35:
43:
51:
168:
143:
as well as a number of other cotton-producing countries. The use of defoliants aids in the effective harvesting of cotton and finer lint quality. The effectiveness of defoliant use in cotton harvesting depends on the type of defoliant(s) used, the number of applications, the amount applied, and
434:
Potter, Thomas L.; Marti, Luz; Belflower, Sally; Truman, Clint C. (2000). "Multiresidue
Analysis of Cotton Defoliant, Herbicide, and Insecticide Residues in Water by Solid-Phase Extraction and GC−NPD, GC−MS, and HPLC−Diode Array Detection".
698:
Kang, Han K.; Dalager, Nancy A.; Needham, Larry L.; Patterson, Donald G.; Lees, Peter S.J.; Yates, Katherine; Matanoski, Genevieve M. (2006). "Health status of Army
Chemical Corps Vietnam veterans who sprayed defoliant in Vietnam".
88:, an increase in agricultural production in mid-20th century. Defoliants have also been used in warfare as a means to deprive an enemy of food crops and/or hiding cover, most notably by the
80:
to fall off. Defoliants are widely used for the selective removal of weeds in managing croplands and lawns. Worldwide use of defoliants, along with the development of other herbicides and
588:
271:
to defoliate regions of
Vietnam from 1961 to 1971, has been linked to several long-term health issues. Agent Orange contains a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T as well as
249:
events in defoliated cotton fields, defoliant concentrations decreased exponentially within the test area and could negatively affect marine life in the runoff zones.
615:"Ecocide: From the Vietnam War to International Criminal Jurisdiction? Procedural Issues In-Between Environmental Science, Climate Change, and Law"
223:
589:"Industrial disasters from Bhopal to present day: why the proposal to make 'ecocide' an international offence is persuasive – The Leaflet"
798:
226:(U.S. EPA) concluded that the use of agricultural defoliants led to increased risks of water contamination and dangers to freshwater and
34:
152:
149:
516:
500:
481:. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics and Economic Research Service. pg 141.
124:(2,4,5-T). 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are absorbed by broad-leafed plants, killing them by causing excessive hormonal growth. These
128:
were designed to selectively kill weeds and unwanted plants in croplands. They were first introduced at the beginning of
493:
The invention of ecocide: agent orange, Vietnam, and the scientists who changed the way we think about the environment
155:(NASS), tribufos and thidiazuron accounted for 60% of crop area that was treated by defoliants during that crop year.
672:
370:
345:
272:
121:
824:
313:
206:
military. The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by
Swedish Prime Minister
819:
117:
50:
144:
environmental variables. Common harvest-aiding chemical defoliants include tribufos, dimethipin, and
24:
643:
287:
have a higher incidence of diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and chronic respiratory diseases.
42:
112:
A primary application of defoliants is the selective killing of plants. Two of the oldest chemical
744:"Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: a population-based, longitudinal study in Manitoba, Canada"
179:
291:
622:
614:
829:
630:
386:
Snipes, Charles E.; Cathey, George W. (1992). "Evaluation of defoliant mixtures in cotton".
19:
This article is about chemicals used to remove leaves. For the animals that eat leaves, see
395:
104:. Defoliants were also used by Indonesian forces in various internal security operations.
8:
839:
834:
814:
399:
570:
303:
199:
57:
773:
765:
724:
716:
618:
562:
496:
460:
452:
411:
407:
366:
341:
260:
125:
93:
755:
708:
554:
444:
403:
308:
85:
290:
Among other occupations, farmers are at a significantly higher risk of developing
742:
Tyas, Suzanne L; Manfreda, Jure; Strain, Laurel A; Montgomery, Patrick R (2001).
135:
Defoliants have a practical use in the harvesting of certain crops, particularly
658:
38:
Defoliants are used as an aid in the harvesting of certain crops such as cotton.
558:
276:
256:
246:
89:
808:
769:
720:
566:
456:
415:
264:
203:
140:
97:
777:
760:
743:
728:
464:
284:
252:
235:
129:
132:
and became widespread in use in agriculture following the end of the War.
280:
268:
227:
145:
101:
61:
574:
542:
167:
712:
231:
207:
448:
543:"Environmental Warfare and Ecocide — Facts, Appraisal, and Proposals"
517:"How Imperative Is It To Consider Ecocide As An International Crime?"
113:
81:
73:
54:
16:
Chemical sprayed or dusted on plants to cause its leaves to fall off
238:. Dimethipin has also been labeled as a possible human carcinogen.
20:
794:
211:
28:
46:
2,4-D, one of the first chemical herbicides used as a defoliant.
136:
741:
697:
77:
433:
275:
contaminants. Members of the Air Force Ranch Hand and the
60:
spraying Agent Orange over agricultural land during the
363:
Ch 6. Ninjas, Nanggalas, Monuments, and Mossad
Manuals
797:
by
Frederick M Fishel, Pesticide Information Office,
479:
Agricultural
Chemical Usage 1998 Field Crops Summary
230:. High doses of tribufos were labeled as a possible
76:
chemical sprayed or dusted on plants to cause their
217:
202:were a group of tactical-use chemicals used by the
806:
340:. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.
210:, lawyers, historians and other academics as an
294:due to a greater chance of defoliant exposure.
198:In Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War, the
656:
385:
799:Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
437:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
360:
243:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
27:. For the chemical weapons programme, see
759:
673:"Agent Orange Linked To Skin Cancer Risk"
158:
612:
153:National Agricultural Statistics Service
49:
41:
33:
701:American Journal of Industrial Medicine
495:. Athens, Ga.: Univ. of Georgia Press.
490:
335:
807:
107:
748:International Journal of Epidemiology
234:and a toxin to freshwater and marine
23:. For the removal of skin cells, see
659:"Vietnam's war against Agent Orange"
540:
429:
427:
425:
365:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
331:
329:
224:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
162:
148:. According to a 1998 report by the
13:
665:
650:
14:
851:
788:
613:Giovanni, Chiarini (2022-04-01).
422:
326:
245:reported that through successive
122:2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
218:Health and environmental effects
166:
735:
691:
606:
314:Index of environmental articles
283:were occupationally exposed to
657:Tow Fawthrop (June 14, 2004).
581:
534:
509:
484:
471:
379:
361:Aditjondro, George J. (2000).
354:
150:U.S. Department of Agriculture
118:2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
1:
319:
408:10.1016/0378-4290(92)90018-5
7:
547:Bulletin of Peace Proposals
297:
10:
856:
559:10.1177/096701067300400105
255:, a defoliant used by the
18:
795:Defoliants and Desiccants
541:Falk, Richard A. (1973).
241:A published study in the
25:Exfoliation (cosmetology)
825:Environmental chemistry
801:, University of Florida
491:Zierler, David (2011).
336:Zierler, David (2011).
116:used as defoliants are
638:Cite journal requires
159:Examples of defoliants
65:
47:
39:
820:Environmental science
263:in the 1950s and the
53:
45:
37:
761:10.1093/ije/30.3.590
388:Field Crops Research
338:Invention of Ecocide
400:1992FCrRe..28..327S
292:Alzheimer's disease
277:Army Chemical Corps
108:Use and application
713:10.1002/ajim.20385
304:Rainbow Herbicides
279:who served in the
200:Rainbow Herbicides
178:. You can help by
126:phenoxy herbicides
84:, allowed for the
66:
48:
40:
502:978-0-8203-3827-9
449:10.1021/jf9909104
261:Malayan Emergency
196:
195:
94:Malayan Emergency
847:
782:
781:
763:
739:
733:
732:
695:
689:
688:
686:
684:
679:. 27 August 2014
669:
663:
662:
654:
648:
647:
641:
636:
634:
626:
610:
604:
603:
601:
600:
585:
579:
578:
538:
532:
531:
529:
528:
513:
507:
506:
488:
482:
475:
469:
468:
443:(9): 4103–4108.
431:
420:
419:
383:
377:
376:
358:
352:
351:
333:
309:Crop destruction
191:
188:
170:
163:
86:Green Revolution
855:
854:
850:
849:
848:
846:
845:
844:
805:
804:
791:
786:
785:
740:
736:
707:(11): 875–884.
696:
692:
682:
680:
671:
670:
666:
655:
651:
639:
637:
628:
627:
611:
607:
598:
596:
587:
586:
582:
539:
535:
526:
524:
515:
514:
510:
503:
489:
485:
476:
472:
432:
423:
384:
380:
373:
359:
355:
348:
334:
327:
322:
300:
220:
192:
186:
183:
176:needs expansion
161:
110:
58:Huey helicopter
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
853:
843:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
803:
802:
790:
789:External links
787:
784:
783:
754:(3): 590–597.
734:
690:
664:
649:
640:|journal=
605:
580:
533:
508:
501:
483:
470:
421:
394:(4): 327–334.
378:
371:
353:
346:
324:
323:
321:
318:
317:
316:
311:
306:
299:
296:
257:United Kingdom
247:surface runoff
219:
216:
194:
193:
173:
171:
160:
157:
109:
106:
90:United Kingdom
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
852:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
812:
810:
800:
796:
793:
792:
779:
775:
771:
767:
762:
757:
753:
749:
745:
738:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
694:
678:
674:
668:
660:
653:
645:
632:
624:
620:
616:
609:
594:
593:theleaflet.in
590:
584:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
537:
522:
518:
512:
504:
498:
494:
487:
480:
477:NASS (1999).
474:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
430:
428:
426:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
382:
374:
372:0-8122-1711-X
368:
364:
357:
349:
347:9786613110404
343:
339:
332:
330:
325:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
301:
295:
293:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
265:United States
262:
258:
254:
250:
248:
244:
239:
237:
236:invertebrates
233:
229:
225:
222:In 1998, the
215:
213:
209:
205:
204:United States
201:
190:
181:
177:
174:This section
172:
169:
165:
164:
156:
154:
151:
147:
142:
141:United States
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
105:
103:
99:
98:United States
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
63:
59:
56:
52:
44:
36:
30:
26:
22:
830:Soil science
751:
747:
737:
704:
700:
693:
683:17 September
681:. Retrieved
676:
667:
661:. bbc.co.uk.
652:
631:cite journal
608:
597:. Retrieved
595:. 2022-02-17
592:
583:
553:(1): 80–96.
550:
546:
536:
525:. Retrieved
523:. 2022-12-18
520:
511:
492:
486:
478:
473:
440:
436:
391:
387:
381:
362:
356:
337:
289:
285:Agent Orange
253:Agent Orange
251:
242:
240:
221:
197:
184:
180:adding to it
175:
134:
130:World War II
120:(2,4-D) and
111:
69:
67:
677:Science 2.0
281:Vietnam War
269:Vietnam War
267:during the
259:during the
228:marine life
187:August 2022
146:thidiazuron
102:Vietnam War
92:during the
62:Vietnam War
840:Pesticides
835:Herbicides
815:Defoliants
809:Categories
599:2023-06-21
527:2023-06-21
320:References
232:carcinogen
208:Olof Palme
114:herbicides
82:pesticides
74:herbicidal
770:1464-3685
721:0271-3586
567:0007-5035
457:0021-8561
416:0378-4290
139:, in the
70:defoliant
55:U.S. Army
778:11416089
729:17006952
575:44480206
465:10995322
298:See also
96:and the
21:Folivore
623:4072727
396:Bibcode
212:ecocide
100:in the
72:is any
29:Foliant
776:
768:
727:
719:
621:
573:
565:
499:
463:
455:
414:
369:
344:
273:dioxin
137:cotton
78:leaves
571:JSTOR
521:IJLLR
774:PMID
766:ISSN
725:PMID
717:ISSN
685:2014
644:help
619:SSRN
563:ISSN
497:ISBN
461:PMID
453:ISSN
412:ISSN
367:ISBN
342:ISBN
756:doi
709:doi
555:doi
445:doi
404:doi
182:.
811::
772:.
764:.
752:30
750:.
746:.
723:.
715:.
705:49
703:.
675:.
635::
633:}}
629:{{
617:.
591:.
569:.
561:.
549:.
545:.
519:.
459:.
451:.
441:48
439:.
424:^
410:.
402:.
392:28
390:.
328:^
214:.
68:A
780:.
758::
731:.
711::
687:.
646:)
642:(
625:.
602:.
577:.
557::
551:4
530:.
505:.
467:.
447::
418:.
406::
398::
375:.
350:.
189:)
185:(
64:.
31:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.jpg)
