438900554352 3017:; Dekker, Paul (eds.). 2879:10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149 2864:Schulz, Katrin (2017). 2773:Similarity (philosophy) 2658:Counterfactual thinking 2632:counterfactual thinking 1851: 1836: 1828: 1820: 1812: 1789: 1781: 1618:Indicative: If Natalia 1504:, as the evaluation of 1377:causal models framework 1201:negative polarity items 466:such as the following: 4959:Philosophy of language 4596:Inalienable possession 4576:Free choice inferences 4571:Faultless disagreement 4342:Generalized quantifier 3998:Memory & Cognition 3915:Memory & Cognition 3638:Proceedings of NELS 42 3538:Portner, Paul (2009). 3056:10.1093/analys/12.2.35 2997:The Interpretive Tract 2753:Indicative conditional 2685:mental representations 2676:Psychological accounts 2603: 2595: 2587: 2579: 2571: 2563: 2555: 2542: 2534: 2511: 2503: 2495: 2487: 2479: 2471: 2463: 2450: 2420: 2412: 2404: 2396: 2388: 2380: 2367: 2357: 2349: 2341: 2333: 2325: 2317: 2309: 2296: 2288: 2254: 2237: 2227: 2219: 2211: 2203: 2186: 2178: 2151: 2134: 2124: 2116: 2108: 2100: 2083: 2075: 2040:) this fake aspect is 1947:past as modal approach 1737: 1722: 1703: 1695: 1687: 1664: 1656: 1648: 1535:propositional formulae 1306:law of excluded middle 1281:uniqueness assumptions 1170: 1108: 1076: 1056: 1021: 1001: 981: 961: 941: 906: 883: 857: 837: 799: 752: 680: 660: 640: 539: 378:philosophy of language 205:right now, then Sally 177:yesterday, then Sally 125:Indicative conditional 78:philosophy of language 4854:Plural quantification 4748:Inquisitive semantics 4713:Alternative semantics 3820:Philosophers' Imprint 3811:Khoo, Justin (2015). 3708:Mackay, John (2019). 3404:Pearl, Judea (2000). 3379:Lewis, David (1973). 3209:Philosophers' Imprint 3200:Khoo, Justin (2015). 3175:Lewis, David (1973). 2282:completive adverbials 2004:past as past approach 1904:theoretical linguists 1880:fi l-bet bukra kunna 1435:Further information: 1334:Further information: 1171: 1109: 1077: 1057: 1022: 1002: 982: 962: 942: 907: 884: 858: 838: 800: 753: 681: 661: 659:{\displaystyle \Box } 641: 540: 344:as a problem for the 215:conditional inversion 191:or subjunctive form. 51:fake tense morphology 43:conditional sentences 4839:Function application 4646:Responsive predicate 4636:Privative adjectives 3689:Starr, Will (2019). 3259:Starr, Will (2019). 2738:Conditional sentence 1381:structural equations 1118: 1086: 1066: 1040: 1011: 991: 971: 951: 916: 896: 867: 847: 809: 762: 718: 700:relational semantics 688:material implication 670: 650: 615: 499: 456:Counterfactuals are 422:Counterfactuals are 399:material conditional 346:material conditional 275:Indo-Aryan languages 82:material conditional 5015:Linguistic modality 5010:Thought experiments 4924:Cognitive semantics 4889:Strawson entailment 4834:Existential closure 4778:Situation semantics 4681:Temperature paradox 4651:Rising declaratives 4616:Modal subordination 4591:Hurford disjunction 4551:Discourse relations 2966:. Wiley Blackwell. 2955:van Riemsdijk, Henk 1928:philosophical logic 882:{\displaystyle Rwv} 646:. In this formula, 374:philosophical logic 336:Logic and semantics 131:a donkey, then she 70:philosophical logic 4969:Semantics of logic 4894:Strict conditional 4864:Quantifier raising 4829:Downward entailing 4809:Autonomy of syntax 4738:Generative grammar 4718:Categorial grammar 4656:Scalar implicature 4561:Epistemic modality 4536:De dicto and de re 4191:Rethinking History 4011:10.3758/BF03211565 3928:10.3758/BF03193611 3572:2020-07-15 at the 3502:Linguistic Inquiry 3104:Linguistic Inquiry 2046:Palestinian Arabic 1775:Palestinian Arabic 1752:ba-bayit {maχa ɾ} 1456:. You can help by 1355:. You can help by 1258:overall similarity 1166: 1104: 1072: 1052: 1017: 997: 977: 957: 937: 902: 879: 853: 833: 795: 748: 696:axiomatic approach 676: 656: 636: 605:strict conditional 599:Strict conditional 593:strict conditional 535: 442:used the atom bomb 293:Recently the term 4977: 4976: 4949:Logic translation 4912: 4911: 4904:Universal grinder 4884:Squiggle operator 4844:Meaning postulate 4783:Supervaluationism 4753:Intensional logic 4733:Dynamic semantics 4694: 4693: 4526:Crossover effects 4475:Tense–aspect–mood 4455:Lexical semantics 4240:978-0-521-77362-1 3467:Mood and modality 3261:"Counterfactuals" 3083:von Fintel (2011) 3068:See for instance 3028:978-1-107-02839-5 2714:Philosophy portal 2692:, they construct 2630:People engage in 2371:have-time-enough. 2038:Romance languages 1474: 1473: 1373: 1372: 1197:dynamic semantics 1075:{\displaystyle w} 1020:{\displaystyle Q} 1000:{\displaystyle P} 980:{\displaystyle v} 960:{\displaystyle w} 947:will be false at 905:{\displaystyle P} 856:{\displaystyle v} 710:. More formally: 686:is understood as 581:premise semantics 424:context dependent 397:According to the 382:cognitive science 309:rdinary marking. 94:dynamic semantics 5032: 4954:Linguistics wars 4879:Semantic parsing 4768:Montague grammar 4703: 4702: 4546:Deontic modality 4400: 4399: 4387:Truth conditions 4322:Compositionality 4315:Central concepts 4301: 4294: 4287: 4278: 4277: 4273: 4256:(6): 1154–1170. 4244: 4228: 4214: 4185: 4156: 4129: 4094: 4093: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4023: 4013: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3964: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3930: 3921:(6): 1410–1421. 3912: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3879:(5): 1149–1154. 3870: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3851:10.1037/h0035693 3834: 3828: 3827: 3817: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3705: 3699: 3698: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3651: 3642: 3641: 3635: 3626: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3603: 3594: 3591:subjunctive mood 3587: 3581: 3563: 3554: 3553: 3535: 3526: 3525: 3499: 3490: 3471: 3470: 3462: 3453: 3451: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3295: 3289: 3278: 3269: 3268: 3256: 3243: 3236: 3230: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3206: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3172: 3163: 3162: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3101: 3092: 3086: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3010: 3001: 3000: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2975: 2965: 2950: 2944: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2881: 2861: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2821: 2803: 2794: 2728:Angelika Kratzer 2716: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2550: 2458: 2375: 2363: 2304: 2249: 2245: 2233: 2198: 2194: 2146: 2142: 2130: 2095: 2091: 1924:formal semantics 1871: 1867: 1862: 1847: 1843: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1744: 1733: 1729: 1718: 1713: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1469: 1466: 1448: 1441: 1411:with a constant 1368: 1365: 1347: 1340: 1187:do not demand a 1175: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1113: 1111: 1110: 1105: 1081: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1026: 1024: 1023: 1018: 1006: 1004: 1003: 998: 986: 984: 983: 978: 966: 964: 963: 958: 946: 944: 943: 938: 911: 909: 908: 903: 888: 886: 885: 880: 862: 860: 859: 854: 842: 840: 839: 834: 804: 802: 801: 796: 757: 755: 754: 749: 685: 683: 682: 677: 665: 663: 662: 657: 645: 643: 642: 637: 591:variants of the 585:Angelika Kratzer 544: 542: 541: 536: 452:Non-monotonicity 370:formal semantics 358:Robert Stalnaker 175:had been raining 74:formal semantics 5040: 5039: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5005:Belief revision 4980: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4908: 4797: 4758:Lambda calculus 4690: 4661:Sloppy identity 4621:Opaque contexts 4556:Donkey anaphora 4521:Counterfactuals 4489: 4391: 4310: 4305: 4241: 4153: 4126: 4102: 4097: 4090: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4041: 4037: 3990: 3986: 3962: 3956: 3952: 3910: 3904: 3900: 3868: 3862: 3858: 3835: 3831: 3815: 3809: 3805: 3774: 3770: 3739: 3735: 3727:10.3765/sp.12.2 3706: 3702: 3687: 3683: 3652: 3645: 3633: 3627: 3620: 3612: 3604: 3597: 3588: 3584: 3574:Wayback Machine 3564: 3557: 3550: 3536: 3529: 3497: 3491: 3474: 3463: 3456: 3417: 3413: 3402: 3398: 3391: 3381:Counterfactuals 3377: 3373: 3358:10.2307/2215339 3342: 3338: 3312:10.2307/2215339 3296: 3292: 3279: 3272: 3257: 3246: 3237: 3233: 3224: 3220: 3204: 3198: 3194: 3187: 3177:Counterfactuals 3173: 3166: 3135: 3131: 3099: 3093: 3089: 3070:Ippolito (2002) 3067: 3063: 3040: 3036: 3029: 3011: 3004: 2992: 2986: 2979: 2963: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2937: 2930: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2891: 2887: 2862: 2855: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2801: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2758:Sabine Iatridou 2712: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2678: 2660: 2654: 2640: 2628: 2623: 2609: 2601: 2593: 2585: 2577: 2569: 2561: 2553: 2540: 2531: 2517: 2509: 2501: 2493: 2485: 2477: 2469: 2461: 2444: 2426: 2418: 2410: 2402: 2394: 2386: 2378: 2365: 2355: 2347: 2339: 2331: 2323: 2315: 2307: 2294: 2278: 2260: 2252: 2235: 2225: 2217: 2209: 2201: 2184: 2175: 2157: 2149: 2132: 2122: 2114: 2106: 2098: 2081: 2020: 1920: 1918:Formal analyses 1900: 1874: 1849: 1834: 1826: 1818: 1810: 1787: 1772: 1746: 1735: 1720: 1701: 1693: 1685: 1662: 1654: 1637:arrive on time. 1626:arrive on time. 1596: 1591: 1567: 1531: 1502:belief revision 1478:belief revision 1470: 1464: 1461: 1454:needs expansion 1439: 1433: 1431:Belief revision 1369: 1363: 1360: 1353:needs expansion 1338: 1332: 1327: 1250:Counterfactuals 1234: 1185:Sobel sequences 1119: 1116: 1115: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1012: 1009: 1008: 992: 989: 988: 972: 969: 968: 952: 949: 948: 917: 914: 913: 897: 894: 893: 868: 865: 864: 848: 845: 844: 810: 807: 806: 763: 760: 759: 758:, we have that 719: 716: 715: 694:as part of his 671: 668: 667: 651: 648: 647: 616: 613: 612: 601: 551: 500: 497: 496: 463:Sobel sequences 454: 420: 395: 390: 388:Classic puzzles 350:classical logic 338: 231: 179:would have been 107: 102: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5038: 5028: 5027: 5025:Possible world 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4944:Inferentialism 4941: 4939:Formal grammar 4936: 4931: 4926: 4920: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4859:Possible world 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4805: 4803: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4743:Glue semantics 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4709: 4707: 4706:Formal systems 4700: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4631:Polarity items 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4516:Conservativity 4513: 4508: 4503: 4497: 4495: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4487: 4482: 4480:Quantification 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4406: 4404: 4397: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4357:Presupposition 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4318: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4304: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4245: 4239: 4215: 4197:(3): 337–356. 4186: 4157: 4151: 4130: 4124: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4088: 4068: 4061: 4035: 4004:(4): 726–740. 3984: 3973:(3): 609–626. 3950: 3898: 3856: 3829: 3803: 3784:(2): 145–186. 3768: 3749:(3): 221–264. 3733: 3700: 3681: 3662:(2): 117–144. 3643: 3618: 3595: 3582: 3555: 3549:978-0199292424 3548: 3527: 3508:(2): 231–270. 3472: 3454: 3411: 3396: 3389: 3371: 3336: 3306:(4): 455–476. 3290: 3280:Goodman, N., " 3270: 3244: 3231: 3218: 3192: 3185: 3164: 3145:(2). 183-184. 3129: 3110:(2): 231–270. 3087: 3061: 3034: 3027: 3002: 2977: 2945: 2935: 2929:978-0521431460 2928: 2910: 2904:978-0521431460 2903: 2885: 2853: 2833: 2812:(6): 577–615. 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2725: 2719: 2718: 2717: 2701: 2698: 2677: 2674: 2656:Main article: 2653: 2650: 2639: 2636: 2627: 2624: 2602: 2594: 2586: 2578: 2570: 2562: 2554: 2541: 2533: 2532: 2510: 2502: 2494: 2486: 2478: 2470: 2462: 2449: 2448: 2419: 2411: 2403: 2395: 2387: 2379: 2366: 2356: 2348: 2340: 2332: 2324: 2316: 2308: 2295: 2287: 2286: 2253: 2236: 2226: 2218: 2210: 2202: 2185: 2177: 2176: 2150: 2133: 2123: 2115: 2107: 2099: 2082: 2074: 2073: 2019: 2016: 1989:possible world 1977: 1976: 1955:underspecified 1919: 1916: 1850: 1835: 1827: 1819: 1811: 1788: 1780: 1779: 1736: 1721: 1702: 1694: 1686: 1663: 1655: 1647: 1646: 1639: 1638: 1633:tomorrow, she 1627: 1622:tomorrow, she 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1566: 1563: 1530: 1527: 1472: 1471: 1465:September 2020 1451: 1449: 1432: 1429: 1371: 1370: 1364:September 2020 1350: 1348: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1325:Other accounts 1323: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1287:) one that is 1269: 1268: 1233: 1230: 1225: 1224: 1209: 1208: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1071: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1016: 996: 976: 956: 936: 933: 930: 927: 924: 921: 901: 890: 889: 878: 875: 872: 852: 832: 829: 826: 823: 820: 817: 814: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 779: 776: 773: 770: 767: 747: 744: 741: 738: 735: 732: 729: 726: 723: 714:Given a model 675: 655: 635: 632: 629: 626: 623: 620: 600: 597: 550: 547: 546: 545: 534: 531: 528: 525: 522: 519: 516: 513: 510: 507: 504: 478: 477: 474: 471: 453: 450: 449: 448: 445: 419: 416: 411: 410: 407: 394: 391: 389: 386: 342:Nelson Goodman 337: 334: 283:counterfactual 247: 246: 230: 227: 226: 225: 222: 211: 210: 199:counterfactual 183: 182: 151: 150: 145:a donkey, she 136: 106: 103: 101: 98: 86:possible world 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5037: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4985: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4915: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4804: 4800: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626:Performatives 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4606:Logophoricity 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4440:Evidentiality 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4401: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4319: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4302: 4297: 4295: 4290: 4288: 4283: 4282: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4226: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4152:9780511804564 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4125:9780199258871 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4104: 4103: 4091: 4089:9780863771491 4085: 4081: 4080: 4072: 4064: 4062:9780262269629 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3961: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3909: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3860: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3807: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3728: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3704: 3696: 3692: 3685: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3648: 3639: 3632: 3625: 3623: 3611: 3610: 3602: 3600: 3592: 3586: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3568: 3562: 3560: 3551: 3545: 3541: 3534: 3532: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3468: 3461: 3459: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3415: 3407: 3400: 3392: 3390:9780631224952 3386: 3382: 3375: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3275: 3266: 3262: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3241: 3235: 3228: 3222: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3196: 3188: 3186:9780631224952 3182: 3178: 3171: 3169: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3091: 3084: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3030: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3009: 3007: 2998: 2991: 2984: 2982: 2973: 2969: 2962: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2939: 2931: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2906: 2900: 2896: 2889: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2860: 2858: 2846: 2845: 2837: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2793: 2789: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2768:Robert Nozick 2766: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2748:Import-Export 2746: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2723:Alvin Goldman 2721: 2720: 2715: 2704: 2697: 2695: 2694:mental models 2691: 2686: 2682: 2673: 2671: 2666: 2665:modus tollens 2659: 2649: 2646: 2638:Comprehension 2635: 2633: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2605: 2600: 2597: 2592: 2589: 2584: 2581: 2576: 2573: 2568: 2565: 2560: 2557: 2552: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2536: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2513: 2508: 2505: 2500: 2497: 2492: 2489: 2484: 2481: 2476: 2473: 2468: 2465: 2460: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2422: 2417: 2414: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2398: 2393: 2390: 2385: 2382: 2377: 2376: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2351: 2346: 2343: 2338: 2335: 2330: 2327: 2322: 2319: 2314: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2298: 2293: 2290: 2285: 2283: 2277: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2251: 2250: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2221: 2216: 2213: 2208: 2205: 2200: 2199: 2188: 2183: 2180: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2148: 2147: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2118: 2113: 2110: 2105: 2102: 2097: 2096: 2085: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2026: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1975: 1971: 1968: 1964: 1963: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1936:past as modal 1933: 1929: 1925: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1863: 1856: 1854: 1848: 1838: 1833: 1830: 1825: 1822: 1817: 1814: 1809: 1800: 1793: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1771: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1745: 1739: 1734: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1707: 1706: 1700: 1697: 1692: 1689: 1684: 1675: 1668: 1667: 1661: 1658: 1653: 1650: 1645: 1643: 1642:Modern Hebrew 1636: 1632: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1541:, and adding 1540: 1536: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1468: 1459: 1455: 1452:This section 1450: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1438: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1399:" (formally, 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1367: 1358: 1354: 1351:This section 1349: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1330:Causal models 1322: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1307: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1266: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1229: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1193: 1190: 1189:non-monotonic 1186: 1182: 1177: 1160: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1139: 1133: 1127: 1121: 1101: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1069: 1049: 1043: 1035: 1029: 1014: 994: 974: 954: 931: 925: 919: 899: 876: 873: 870: 850: 830: 824: 821: 818: 815: 812: 789: 783: 777: 774: 771: 768: 765: 742: 739: 736: 733: 730: 724: 721: 713: 712: 711: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 653: 630: 624: 618: 610: 606: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 568: 564: 560: 556: 532: 529: 523: 520: 517: 511: 508: 505: 502: 494: 491: 490: 489: 487: 483: 475: 472: 469: 468: 467: 465: 464: 459: 458:non-monotonic 446: 443: 439: 435: 434: 433: 431: 430: 425: 415: 408: 405: 404: 403: 400: 385: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 333: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 291: 288: 284: 279: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 244: 243:Anderson Case 241: 240: 239: 236: 223: 220: 219: 218: 216: 208: 204: 200: 198: 194: 193: 192: 190: 189: 180: 176: 172: 169: 168: 167: 165: 161: 157: 148: 144: 140: 137: 134: 130: 126: 123: 122: 121: 119: 116: 112: 97: 95: 91: 90:causal models 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 66: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 31:contrafactual 28: 22: 4899:Type shifter 4869:Quantization 4819:Continuation 4686:Veridicality 4566:Exhaustivity 4531:Cumulativity 4450:Indexicality 4430:Definiteness 4425:Conditionals 4352:Logical form 4253: 4249: 4224: 4194: 4190: 4165: 4161: 4134: 4107: 4078: 4071: 4044: 4038: 4001: 3997: 3987: 3970: 3966: 3953: 3918: 3914: 3901: 3876: 3872: 3859: 3845:(1): 44–49. 3842: 3838: 3832: 3823: 3819: 3806: 3781: 3777: 3771: 3746: 3742: 3736: 3717: 3713: 3703: 3694: 3684: 3659: 3655: 3637: 3608: 3585: 3577: 3539: 3505: 3501: 3466: 3424: 3414: 3405: 3399: 3380: 3374: 3349: 3345: 3339: 3331: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3285: 3264: 3234: 3221: 3212: 3208: 3195: 3176: 3142: 3138: 3132: 3107: 3103: 3090: 3077: 3073: 3064: 3050:(2): 35–38. 3047: 3043: 3037: 3018: 3015:Aloni, Maria 2996: 2959: 2948: 2938: 2919: 2913: 2894: 2888: 2869: 2843: 2836: 2809: 2805: 2792: 2679: 2670:modus ponens 2661: 2641: 2629: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2598: 2590: 2582: 2574: 2566: 2558: 2547: 2545: 2537: 2528: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2506: 2498: 2490: 2482: 2474: 2466: 2455: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2407: 2399: 2391: 2383: 2372: 2370: 2360: 2352: 2344: 2336: 2328: 2320: 2312: 2301: 2299: 2291: 2281: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2257: 2242: 2240: 2230: 2222: 2214: 2206: 2191: 2189: 2181: 2172: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2154: 2139: 2137: 2127: 2119: 2111: 2103: 2088: 2086: 2078: 2069:minimal pair 2065:Modern Greek 2062: 2042:imperfective 2030:Modern Greek 2022: 2021: 2003: 2001: 1996: 1992: 1984: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1946: 1944: 1940:past as past 1939: 1935: 1921: 1912:realizations 1901: 1897: 1895:.PFV.1PL-him 1892: 1888: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1875: 1859: 1857: 1852: 1839: 1831: 1823: 1815: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1784: 1777:is another: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1760: 1758: 1756:mevakRim oto 1753: 1749: 1747: 1740: 1725: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1698: 1690: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1659: 1651: 1640: 1634: 1630: 1623: 1619: 1612:minimal pair 1607: 1603: 1597: 1568: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1532: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1475: 1462: 1458:adding to it 1453: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1376: 1374: 1361: 1357:adding to it 1352: 1319: 1303: 1293: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1262: 1253: 1249: 1246: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1226: 1217:infelicitous 1213:Irene Heim's 1210: 1194: 1188: 1184: 1178: 1033: 1030: 1007:is true and 891: 707: 703: 602: 592: 583:proposed by 580: 576: 571: 566: 562: 558: 552: 492: 485: 481: 479: 461: 457: 455: 427: 423: 421: 412: 396: 339: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 311: 306: 302: 298: 294: 292: 286: 282: 280: 250: 248: 242: 234: 232: 214: 212: 206: 203:were raining 202: 196: 195: 186: 184: 178: 174: 170: 164:past perfect 152: 146: 142: 138: 132: 128: 124: 118:minimal pair 108: 67: 38: 34: 30: 26: 25: 4814:Context set 4788:Type theory 4671:Subtrigging 4435:Disjunction 4362:Proposition 4219:Judea Pearl 4082:. Erlbaum. 3720:(2): 1–29. 3074:subjunctive 3072:: "Because 2763:Modal logic 2018:Fake aspect 1759:if Dani be. 1594:Description 1482:Ramsey test 1425:Judea Pearl 609:modal logic 573:David Lewis 565:as true if 366:intensional 362:David Lewis 318:"if"-clause 287:subjunctive 255:subjunctive 229:Terminology 141:: If Sally 127:: If Sally 47:indicatives 35:subjunctive 4984:Categories 4964:Pragmatics 4611:Mirativity 4377:Speech act 4332:Entailment 4327:Denotation 4100:References 4021:2262/39510 3578:Manuscript 3449:0655.03011 3078:indicative 2626:Psychology 2368:prolavenes 2050:perfective 2036:, and the 2012:accessible 1951:denotation 1608:fake tense 1600:past tense 1589:Fake tense 863:such that 692:C.I. Lewis 354:W.V. Quine 326:consequent 314:antecedent 281:The terms 156:fake tense 147:would ride 111:indicative 57:including 55:morphology 5000:Semantics 4763:Mereology 4699:Formalism 4581:Givenness 4506:Cataphora 4494:Phenomena 4485:Vagueness 4415:Ambiguity 4367:Reference 4347:Intension 4337:Extension 4211:143617647 4182:241535532 4168:: 35–79. 4079:Deduction 3798:118149259 3763:121835633 3441:241535532 3406:Causality 2828:181778834 2785:Footnotes 2733:Causality 2652:Reasoning 2614:{} build. 2431:if build. 1824:the-house 1604:fake past 1571:morphemes 1387:would be 1263:Example: 1158:→ 1152:∧ 1143:◻ 1140:⊨ 1131:→ 1122:◻ 1099:→ 1093:∧ 1047:→ 929:→ 920:◻ 828:→ 822:⊨ 787:→ 778:◻ 775:⊨ 746:⟩ 728:⟨ 674:→ 654:◻ 628:→ 619:◻ 521:∧ 512:⊨ 233:The term 4917:See also 4802:Concepts 4676:Telicity 4511:Coercion 4465:Negation 4460:Modality 4410:Anaphora 4270:12450339 4221:(2000). 4030:10479830 3945:26161334 3937:18035637 3893:16248757 3676:32680902 3570:Archived 3540:Modality 3522:57570935 3328:53585654 3159:60598513 3124:57570935 3044:Analysis 2957:(eds.). 2700:See also 2421:kalokeri 2265:if take. 2168:PST.IPFV 2164:PST.IPFV 2162:if take. 2048:) it is 1981:composes 1932:morpheme 1832:tomorrow 1748:im Dani 1723:mevakRim 1699:tomorrow 1688:ba-bayit 1529:Ginsberg 843:for all 611:formula 348:used in 322:protasis 303:O-Marked 295:X-Marked 207:would be 201:: If it 197:Irrealis 188:irrealis 173:: If it 105:Examples 100:Overview 39:X-marked 4995:Grammar 4420:Binding 3366:2215339 3320:2215339 2397:pulisis 2297:eχtizes 2271:PST.PFV 2267:PST.PFV 2241:become. 2138:become. 2135:γinotan 2054:Russian 1991:. 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