432:, among others, wrote about the art of mining and testing the ores, as well as detailed descriptions of cupellation. Their descriptions and assumptions have been identified in diverse archaeological findings through Medieval and Renaissance Europe. By these times the amount of fire assays increased considerably, mainly because of testing ores in the mines to identify the availability of its exploitation. A primary use of cupellation was related to minting activities, and it was also used in testing jewelry. Since the Renaissance, cupellation became a standardised method of analysis that has changed little, demonstrating its efficiency. Its development touched the spheres of economy, politics, warfare and power in ancient times.
20:
1071:
Pernicka, E., Rehren, Th., Schmitt-Strecker, S. 1998. Late Uruk silver production by cupellation at Habuba Kabira, Syria in
Metallurgica Antiqua : in honour of Hans-Gert Bachmann and Robert Maddin by Bachmann, H. G, Maddin, Robert, Rehren, Thilo, Hauptmann, Andreas, Muhly, James David, Deutsches
1049:
Karsten, H., Hauptmann, H., Wright, H., Whallon, R. 1998. Evidence of fourth millennium BC silver production at
Fatmali-Kalecik, East Anatolia. in Metallurgica Antiqua: in honour of Hans-Gert Bachmann and Robert Maddin by Bachmann, H. G, Maddin, Robert, Rehren, Thilo, Hauptmann, Andreas, Muhly, James
1059:
Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. 2005a. Ceramic materials in fire assay practices: a case study of 16th-century laboratory equipment, in M. I. Prudencio, M. I. Dias and J. C. Waerenborgh (eds), Understanding people through their pottery, 139-149 (Trabalhos de
Arqueologia 42). Lisbon: Instituto
317:
have demonstrated the existence of different materials for their manufacture; they could be made also with mixtures of bones and wood ashes, of poor quality, or moulded with a mixture of this kind in the bottom with an upper layer of bone ashes. Different recipes depend on the expertise of the
354:
have been studied in a variety of sites. Although this has been interpreted as silver being extracted from lead ores, it has been also suggested that lead was added to collect silver from visible silver minerals embedded in host rock. In both cases silver would be retrieved from lead metal by
286:
247:
Small-scale cupellation is based on the same principle as the one done in a cupellation hearth; the main difference lies in the amount of material to be tested or obtained. The minerals have to be crushed, roasted and smelted to concentrate the metallic components to separate the
1081:
Rehren, Th., Eckstein, K 2002. The development of analytical cupellation in the Middle Ages, in E Jerem and K T Biró (eds) Archaeometry 98. Proceedings of the 31 st
Symposium, Budapest, April 26 – May 3, 1998 (Oxford BAR International Series 1043 – Central European Series 1), 2:
260:
As the main purpose of small-scale cupellation was to assay and test minerals and metals, the matter to be tested must be carefully weighed. The assays were made in the cupellation or assay furnace, which needs to have windows and bellows to ascertain that the air oxidises the
239:. By analyzing their chemical composition, archaeologists can discern what kind of ore was treated, its main components, and the chemical conditions used in the process. This permits insights about production process, trade, social needs or economic situations.
232:(clay compounds) to form viscous lead silicate that prevents the needed absorption of litharge, whereas calcareous materials do not react with lead. Some of the litharge evaporates, and the rest is absorbed by the porous earth lining to form "litharge cakes".
302:
with no bottoms, so that the cupels could be taken off. A shallow depression in the centre of the cupel was made with a rounded pestle. Cupel sizes depend on the amount of material to be assayed. This same shape has been maintained until the present.
172:
Lead melts at 327 °C, lead oxide at 888 °C, and silver melts at 960 °C. To separate the silver, the alloy is melted again at the high temperature of 960 °C to 1000 °C in an oxidizing environment. The lead oxidises to
298:, the best material was obtained from burned antlers of deer, although fish spines could also work. Ashes have to be ground into a fine and homogeneous powder and mixed with some sticky substance to mould the cupels. Moulds were made out of
1004:
Bayley, J. 2008 Medieval precious metal refining: archaeology and contemporary texts compared, in Martinón-Torres, M and Rehren, Th (eds) Archaeology, history and science: integrating approaches to ancient materials by. Left Coast Press:
1067:
Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th., Thomas, N., Mongiatti, A. 2009. Identifying materials, recipes and choices: Some suggestions for the study of
Archaeological cupels. In Giumla-Mair, A. et al., Archaeometallurgy in Europe: 1-11 Milan:
1085:
Rehren, Th., Schneider, J., Bartels, Chr. 1999. Medieval lead-silver smelting in the
Siegerland, West Germany. In Historical Metallurgy: journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society. 33: 73-84. Sheffield: Historical Metallurgy
256:
the use of the cupellation processes was diverse: assay of ores from the mines, testing the amount of silver in jewels or coins or for experimental purposes. It was carried out in small shallow recipients known as cupels.
1009:
Bayley, J.,Eckstein, K. 2006. Roman and medieval litharge cakes: structure and composition, in J. Pérez-Arantegui (ed) Proc. 34th Int. Symposium on
Archaeometry. Institución Fernando el Católito, CSIC, Zaragoza: 145-153.
534:. Silver and lead artefacts have been found in the Peruvian central highlands dated in the pre-Inca and Inca periods. From the presence of lead in silver artefacts, archaeologists suggest that cupellation occurred there.
293:
The primary tool for small-scale cupellation was the cupel. Cupels were manufactured in a careful manner. They used to be small vessels shaped in the form of an inverted truncated cone, made of bone ashes. According to
128:, cupellation was one of the most common processes for refining precious metals. By then, fire assays were used for assaying minerals: testing fresh metals such as lead and recycled metals to determine their purity for
1063:
Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. 2005b. Alchemy, chemistry and metallurgy in
Renaissance Europe. A wider context for fire assay remains, in Historical Metallurgy: journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society, 39(1):
1033:
Howe, E., Petersen, U. 1994. Silver and Lead in late
Prehistory of the Montaro Valley, Peru. In Scott, D., and Meyers P. (eds.) Archaeometry of Pre-Columbian Sites and Artifacts: 183-197. The Getty Conservation
405:
became the normalised medium of exchange, hence silver production and mine control gave economic and political power. In Roman times it was worth mining lead ores if their content of silver was 0.01% or more.
265:, as well as to be sure and prepared to take away the cupel when the process is complete. Pure lead must be added to the matter being tested to guarantee the further separation of the impurities. After the
1014:
Bayley, J., Rehren, Th. 2007. Towards a functional and
Typological classification of crucibles, in La Niece, S and Craddock, P (eds) Metals and Mines. Studies in Archaeometallurgy. Archetype Books: 46-55
1053:
Kassianidou, V. 2003. Early Extraction of Silver from Complex Polymetallic Ores, in Craddock, P.T. and Lang, J (eds) Mining and Metal production through the Ages. London, British Museum Press: 198-206
1078:
Rehren, Th. 2003. Crucibles as reaction vessels in ancient metallurgy, in P.T. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and Metal Production through the Ages, 207-215. London. The British Museum Press.
495:
to smelt the ores that come from the silver mines owned by the Spaniards. Although it is not conclusive, it is believed that these kinds of furnaces were used before the Spanish Conquest.
416:
Small-scale cupellation may be considered the most important fire assay developed in history, and perhaps the origin of chemical analysis. Most of the written evidence comes from the
401:
times, the empire needed large quantities of lead to support the Roman civilization over a great territory; they searched for open lead-silver mines in areas they conquered. Silver
456:
raises the question whether the pre-Hispanic civilizations obtained the raw material from native ores or from argentiferous-lead ores. Although native silver may be available in
269:
has been absorbed by the cupel, buttons of silver were formed and settled in the middle of the cupel. If the alloy also contained a certain amount of gold, it settled with the
153:
is a rare element. Although it exists as such, it is usually found in nature combined with other metals, or in minerals that contain silver compounds, generally in the form of
322:, jewelry, testing purity of recycled material or coins). Archaeological evidence shows that at the beginnings of small-scale cupellation, potsherds or clay cupels were used.
366:
the base metals with a surplus of lead. The bullion or product of this fusion was then heated in a cupellation furnace to separate the noble metals. Mines such as
235:
Litharge cakes are usually circular or concavo-convex, about 15 cm in diameter. They are the most common archaeological evidence of cupellation in the
1147:- refining and standards in pre-monetary economies in the light of finds from Sigtuna and Gotland. Situne Dei 2011. Edberg, R. Wikström, A. (eds). Sigtuna.
1017:
Bayley, J., Crossley, D. and Ponting, M. (eds). 2008. Metals and Metalworking. A research framework for archaeometallurgy. Historical Metallurgy Society 6.
1092:
Van Buren, M., Mills, B. 2005. Huayrachinas and Tocochimbos: Traditional Smelting Technology of the Southern Andes, in Latin American Antiquity 16(1):3-25
1095:
Wood J. R., Hsu, Y-T and Bell, C. 2021 Sending Laurion Back to the Future: Bronze Age Silver and the Source of Confusion, Internet Archaeology 56.
1172:
1144:
1043:
Jones, G.D. 1980. The Roman Mines at Riotinto, in The Journal of Roman Studies 70: 146-165. Society for the promotion of Roman Studies.
1020:
Craddock, P. T. 1991. Mining and smelting in Antiquity, in Bowman, S. (ed), Science and the Past, London: British Museum Press: 57-73..
1642:
1165:
487:
Some kind of blast furnaces called huayrachinas were described in colonial texts, as native technology furnaces used in
1108:
1193:
1046:
Jones, D. (ed) 2001. Archaeometallurgy. Centre for Archaeological Guidelines. English Heritage publications. London.
998:
409:
The origin of the use of cupellation for analysis is not known. One of the earliest written references to cupels is
1806:
1056:
Lechtman, H. 1976. A metallurgical site survey in the Peruvian Andes, in Journal of field Archaeology 3 (1): 1-42.
101:
or react chemically at much higher temperatures than base metals. When they are heated at high temperatures, the
1272:
1267:
1158:
216:
The base of the hearth was dug in the form of a saucepan and covered with an inert and porous material rich in
1546:
1432:
553:
181:, which captures the oxygen from the other metals present. The liquid lead oxide is removed or absorbed by
1089:
Tylecote, R.F. 1992. A History of Metallurgy. Second Edition Maney for the Institute of Materials. London.
1556:
1715:
1816:
1811:
1075:
Rehren, Th.1996. Alchemy and Fire Assay – An Analytical Approach, in Historical Metallurgy 30: 136-142.
166:
1801:
1796:
165:(lead carbonate). So the primary production of silver requires the smelting and then cupellation of
1319:
1441:
1128:
1023:
Craddock, P. T. 1995. Early metal mining and production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
568:
1609:
1577:
1528:
1329:
1181:
1037:
917:
421:
35:
1113:
1008:
53:
are treated under very high temperatures and subjected to controlled operations to separate
1394:
966:, New York: The American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, 1942, pp. 136-141
563:
1341:
1324:
508:
8:
1662:
1551:
1437:
1384:
1190:
959:
390:
political advantage and power in the Mediterranean so that they were able to defeat the
1492:
1389:
1201:
1138:
997:
Bayley, J. 1995. Precious Metal Refining, in Historical Metallurgy Society Datasheets:
963:
881:
668:
558:
504:
468:
texts it is known that silver mines were open in colonial times by the Spaniards from
1689:
1427:
1220:
885:
672:
375:
367:
310:
24:
19:
1770:
1675:
1647:
1235:
1225:
871:
860:"Sending Laurion Back to the Future: Bronze Age Silver and the Source of Confusion"
658:
647:"Sending Laurion Back to the Future: Bronze Age Silver and the Source of Confusion"
496:
343:
236:
182:
113:
1760:
1720:
1596:
1412:
1404:
1118:
999:
https://web.archive.org/web/20160418021923/http://hist-met.org/hmsdatasheet02.pdf
319:
1710:
1541:
1507:
1471:
1379:
1262:
1250:
500:
429:
425:
391:
306:
295:
174:
102:
94:
1123:
1790:
1765:
1670:
1652:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1502:
1497:
457:
413:
in the 12th century AD. The process changed little until the 16th century.
1702:
1422:
1417:
1374:
548:
441:
398:
274:
249:
1572:
1364:
1296:
417:
339:
314:
253:
125:
121:
54:
1150:
363:
1775:
1725:
1518:
1457:
1447:
1304:
1245:
225:
66:
39:
1617:
1582:
1452:
1336:
1279:
876:
859:
663:
646:
473:
461:
331:
221:
162:
129:
481:
318:
assayer or on the special purpose for which it was made (assays for
1745:
1512:
1484:
1309:
1096:
519:
359:
347:
346:. Archaeological findings of silver and lead objects together with
335:
266:
178:
154:
86:
1369:
1346:
1314:
1240:
543:
512:
492:
453:
449:
379:
217:
185:
into the hearth linings. This chemical reaction may be viewed as
98:
93:, present in the ore. The process is based on the principle that
90:
82:
488:
445:
1750:
1257:
523:
477:
469:
465:
387:
383:
299:
285:
270:
229:
158:
150:
117:
74:
62:
1284:
531:
527:
374:, became an important political and economic site around the
371:
50:
47:
1755:
1133:
518:
There are no specific archaeological accounts about silver
402:
351:
262:
133:
106:
78:
70:
58:
386:. Around 500 BC control over the Laurion mines gave
1230:
43:
719:
717:
224:
such as shells, lime, or bone ash. The lining had to be
714:
723:
Bayley, J., Crossley, D. and Ponting, M. (eds). 2008
1026:Hoover, H. and Hoover, H. 1950 . Georgius Agricola
515:, has suggested pre-European use of huayrachinas.
826:
824:
822:
1788:
631:
629:
627:
819:
1166:
698:
696:
624:
105:remain apart, and the others react, forming
1701:
857:
644:
136:making. Cupellation is still in use today.
1173:
1159:
693:
342:during the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, the
242:
144:
1180:
875:
686:
684:
682:
662:
330:The first known use of silver was in the
956:The Pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio
858:Wood, J.R.; Hsu, Y-T.; Bell, C. (2021).
785:
783:
645:Wood, J.R.; Hsu, Y-T.; Bell, C. (2021).
617:
615:
613:
611:
444:silver adornments known especially from
284:
18:
23:16th century cupellation furnaces (per
1789:
1050:David, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum: 57-67
830:Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. 2005b
768:Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. 2005a
679:
476:, the main ones being those of Tasco,
1154:
780:
608:
587:Rehren, Th., Martinon-Torres, M, 2003
313:analysis and written texts from the
1109:Porco-Potosí archaeological project
807:Martinón-Torres, M. and et al. 2009
13:
273:, and both had to be separated by
14:
1828:
1194:Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy
1102:
116:, the process was used to obtain
1097:https://doi.org/10.11141/ia.56.9
991:
978:
969:
949:
940:
931:
910:
901:
892:
851:
842:
833:
810:
801:
798:Hoover, H. and Hoover, H. 1950
792:
777:Martinón-Torres, M. et al. 2009
771:
762:
753:
744:
735:
726:
120:from smelted lead ores. By the
705:
690:Hoover, H. and Hoover, H. 1950
638:
635:Rehren, Th., Eckstein, K. 2002
599:
590:
581:
289:Brass moulds for making cupels
16:Refining process in metallurgy
1:
1547:Bottom-blown oxygen converter
1145:Eyvind Skáldaspillir's silver
975:Van Buren, M., Mills, B. 2005
898:Rehren, Th., Eckstein, K 2002
741:Bayley, J., Eckstein, K. 2006
574:
554:Bottom-blown oxygen converter
596:Bayley, J., Rehren, Th. 2007
435:
7:
1040:(accessed January 15, 2010)
1001:(accessed January 13, 2010)
984:Howe, E., Petersen, U. 1994
537:
10:
1833:
460:, it is as rare as in the
362:, cupellation was done by
325:
309:investigations as well as
139:
1738:
1688:
1661:
1608:
1595:
1565:
1527:
1483:
1470:
1403:
1357:
1295:
1213:
1200:
1188:
1060:Portugues de Arqueologia.
280:
228:because lead reacts with
1273:Underground in soft rock
1268:Underground in hard rock
1124:searchworks.stanford.edu
1072:Bergbau-Museum: 123-134.
839:Pernicka, E. et al. 1998
750:Pernicka, E.,et al. 1998
732:Pernicka, E. et al, 1998
711:Craddock, P. T. 1995:223
1807:Metallurgical processes
848:Karsten H. et al., 1998
243:Small-scale cupellation
145:Large-scale cupellation
918:"Laurion and Thorikos"
290:
28:
1601:(by aqueous solution)
1433:Gravity Concentration
1182:Extractive metallurgy
422:Vannoccio Biringuccio
420:in the 16th century.
411:Theophilus Divers Ars
358:During the following
288:
22:
1716:Hall–Héroult process
1395:Mechanical screening
1143:Söderberg, A. 2011.
1038:Laurion and Thorikos
937:Tylecote, R.F., 1992
864:Internet Archaeology
816:Craddock, P. T. 1991
759:Bayley, J. 2008: 134
702:Kassianidou, V. 2003
651:Internet Archaeology
605:Craddock, P. T. 1995
564:History of chemistry
311:archaeometallurgical
109:or other compounds.
1438:Magnetic separation
1385:Cyclonic separation
1206:(by physical means)
1191:Metallurgical assay
960:Cyril Stanley Smith
946:In Rehren, Th. 2003
907:Tylecote, R.F. 1992
789:Jones, D. (ed) 2001
569:Philosopher's stone
497:Ethnoarchaeological
440:The huge amount of
1519:Refractory linings
1390:Gyratory equipment
1202:Mineral processing
1030:. New York: Dover.
964:Martha Teach Gnudi
559:History of alchemy
505:Porco Municipality
291:
212:(absorbed) + Ag(l)
161:(lead sulfide) or
29:
1817:Firing techniques
1812:Archaeometallurgy
1784:
1783:
1734:
1733:
1695:
1690:Electrometallurgy
1684:
1683:
1643:Gold chlorination
1602:
1591:
1590:
1477:
1466:
1465:
1428:Jig concentrators
1226:Natural resources
1221:Geological survey
1207:
376:Mediterranean Sea
370:, near Huelva in
1824:
1802:Jewellery making
1797:Alchemical tools
1699:
1698:
1694:(by electricity)
1693:
1676:Pan amalgamation
1648:Gold cyanidation
1638:In situ leaching
1606:
1605:
1600:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1236:Economic geology
1211:
1210:
1205:
1175:
1168:
1161:
1152:
1151:
1139:galileo.rice.edu
1129:gabrielbernat.es
985:
982:
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938:
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877:10.11141/ia.56.9
855:
849:
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837:
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664:10.11141/ia.56.9
642:
636:
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622:
619:
606:
603:
597:
594:
588:
585:
344:Early Bronze Age
237:Early Bronze Age
211:
207:
206:
205:
195:
191:
183:capillary action
177:, then known as
114:Early Bronze Age
36:refining process
1832:
1831:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1730:
1721:Castner process
1692:
1680:
1657:
1599:
1597:Hydrometallurgy
1587:
1561:
1557:IsaKidd process
1523:
1474:
1462:
1413:Froth flotation
1399:
1353:
1291:
1204:
1196:
1184:
1179:
1105:
1028:De Re Metallica
994:
989:
988:
983:
979:
974:
970:
954:
950:
945:
941:
936:
932:
922:
920:
916:
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834:
829:
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815:
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754:
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736:
731:
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715:
710:
706:
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694:
689:
680:
643:
639:
634:
625:
621:Bayley, J. 2008
620:
609:
604:
600:
595:
591:
586:
582:
577:
540:
438:
328:
283:
245:
209:
204:
201:
200:
199:
197:
193:
189:
147:
142:
103:precious metals
95:precious metals
17:
12:
11:
5:
1830:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1711:Electrowinning
1707:
1705:
1696:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1659:
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1603:
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1585:
1580:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1542:Parkes process
1539:
1533:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1510:
1508:Flash smelting
1505:
1500:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1478:
1472:Pyrometallurgy
1468:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1409:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1398:
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1359:
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1327:
1322:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1293:
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1287:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1251:Precious metal
1248:
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1119:whc.unesco.org
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1114:people.hsc.edu
1111:
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1103:External links
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501:archaeological
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430:Lazarus Ercker
426:Georg Agricola
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307:Archaeological
296:Georg Agricola
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1653:Bayer process
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1633:Tank leaching
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1628:Dump leaching
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1623:Heap leaching
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530:prior to the
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484:in Bolivia.
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377:
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355:cupellation.
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175:lead monoxide
170:
168:
167:argentiferous
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1703:Electrolysis
1663:Amalgamation
1536:
1418:Jameson cell
1375:Hydrocyclone
1134:riotinto.com
1027:
992:Bibliography
980:
971:
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951:
942:
933:
921:. Retrieved
912:
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867:
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773:
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583:
549:Archaeometry
517:
486:
442:Pre-Hispanic
439:
415:
410:
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396:
357:
329:
305:
292:
259:
250:noble metals
246:
234:
215:
171:
148:
111:
55:noble metals
31:
30:
1739:Co-products
1573:Calcination
1537:Cupellation
1453:Dry washing
1442:Magnetation
1365:Ore sorting
1330:Pebble mill
1297:Comminution
923:January 15,
418:Renaissance
397:During the
350:pieces and
340:Mesopotamia
315:Renaissance
254:Renaissance
169:lead ores.
126:Renaissance
122:Middle Ages
67:base metals
32:Cupellation
1791:Categories
1776:Stamp sand
1726:Downs cell
1458:Buddle pit
1448:Rocker box
1305:Stamp mill
1246:Base metal
1214:Extraction
1034:Institute.
575:References
226:calcareous
112:Since the
97:typically
40:metallurgy
1618:Lixiviant
1583:Liquation
1476:(by heat)
1337:Ball mill
1280:Recycling
886:236973111
673:236973111
474:Argentina
462:Old World
436:New World
368:Rio Tinto
332:Near East
252:. By the
222:magnesium
163:cerussite
130:jewellery
42:in which
1746:Tailings
1610:Leaching
1578:Roasting
1529:Refining
1513:ISASMELT
1485:Smelting
1342:Rod mill
1325:SAG mill
1310:Arrastra
1086:Society.
1082:445-448.
1005:131-150.
538:See also
520:smelting
503:work in
466:colonial
392:Persians
360:Iron Age
348:litharge
336:Anatolia
267:litharge
208:(g) → 2
192:(s) + 2
179:litharge
157:such as
155:sulfides
124:and the
87:antimony
25:Agricola
1771:Red mud
1761:Clinker
1515:furnace
1423:Panning
1380:Trommel
1370:Vanning
1347:IsaMill
1320:AG mill
1315:Crusher
1263:Surface
1241:Mineral
544:Alchemy
526:in the
513:Bolivia
493:Bolivia
464:. From
458:America
454:Ecuador
450:Bolivia
403:coinage
380:Laurion
326:History
320:minting
275:parting
218:calcium
149:Native
140:Process
99:oxidise
91:bismuth
83:arsenic
69:, like
65:, from
57:, like
48:alloyed
1751:Gangue
1552:Poling
1358:Sizing
1258:Mining
1064:14-31.
962:&
958:, tr.
884:
671:
524:mining
509:Potosí
482:Potosí
480:, and
478:Mexico
470:Mexico
388:Athens
384:Greece
364:fusing
300:copper
281:Cupels
271:silver
230:silica
196:(s) +
159:galena
151:silver
118:silver
75:copper
63:silver
51:metals
1566:Other
1285:Scrap
1010:(PDF)
882:S2CID
870:(9).
669:S2CID
657:(9).
532:Incas
528:Andes
399:Roman
372:Spain
107:slags
89:, or
34:is a
1766:Chat
1756:Slag
925:2010
499:and
491:and
489:Perú
452:and
446:Perú
428:and
352:slag
338:and
263:lead
134:coin
132:and
79:zinc
71:lead
61:and
59:gold
44:ores
1231:Ore
1068:AIM
872:doi
659:doi
522:or
472:to
382:in
334:in
220:or
210:PbO
46:or
38:in
1793::
880:.
868:56
866:.
862:.
821:^
782:^
716:^
695:^
681:^
667:.
655:56
653:.
649:.
626:^
610:^
511:,
507:,
448:,
424:,
394:.
277:.
194:Pb
190:Ag
85:,
81:,
77:,
73:,
1444:)
1440:(
1174:e
1167:t
1160:v
927:.
888:.
874::
675:.
661::
203:2
198:O
27:)
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