328:, with variable rules being those that all members of a speech community (presumably) possess but vary in the frequency of use. The latter concept met resistance from scholars for a number of reasons including the argument from critics that knowledge of rule probabilities was too far from speakers' competence. Because of these problems, use of variable rules analysis died down by the end of the 1980s. Nevertheless, the linguistic variable is still used in
1079:). This perception of sameness with native phonology means that speakers of the borrower language (in this case, Huave) will hear new features from the loaner language (in this case, Spanish) as equivalent to features of their own and substitute in their own when reproducing them. In these interlanguage transfers, when phonemes or phonotactic constraints are too different, more extreme compromises may occur; for example, the English phrase
968:, believing diaphones represented the process of interlingual identification wherein sounds from different languages are perceptually linked into a single category. Because interlingual identifications may happen between unrelated varieties, it is possible to construct a diasystem for many different language contact situations, with the appropriateness of such a construction depending on its purpose and its simplicity depending on how
2581:"Since each state is a system consisting of members solely defined by their mutual relations, any two non-identical systems must necessarily be incommensurable, for no element in one can be identified with any element in the other. ...structurally we cannot identify or even compare any Spanish vowel-phoneme with any Italian vowel-phoneme, because a member of a 5-vowel system is intrinsically different from a member of a 7-term system."
433:, and suggested that such a system would represent a higher level of abstraction that can unite related dialects into a single description and transcription. While phonemic systems describe the speech of a single variety, diaphonemic systems can reflect the contrasts that are not made by all varieties being represented. The way these differ can be shown in the name
1736:. Diaphones are useful in constructing a writing system that accommodates multiple dialects with different phonologies. Even in dialectology, diaphonemic transcriptions may instead be based on the language's orthography, as is the case with Lee Pederson's Automated Book Code designed for information from the
949:. In order to accommodate both pronunciations, the basic letter of Meccan Arabic was used, but the diacritic was dropped: ى. Similarly, the glottal stop had been lost in Meccan Arabic in all positions but initially, so the Meccan letters were retained with the eastern glottal stop indicated with a diacritic
1413:
The linguist must analyze the system of each dialect separately before he can know what systematic features are shared by all dialects, or by groups of dialects. He must distinguish between the systematic features and sporadic unsystematized features of each dialect, since every dialect has elements
1145:
Although no linguists claim that panlectal grammars have psychological validity, and polylectal diasystems are much more likely to be cognitively real for bilingual and bidialectal speakers, speakers of only one dialect or language may still be aware of the differences between their own speech and
312:
not made in all varieties ), only as many contrasts as are needed. The diaphonemic approach gets away from the assumption that linguistic communities are homogeneous, allows multiple varieties to be described in the same terms (something important for situations where people have abilities in more
543:
Without the use of ordered rules, Uruguayan
Spanish could be interpreted as having two additional phonemes and morphophonemic vowel alternation with its plural marker. Attempting to construct a diasystem that encodes such a variety would thus represent all Spanish varieties as having seven vowel
1227:
note that controlling for dialect is largely unimportant for eliciting identifications when vowels are placed between consonants, possibly because the /CVC/ structure often forms lexical items that can aid in identification; identifying vowels in isolation, which rarely carry such lexical
1200:
may pronounce 遍 ('throughout') differently ( and , respectively), though they still regard the differences as minor and due to unimportant accentual differences. Because speakers are not normally able to hear distinctions not made in their own dialect (for example, a speaker from the
1294:), a panlectal transcription would have to encode this contrast despite it being absent for most speakers, making such a system "a linguist's construct" and not part of the grammar present in any native speaker's mind (which is what adherents of such a system attempt to achieve).
1691:
662:: how a given phoneme is realized phonetically (RP and Australian English, for example, have almost the same exact phoneme system but with notably different realizations of the vowels). This distinction covers differences in the range of allophonic variation.
1104:
are fashioned; although lexical and morphosyntactic patterns are shared, speakers often use the phonological systems of their native language, meaning they must learn to recognize such diaphonic correspondences in the speech of others to facilitate the
488:, prompted American dialectologists to attempt the construction of an "overall system" of English phonology by analyzing dialectal distinctions as differences in the ordering of phonological rules as well as in the presence or absence of such rules.
304:) that superimposes dialectal contrasts to access all contrasts in all dialects that are included. This consists of a shared core inventory and, when accounting for contrasts not made by all dialects (whether they are historical contrasts that have
1336:
Hans Kurath, particularly prominent in comparative analysis of
British and American regional features, makes the case that the systematic features of British and American English largely agree but for a handful of divergences, for example:
1129:
The status of panlectal and polylectal grammars has been subject to debate amongst generative phonologists since the 1970s; one of the foremost areas of contention in regards to diaphonemes and diasystems is whether they reflect the actual
1269:
Only by making the diaphonemic representation a rather remote, underlying form, linked to actual surface representations in given accents by a long chain of rules–only in this way could we resolve the obvious difficulties of the taxonomic
1453::566) argues that attempting a polylectal grammar that encodes for a large number of dialects becomes too bizarre and that the traditional reconstructed proto-language is more appropriate for the stated benefits of polylectal grammars.
1246:
argues that a child's language acquisition process includes developing the ability to accommodate for the different varieties they are exposed to (including ones they would not actually employ) and the social significance of their use.
1426:
that, presumably, could generate any possible output for a specific population of speakers and was psychologically real for such speakers such that native residents who normally exhibited sound mergers (e.g. between the vowels of
548:
in open syllables and open allophones in closed syllables, using ordered rules minimizes the differences so that the underlying form for both varieties is the same and
Uruguayan Spanish simply has a subsequent rule that deletes
922:
dialects, but by 1983 had expanded to cover the major dialects of
Mandarin, Yue, Hakka, and Min as well. Apart from a few irregularities, GC can be read equally well in any of those dialects, and several others besides.
1581:
324:, refers to features with variations that are referentially identical but carry social and stylistic meaning. This could include phonological, as well as morphological and syntactic phenomena. Labov also developed
276:
to refer to the family of sounds that are realized differently depending on dialect but that speakers consider to be the same; an individual dialect or speaker's realization of this diaphone was called a
5022:
Bailey, Charles-James N. (1972), "The integration of linguistic theory: Internal reconstruction and the comparative method in descriptive analysis", in
Stockwell, Robert P.; Macaulay, Ronald K.S. (eds.),
3949:
Kurath, Hans (1964), "British sources of selected features of
American pronunciation: Problems and methods", in Abercrombie, D.; Fry, D.B.; MacCarthy, P.A.D.; Scott, N.C.; Trimm, L.M. (eds.),
1007:
Both Haugen and
Weinreich considered the use of phonemes beyond a single language to be inappropriate when phonemic systems between languages were incommensurable with each other. Similarly,
1138:
argues against the formation of diasystems that are not cognitively real and implies that polylectal grammars that are not part of native speakers' competence are illegitimate. Similarly,
1528:
There are a number of ways diaphones are represented in literature. One way is through the IPA, this can be done with slashes, as if they are phonemes, or with other types of brackets:
332:. For Labov, grouping variants together was justified by their tendency to fluctuate between each other within the same set of words. For example, Labov presented the variants (among
746:, which have the same phonological system even though cognate words often do not have the same reflexes of this system. For example, while the Central and Potosino dialects both have
3203::14, 18); similarly, double wavy lines (≈) indicate oppositions within a diasystem in the same way that wavy lines (~) indicate phonemic oppositions within an individual variety.
626:
fell short in accurately representing dialects because their methodology involved attempting to create a diasystem before establishing the relevant component phonemic systems.
1051::46, 67) used the term to refer to phonemes that are equated by speakers cross-linguistically because of similarities in shape and/or distribution. For example, loanwords in
1441:
argues that comprehension across varieties, when it is found, is insufficient evidence for the claim that polylectal grammars are part of speakers' linguistic competence.
1414:
that are not built into the system. To regard unsystematized features as part of a 'system' and to impose an 'over-all pattern' are spurious notions that must be rejected.
1298::337) argues that such constructs are appropriate but only when they are removed before the final formulation of grammatical analysis. Wells puts even more weight on the
1457::27, 65), notable for advocating the construction of polylectal grammars, says that the generative rules of such grammars should be panlectal in the sense that they are
680:
Wells expanded on this by splitting up the phonological category into "systemic" differences (those of inventory) and "structural" differences (those of phonotactics).
1764:
313:
than one variety), and helps in ascertaining where speakers make diaphonic identifications as a result of similarities and differences between the varieties involved.
3037::11–12, 45–46), the author points out that there are Norwich speakers who do not accurately imitate the speech of others, and present "hyperdialectisms" (similar to
1568:
The concept does not necessitate the formation of a transcription system. Diaphones can instead be represented with double slashes. This is the case, for example in
1206:
1319:
111:). This non-overlapping pair of phonemes from two different varieties can be reconciled by positing three different diaphonemes: A first diaphoneme for words like
929:
uses a diaphonemic writing system that indicates both the pronunciation in Mecca, the western dialect the Qur'an was written in, and that of eastern Arabia, the
1134:
of speakers. William Labov, although warm to the construction of a panlectal grammar, argued that it should be based in speakers' linguistic competence.
240:, but was later repurposed to refer to any of the particular variants, making the relationship between diaphoneme and diaphone analogous to that between
47:
1520:
that prompt exposure to other dialects, speakers may possess a diasystem that represents multiple dialects as part of their communicative competence.
981:
1265:
argues that going past the common core creates difficulties that add greater complexity and falsely assume a shared underlying form in all accents:
1228:
information, must be matched to the listener's set of vowel prototypes with less deviation than in consonantal contexts. In the first chapter of
616:
makes use of a diaphonemic transcription of
Standard English so that examples can be expressed concisely without favoring any particular accent.
3780:, Georgetown University Monograph Series on Languages and Linguistics, vol. 7, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, pp. 9–19
4187:
3858:
612:
4741:
Verbrugge, Robert R.; Strange, Winifred; Shankweiler, Donald P.; Edman, Thomas R. (1976), "Consonant environment specifies vowel identity",
3884:
Kaufman, Terrence (2006), "Symbolism and change in the sound system of
Huastec", in Hinton, Leanne; Nichols, Johanna; Ohala, John (eds.),
492::641) even went so far as to claim that principled description of interdialectal code-switching would be impossible without such rules.
1192:
dialects, it is regarded as the same word even though it is pronounced differently depending on a speaker's region. Thus speakers from
409:
is when phonemic distinctions from one's primary language are imposed on the sounds of the second system where they are not required;
1508:
in the rest, though the distribution varies with dialect. A diasystem would thus have to present an additional underlying diaphoneme
1236:
makes the case that these semantic contexts form the basis of intelligibility across varieties and that the process is irregular and
222:, it is concerned with the reflexes of an ancestral phoneme as a language splits into dialects, such as the modern realizations of
1686:{\displaystyle {\bigg /}{\bigg /}{\frac {RP,GA\qquad \mathrm {k} }{SSE,KA\qquad \mathrm {k} ~vs.\mathrm {x} }}{\bigg /}{\bigg /}}
1445:
argues that an extrapolated panlectal (or even broadly polylectal) grammar from "idiosyncratic" grammars, such as those found in
3799:
1779:
1035:, which phonemic systems do not account for, may be important in the process of interference and interlingual identifications.
413:
of phonemes occurs when two sounds of the second system are not maintained because they are not present in the primary system.
3804:, Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics, vol. 11, Baltimore: Waverly Press, Inc, archived from
1142::16) cautions that polylectal grammars are only appropriate when they "result in claims about speaker-hearer's capabilities".
1517:
687:, wherein the same phone (or a nearly identical one) corresponds to different phonemes, depending on accent. Some examples:
1184:
Native speakers are able to compensate for the differences and interpret these as the same word. A similar issue occurs in
481:) would thus cover both dialects. Neither is described exactly, but both are derivable from the diaphonemic transcription.
4439:
4402:
1740:
and the diaphonemic transcription system used by Paul
Geraghty for related Fijian languages uses a modified Roman script.
4123:, Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, vol. 9, University of Hawaii Press, pp. i, iii–v, vii–xvi, 1, 3–322
2093::70) refers to this distinction as "differences in phonetic realization" and "differences between accents", respectively.
3675:
Golston, Chris; Yang, Phong (2001), "White Hmong loanword phonology", in Féry, A.D. Green; van de Vijver, R. (eds.),
4658:
Troike, Rudolph (1971), "Overall pattern and generative phonology", in Allen, Harold B.; Underwood, Gary N. (eds.),
1516:
goes beyond the common core, marking contrasts that only appear in some varieties; Geraghty argues that, because of
5186:
5002:
Bailey, Charles-James (1970), "A new intonation theory to account for pan-English and idiom-particular patterns",
1220:
hear such a contrast but do not produce it may still possess the contrast as part of their linguistic repertoire.
4150:
Ornstein, Jacob; Murphy, Paul (1974), "Models and approaches in sociolinguistic research on language diversity",
1733:
29:
553:
at the end of a syllable; constructing a diaphonemic system thus becomes a relatively straightforward process.
3185:
3355:
Berdan, R. (1977), "Polylectal comprehension and the polylectal grammar", in Fasold, R.W.; Shuy, R.W. (eds.),
977:
645:
linguists attempting to account for dialectal differences have generally distinguished between three types:
403:
The different phonetic values were assigned numerical values that were then used in an overall score index.
1435:) could accurately and consistently make the distinction if called upon to imitate older Norwich speakers.
590:
5147:
Siertsema, B. (1968), "Pros and cons of macro-phonemes in new orthographies: (Masaba spelling problems)",
3041:); such speakers may then be said to have a different, less polylectal, grammar than the one described in
2982:
1708:
1704:
1561:
1554:
1547:
1540:
1533:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1473:
1399:
1395:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1307:
1113:
proposes that rule differences can be used to determine the distance a particular utterance has between a
1047:
can be used in discussions of cognates that occur in different languages due to borrowing. Specifically,
946:
942:
938:
895:
890:
885:
877:
872:
865:
860:
855:
847:
842:
835:
830:
825:
817:
812:
805:
800:
795:
787:
782:
550:
478:
474:
462:
458:
454:
442:
438:
226:
203:
198:
188:
183:
173:
168:
163:
132:
124:
116:
108:
100:
88:
76:
43:
39:
1001:
638:
leads phoneticians to fit features of a dialect under study into the system of dialects already studied.
1512:
with generative rules that account for the dialectal distribution. Similarly, the diaphonemic system in
4316:
Riney, T.; Takagi, N (1999), "Global foreign accent and voice onset time among Japanese EFL speakers",
3840:
1256:
261:
3309:
Bailey, Beryl L. (1971), "Jamaican Creole: Can dialect boundaries be defined?", in Hymes, Dell (ed.),
2663::44). The author notes (p.48) a parallel process with culturally defined gestures and offers the term
2200::100–106) for a more in-depth discussion about communicative competence in relation to variable rules.
1696:
1469:
1177:
577:
544:
phonemes (with contrasts only in final position). Due to both varieties having closed allophones of
268:. Jones, who was more interested in transcription and coping with dialectal variation than with how
3745:
1846:
These dialects pronounce the vowels as , , and , respectively; the assumption being that words like
1464:
Although question remains to their psychological reality, the usefulness of diaphonemes is shown in
4653:, Georgetown University Monograph Series on Languages and Linguistics, vol. 22, pp. 63–74
2985:
varies considerably between dialects, which requires special attention but no serious difficulties.
1131:
1028:
484:
The desire of building a diasystem to accommodate all English dialects, combined with a blossoming
3432:
Cadora, Frederic J. (1970), "Some linguistic concomitants of contactual factors of urbanization",
1121::641–642) points out that mesolectal varieties often have features not derivable from such rules.
4879:
Wilson, John; Henry, Alison (1998), "Parameter setting within a socially realistic linguistics",
1405:
Despite downplaying the divergences, Kurath argued that there is no "total pattern" (a term from
969:
325:
3979:
Labov, William (1969), "Contraction, deletion, and inherent variability in the English copula",
305:
4503:
Silverman, Daniel (1992), "Multiple scansions in loanword phonology: Evidence from Cantonese",
1817:
1712:
1678:
1671:
1594:
1587:
1461:
learned in the acquisition process, though no speaker should be expected to learn all of them.
1216:
will not hear the distinction when it is produced by speakers of other dialects), speakers who
1202:
1189:
1106:
1020:
699:
595:
572:
was popular amongst American linguists for a time (in the face of criticism, particularly from
450:
309:
219:
25:
1259:. This competence in multiple varieties is arguably the primary vehicle of linguistic change.
997:
610:
and McDavid combined several dialects into one system transcribed in the IPA. More recently,
5176:
2369:
2308::258) point to earlier works by these authors as approaching the same goal but in less detail
1114:
926:
64:
3670:, Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, vol. 19, pp. i, iii–iv, vii–xxv, 1–483
1011:, argues that phonemic representations may lead to confusion when dealing with phonological
4750:
1804:
907:
728:
635:
594:
by focusing on the diaphoneme, believing that it could address neutralizations better than
485:
4307:
Reed, David (1972), "Toward a diasystem of English phonology", in Alatis, James E. (ed.),
8:
3785:
Haugen, Einar (1956), "Bilingualism in the Americas: A Bibliography and Research Guide",
3697:
1784:
973:
317:
4754:
4311:, Washington, D.C.: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other languages, pp. 135–141
3684:
Goodman, John Stuart (1967), "The development of a dialect of English-Japanese Pidgin",
3155::312); this bracketing comes from Smith's interpretation that the diaphoneme represents
5181:
5136:
5097:
4983:
4955:
4927:
4896:
4859:
4794:
4730:
4667:
4614:
4586:
4558:
4530:
4492:
4475:
Shores, David (1984), "The stressed vowels of the speech of Tangier Island, Virginia",
4458:
4421:
4390:
4353:
4296:
4268:
4240:
4212:
4108:
4080:
4052:
4024:
3996:
3938:
3910:
3829:
3765:
3730:
3655:
3618:
3590:
3549:
3503:
3473:
Chao, Yuen-Ren (1934), "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems",
3462:
3412:
3384:
3344:
3298:
3177:
3171:
1749:
934:
557::220) suggests that the rules needed to account for dialectal differences, even if not
5160:
5090:
5045:
4900:
4863:
4766:
4632:, Studies in Linguistics occasional papers, vol. 3, Norman, OK: Battenberg Press
4496:
4373:
Saporta, Sol (1965), "Ordered rules, dialect differences, and historical processes",
4357:
4300:
4272:
4244:
4181:
4174:
The principles of Romanization with special reference to the Romanization of Japanese
4112:
4028:
3852:
3805:
3659:
3553:
3416:
3181:
1287:
1155:
1086:
1012:
930:
911:
504:
500:
4534:
4056:
2916::25) argues that the linguistic variable is essentially a sociolinguistic construct.
668:: one phoneme rather than another occurs in a given word or group of words (such as
5156:
5131:
5126:
5118:
5086:
5069:
5064:
5041:
5011:
4975:
4947:
4919:
4888:
4851:
4831:
4826:
4786:
4758:
4722:
4625:
4606:
4578:
4550:
4520:
4512:
4484:
4462:
4454:
4425:
4417:
4382:
4345:
4336:
Romaine, Suzanne (1981), "The status of variable rules in sociolinguistic theory",
4325:
4288:
4260:
4232:
4204:
4100:
4072:
4044:
4016:
3988:
3930:
3902:
3778:
Report of the Fifth Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Teaching
3757:
3722:
3647:
3610:
3582:
3541:
3495:
3454:
3404:
3376:
3336:
3290:
1716:
1240:
rather than the result of any sort of rule-governed passive polylectal competence.
1185:
1165:
1056:
985:
743:
713:
695:
329:
265:
68:
4777:
Voegelin, C.F. (1956), "Phonemicizing for dialect study: With reference to Hopi",
4063:
Moulton, William G. (1961), "The dialect geography of hast, hat in Swiss German",
3532:
Davis, Lawrence (1973), "The diafeature: An approach to structural dialectology",
1926::12) states that Jones credited Palmer with using the term in print first, though
1075:
4805:
3364:
3038:
2851:
1774:
1252:
1081:
993:
915:
775:
426:
301:
3921:
Kurath, Hans (1957), "The binary interpretation of English vowels: A critique",
1065:
4683:
4488:
4264:
4236:
4007:
Lavandera, Beatriz R. (1978), "Where does the sociolinguistic variable stop?",
3843:(1932), "The theory of phonemes, and its importance in practical linguistics",
3545:
3156:
1477:
1233:
1135:
1052:
739:
but no speaker merges the two vowels (i.e. a speaker who says will not say ).
568:
The nature of an overall system for English was controversial: the analysis in
446:
5015:
4892:
4855:
4516:
4349:
4279:
Pulgram, Ernst (1964), "Structural comparison, diasystems, and dialectology",
4104:
4048:
4020:
3651:
3408:
3327:
Ballard, W.L. (1971), "Review: Linguistic change and the Saussurian paradox",
1729:
are pronounced differently in the former group and identically in the latter.
1023:
can be cumbersome, especially when discussing other grammatical features like
5170:
4839:
4292:
3967:
3560:
De Camp, David (1971), "Implicational scales and sociolinguistic linearity",
1759:
1303:
1262:
903:
631:
333:
321:
214:
studies the realization of diaphones across dialects, and is important if an
4329:
3713:
Hankey, Clyde T. (1965), ""Tiger," "tagger," and in Western Pennsylvania",
63:
unit that identifies a correspondence between related sounds of two or more
5052:
5032:
Francescato, Giuseppe (1959), "A case of coexistence of phonemic systems",
4907:
4130:
The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology
3741:
1299:
1171:
965:
961:
430:
4137:
Oliver, Joseph (1972), "Diatype identification in a bilingual community",
2850::152); the authors point to other creolists like Charles-James Bailey and
1409:) that can be imposed on all English dialects, nor of even American ones:
5077:
Hausmann, Robert B. (1975), "Underlying representation in dialectology",
4770:
4637:
4467:
4430:
1769:
984:
are fairly isomorphic with each other so a diaphonic approach for such a
653:
607:
573:
223:
215:
4525:
1286:, which rhyme in most English varieties but, because some dialects make
441:
in American English, as many varieties thereof do not allow the cluster
16:
Concept in dialectology analyzing phonemes across dialects of a language
3833:
3348:
1290:
with the vowels of these words (specifically, in parts of the north of
919:
5140:
4987:
4959:
4931:
4798:
4734:
4618:
4590:
4562:
4394:
4216:
4195:
Pederson, Lee (1977), "Studies of American Pronunciation since 1945",
4084:
4000:
3942:
3914:
3769:
3734:
3622:
3594:
3507:
3466:
3388:
3302:
1833:
grammars are those that encode for all varieties of a language, while
992:
makes use of a diaphonic approach in discussing the phonology of the
576:); James Sledd put forth his own diaphonemic system that accommodated
281:. Because of confusion related to usage, Jones later coined the term
4762:
1754:
1032:
545:
297:
245:
60:
4541:
Sledd, James H. (1966), "Breaking, umlaut, and the southern drawl",
3845:
Proceedings of the First International Congress of Phonetic Sciences
3475:
Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academica Sinica
3340:
5122:
4979:
4951:
4938:
Wolfram, Walt (1991), "The linguistic variable: Fact and fantasy",
4923:
4817:
Weinreich, Uriel (1954), "Is a structural dialectology possible?",
4790:
4726:
4610:
4582:
4554:
4386:
4208:
4076:
3992:
3934:
3906:
3761:
3726:
3614:
3586:
3499:
3458:
3380:
3294:
1700:
1418:
The description of a cognitively real polylectal grammar came with
1223:
In discussing contextual cues to vowel identifications in English,
945:, while it had merged with in eastern Arabia and was written as ا
461:
to reflect that pronunciation. A diaphonemic transcription such as
35:
4597:
Stockwell, Robert (1959), "Structural dialectology: A proposal",
3486:
Chao, Yuen-Ren (1946), "The logical structure of Chinese words",
2854:
as expanding on this concept in accounting for speaker variation.
1423:
1291:
1197:
1193:
1161:
1101:
241:
4740:
2824:
1732:
Diaphonemic systems do not necessarily even have to utilize the
4569:
Smith, Henry Lee Jr. (1967), "The concept of the morphophone",
3516:
The Real Professor Higgins: the Life and Career of Daniel Jones
1024:
1449:, would still not be part of speakers' linguistic competence;
218:
is to be adequate for more than one dialect of a language. In
4651:
Receptive competence, productive competence, and performance.
3679:, vol. 5, University of Potsdam: Potsdam, pp. 40–57
950:
3601:
Fasold, Ralph (1991), "The quiet demise of variable rules",
71:. For example, some English varieties contrast the vowel of
3776:
Haugen, Einar (1954), "Problems of bilingual description",
1725:
742:
Realizational overlap occurs between the three dialects of
4121:
Japanese Pidgin English in Hawaii: A Bilingual description
1765:
International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects
3313:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 341–348
3281:
Allen, Harold B. (1977), "Regional dialects, 1945–1974",
3173:
The Linguistic Atlas of Scotland: Scots Section, Volume 3
4713:
Twaddell, W. Freeman (1935), "On defining the phoneme",
3879:(Second ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
2981::117), Kurath notes that the incidence of vowels before
754:-type sounds, the words they are found in are reversed:
5027:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 22–31
4808:(1953), "Languages in contact, findings and problems",
3888:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 63–75
1816:
Northern English varieties that have not undergone the
1803:
Northern English varieties that have not undergone the
941:
was pronounced something like in Mecca, and written ي
4812:, vol. 1, New York: Linguistic Circle of New York
4223:
Pederson, Lee (1987), "An automated book code (ABC)",
3573:
Diebold, A. Richard (1961), "Incipient bilingualism",
630::122) argues a similar problem occurs in the study of
4662:, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, pp. 324–342
3972:
The Social Stratification of English in New York City
1584:
1306:
and non-rhotic accents—the former have an underlying
1146:
that of other varieties. Take, for example, the word
3700:(1965), "Fact and fiction in grammatical analysis",
3178:
https://archive.org/details/linguisticatlaso0000math
1100:
The process of diaphonic identification occurs when
972:
the phonology of the systems are. For example, the
600:
The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States
429:
first advocated the use of diasystems in structural
34:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
3960:
The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States
3169:
1850:
have an underlying but unpronounced velar fricative
1576:where diaphonemes are represented with bracketing:
3974:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics
1685:
1188:. When a "general word" is shared across multiple
4910:(1982), "Language knowledge and other dialects",
4810:Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York
4706:The English Language in Australia and New Zealand
4670:(1931), "Phonologie et géographie linguistique",
4403:"Departures from strict phonemic representations"
3170:Mather, J.Y; Spetiel, H.H.; Leslie, G.W. (1977).
457:does not occur so this name would be transcribed
91:). Other English varieties contrast the vowel of
5168:
4697:On Dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives
4688:The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich
964:expanded the diaphonic approach to the study of
48:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
4363:
3359:, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press
3322:, Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics
3176:. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books. pp. [
2820:
1224:
988:situation would be relatively straightforward.
437:. This word may be transcribed phonemically as
4842:(1970), "Local accents in England and Wales",
4149:
2847:
2708:
1703:are shown to make a phonemic contrast between
1325:, which aligns phonetically with the vowel of
1318:while the latter, arguably, do not—and to the
683:In addition, both Wells and Weinreich mention
5004:Research on Language & Social Interaction
3962:, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press
3957:
3822:International Journal of American Linguistics
3009::302), pointing particularly to chapter 8 of
2357:
1980:
1719:are shown to possess only the former so that
906:created a diaphonemic transcription of major
613:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language
499::223) with a phonological difference between
260:first appeared in usage by phoneticians like
236:was originally used with the same meaning as
232:The concept goes back to the 1930s. The word
4743:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
3367:(1973), "The nature of a creole continuum",
918:". It originally (1927) covered the various
5055:(1962), "Phonology in generative grammar",
4965:
4878:
4624:
4315:
3953:, London: Longmans, Green, pp. 146–155
3819:
3674:
3633:, vol. 1, London and New York: Longman
3513:
3311:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages
3228:
2744:
2648:
2527:
1893:
1491:
1481:
1406:
1248:
623:
569:
495:An example of this concept is presented in
4666:
4186:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3857:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3518:, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter
3159:correspondences rather than phonemic ones.
642:
422:
5130:
5068:
4830:
4816:
4804:
4649:Troike, Rudolph (1970), James, E. (ed.),
4596:
4524:
4502:
4466:
4429:
4006:
3958:Kurath, Hans; McDavid, Raven Jr. (1961),
3525:A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics
3394:
3363:
3006:
2876:
2768:
2624:
2578::66) reiterates this point when he says,
2449:
2380:
2305:
2253:
2241:
2142:
2106:
2078:
2050:
2038:
1934:, credits Jones with pushing the concept.
1573:
1118:
619:
489:
127:), and a third diaphoneme for words like
4776:
4712:
4694:
4682:
4672:Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague
4309:Studies in Honor of Albert H. Marckwardt
4250:
4222:
4194:
3665:
3444:
3425:Phonological rules and dialect variation
3264:
3252:
3240:
3116:
3103:
3091:
3055:
3042:
3034:
3021:
3010:
2835:
2808:
2732:
2720:
2696:
2130:
2066:
1955:
1513:
1446:
1419:
1229:
627:
5025:Linguistic Change and Generative Theory
4937:
4906:
4874:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
4690:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
4642:A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology
4372:
4335:
4278:
4251:Pederson, Lee (1989), "AAM phonology",
4132:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
4090:
4062:
4034:
3892:
3883:
3797:
3683:
3628:
3572:
3559:
3522:
3427:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3326:
3079:
3067:
2913:
2864:
2676:
2660:
2612:
2575:
2461:
2289:
2221:
2197:
2169:
2157:
2054:
1988:
1869:
1450:
1442:
1243:
1139:
1055:having "diaphonic identification" with
731:, where occurs either as the vowel of
554:
496:
5169:
4703:
4657:
4648:
4474:
4364:Rosner, B.S.; Pickering, J.B. (1994),
4171:
4136:
4127:
4118:
3948:
3920:
3784:
3775:
3746:"The analysis of linguistic borrowing"
3740:
3712:
3600:
3527:(sixth ed.), Blackwell Publishing
3514:Collins, Beverly; Mees, Inger (1999),
3431:
3354:
3317:
3308:
3200:
2994:
2978:
2961:
2804:
2684:
2636:
2600:
2592:
2563:
2551:
2539:
2515:
2503:
2499:
2393:
2318:
2237:
2209:
2184:
2118:
2102:
2003:
1912:
1780:Phonological history of English vowels
1465:
1454:
1438:
1110:
1095:
1048:
1016:
989:
724:
581:
558:
296:A diaphonemic inventory is a specific
269:
119:), a second diaphoneme for words like
4869:
4838:
4699:, New York: New York University Press
4636:
4568:
4540:
4162:
3978:
3966:
3874:
3865:
3839:
3637:
3531:
3422:
3280:
3224:
3212:
3152:
3139:
3128:
2965:
2949:
2937:
2925:
2900:
2888:
2780:
2756:
2687:as potentially beginning such debate.
2680:
2437:
2425:
2421:
2409:
2397:
2353:
2341:
2330:
2301:
2277:
2265:
2225:
2173:
2146:
2090:
2026:
1992:
1984:
1943:
1931:
1927:
1897:
1881:
1569:
1347:ingliding and upgliding varieties of
4437:
4400:
4306:
3870:(1st ed.), Cambridge: W. Heffer
3696:
3485:
3472:
2792:
2596:
1967:
1923:
1908:
1295:
1251::17–18) point out that there may be
1124:
1117:'s acrolectal and basolectal forms.
1008:
727::229) notes a similar phenomenon in
585:
38:. For the distinction between ,
4872:Accents of English: An Introduction
3668:The history of the Fijian languages
1738:Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States
272:the phenomenon is, originally used
13:
4995:
4459:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1959.tb01124.x
4440:"Some allophones can be important"
4422:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1952.tb01189.x
3820:Householder, Fred Jr. (1952), "",
1979:This is how the terms are used in
1662:
1645:
1619:
1422:'s set of rules for the speech of
698:overlaps with the way speakers of
14:
5198:
4660:Readings in American Dialectology
4368:, Oxford: Oxford University Press
3638:Fudge, E.C. (1969), "Syllables",
3318:Bailey, Charles-James N. (1973),
1829:For the purpose of this article,
1523:
320:, a similar concept presented by
285:to refer to his earlier sense of
4966:Yaeger-Dror, Malcah (1986), "",
4870:Wells, John Christopher (1982),
4091:Moulton, William G. (1985), "",
3258:
3246:
3234:
3218:
3206:
3194:
3162:
3145:
976:of Los Ojos (a small village in
289:(the class of sounds) and used
5109:Keyser, Samuel Jay (1963), "",
4630:An outline of English structure
4366:Vowel Perception and Production
3877:The Phoneme: Its Nature and Use
3868:The Phoneme: Its Nature and Use
3320:Variation and Linguistic Theory
3133:
3121:
3109:
3097:
3085:
3073:
3061:
3048:
3027:
3015:
3000:
2988:
2971:
2955:
2943:
2931:
2919:
2906:
2894:
2882:
2870:
2857:
2841:
2829:
2814:
2798:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2750:
2738:
2726:
2714:
2702:
2690:
2670:
2654:
2642:
2630:
2618:
2606:
2586:
2569:
2557:
2545:
2533:
2521:
2509:
2493:
2480:
2467:
2455:
2443:
2431:
2415:
2403:
2386:
2374:
2362:
2347:
2335:
2323:
2311:
2295:
2283:
2271:
2259:
2247:
2231:
2215:
2203:
2190:
2178:
2163:
2151:
2136:
2124:
2112:
2096:
2084:
2072:
2060:
2044:
2032:
2020:
1997:
1973:
1961:
1840:
1823:
1643:
1617:
956:
652:: the phonemic inventories and
416:
346:
30:International Phonetic Alphabet
5070:10.1080/00437956.1962.11659765
4832:10.1080/00437956.1954.11659535
4477:Journal of English Linguistics
4253:Journal of English Linguistics
4225:Journal of English Linguistics
4035:McMahon, April S. (1996), "",
3534:Journal of English Linguistics
1949:
1937:
1917:
1902:
1887:
1874:
1863:
1810:
1797:
1329:in some varieties and that of
672:, which has the same vowel of
1:
4628:; Smith, Henry L Jr. (1951),
3631:Dialectology: An Introduction
3395:Bickerton, Derek (1975), "",
3357:Studies in Language Variation
2823::325), pointing to data from
1857:
1468::19–23) with the loss of the
1225:Rosner & Pickering (1994)
1207:does not distinguish between
978:Rio Arriba County, New Mexico
5161:10.1016/0024-3841(68)90066-1
5091:10.1016/0024-3841(75)90073-x
5046:10.1016/0024-3841(59)90005-1
3893:Kazazis, Kostas (1976), "",
2821:Rosner & Pickering (1994
1837:ones encode fewer than that.
1038:
870:
840:
810:
780:
591:The Sound Pattern of English
7:
4152:Anthropological Linguistics
4139:Anthropological Linguistics
3686:Anthropological Linguistics
3445:Campbell, Lyle (1971), "",
3434:Anthropological Linguistics
2848:Ornstein & Murphy (1974
2709:Ornstein & Murphy (1974
2358:Kurath & McDavid (1961)
1981:Kurath & McDavid (1961)
1743:
1274:Wells gives the example of
1257:those for language learning
980:) and the local variety of
10:
5203:
4489:10.1177/007542428401700104
4265:10.1177/007542428902200109
4237:10.1177/007542428702000104
3666:Geraghty, Paul A. (1983),
3546:10.1177/007542427300700101
3273:
2863:A similar claim occurs in
336:speakers) of the vowel of
293:to refer to the variants.
5016:10.1080/08351817009370242
4893:10.1017/s0047404500019709
4856:10.1017/S0022226700002632
4517:10.1017/s0952675700001627
4350:10.1017/s0022226700006794
4105:10.1017/s0047404500011581
4049:10.1017/s0952675700002724
4021:10.1017/s0047404500005510
3951:In Honour of Daniel Jones
3798:Hockett, Charles (1955),
3652:10.1017/s0022226700002267
3409:10.1017/s0022226700004631
2473:Catherine Bateson, 1967,
1697:Scottish Standard English
1500:; this vowel merged with
1492:
1482:
1407:Trager & Smith (1951)
1019::56) remarks that narrow
765:
624:Trager & Smith (1951)
578:Southern American English
570:Trager & Smith (1951)
182:
162:
146:
143:
140:
4695:Trudgill, Peter (1983),
4293:10.1515/ling.1964.2.4.66
2649:Golston & Yang (2001
2528:Riney & Takagi (1999
2475:Arabic Language Handbook
2145::173, 177), pointing to
1894:Collins & Mees (1999
1790:
1249:Wilson & Henry (1998
251:
5187:Linguistics terminology
5132:2027/uc1.32106001579140
4840:Wells, John Christopher
4330:10.1111/0023-8333.00089
4119:Nagara, Susumu (1972),
3702:Foundations of Language
3523:Crystal, David (2011),
3423:Brown, Gillian (1972),
2825:Verbrugge et al. (1976)
2010:in this sense but uses
1518:Fijian marriage customs
1190:mutually unintelligible
1150:, which is pronounced:
1073:('horse', from Spanish
588:modified the scheme of
326:variable rules analysis
300:(a term popularized by
26:phonetic transcriptions
4844:Journal of Linguistics
4338:Journal of Linguistics
4167:, University of Bergen
4128:Newton, Brian (1972),
3875:Jones, Daniel (1962),
3866:Jones, Daniel (1950),
3640:Journal of Linguistics
3629:Francis, W.N. (1983),
3397:Journal of Linguistics
2583:
2424::232, 240, 243, 245),
1687:
1416:
1377:in a few lexical items
1272:
1203:Southern United States
1107:mutual intelligibility
1021:phonetic transcription
700:Received Pronunciation
451:Received Pronunciation
220:historical linguistics
23:This article contains
4704:Turner, G.W. (1966),
4172:Palmer, H.E. (1931),
4163:Orten, Elise (1991),
2579:
1880:Example adapted from
1688:
1411:
1267:
1132:linguistic competence
1115:post-creole continuum
1109:of a working pidgin.
1085:, when borrowed into
1063:('oil', from Spanish
937:. For example, final
685:realizational overlap
676:in RP but not in GA.)
5102:The State of the Art
2667:for this phenomenon.
1582:
1320:unstressed vowel of
1255:for this similar to
1043:Similarly, the term
1002:Hawaiian plantations
982:Southwestern English
910:, in both Latin and
758:Huastec diaphonemes
729:Western Pennsylvania
636:transfer of training
559:psychologically real
486:generative phonology
411:underdifferentiation
5104:, The Hague: Mouton
4881:Language in Society
4755:1976ASAJ...60..213S
4668:Trubetzkoy, Nikolai
4644:, London: Routledge
4165:The Kirkwall accent
4093:Language in Society
4009:Language in Society
3808:on October 30, 2007
3801:Manual of Phonology
3698:Hall, Robert A. Jr.
3677:Proceedings of HILP
2912:In a similar vein,
2488:The Arabic Language
1785:Robert A. Hall, Jr.
1539:exclamation marks:
1470:front rounded vowel
1302:difference between
1096:Pidgins and creoles
998:Japanese immigrants
759:
735:or as the vowel of
407:Overdifferentiation
318:linguistic variable
4708:, London: Longmans
4438:Shen, Yao (1959),
4401:Shen, Yao (1952),
2172::96), pointing to
1818:wait–weight merger
1750:Comparative method
1699:and the accent of
1683:
1504:in most words and
1353:New England short
1288:phonemic contrasts
935:pre-Islamic poetry
914:versions, called "
757:
4626:Trager, George L.
4447:Language Learning
4410:Language Learning
4318:Language Learning
3229:Householder (1952
2745:Yaeger-Dror (1986
2665:gestural diamorph
2486:Versteegh, 1997,
2105::24, 47), citing
1667:
1651:
1125:Cognitive reality
912:Chinese character
908:Chinese varieties
901:
900:
716:overlaps with RP
643:Trubetzkoy (1931)
541:
540:
505:Uruguayan Spanish
453:, syllable-final
423:Trubetzkoy (1931)
401:
400:
279:diaphonic variant
209:
208:
67:of a language or
5194:
5163:
5143:
5134:
5105:
5098:Hockett, Charles
5093:
5073:
5072:
5048:
5028:
5018:
4990:
4962:
4934:
4903:
4875:
4866:
4835:
4834:
4825:(2–3): 388–400,
4813:
4806:Weinreich, Uriel
4801:
4773:
4763:10.1121/1.381066
4737:
4709:
4700:
4691:
4679:
4663:
4654:
4645:
4638:Trask, Robert L.
4633:
4621:
4593:
4565:
4537:
4528:
4499:
4471:
4470:
4444:
4434:
4433:
4407:
4397:
4369:
4360:
4332:
4312:
4303:
4275:
4247:
4219:
4203:(3/4): 262–327,
4191:
4185:
4177:
4168:
4159:
4146:
4133:
4124:
4115:
4087:
4059:
4031:
4003:
3975:
3963:
3954:
3945:
3917:
3889:
3880:
3871:
3862:
3856:
3848:
3836:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3794:
3781:
3772:
3737:
3709:
3693:
3680:
3671:
3662:
3634:
3625:
3597:
3569:
3556:
3528:
3519:
3510:
3482:
3469:
3441:
3428:
3419:
3391:
3365:Bickerton, Derek
3360:
3351:
3335:(3/4): 254–270,
3323:
3314:
3305:
3289:(3/4): 163–261,
3268:
3262:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3238:
3232:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3191:
3166:
3160:
3149:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3107:
3101:
3095:
3089:
3083:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3052:
3046:
3031:
3025:
3019:
3013:
3004:
2998:
2992:
2986:
2984:
2975:
2969:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2910:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2861:
2855:
2845:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2818:
2812:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2736:
2730:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2674:
2668:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2590:
2584:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2497:
2491:
2490:, p 40 ff, 56 ff
2484:
2478:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2368:See explanation
2366:
2360:
2351:
2345:
2339:
2333:
2329:particularly in
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2235:
2229:
2224::24–25), citing
2219:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2001:
1995:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1921:
1915:
1906:
1900:
1891:
1885:
1878:
1872:
1867:
1851:
1844:
1838:
1827:
1821:
1814:
1808:
1805:pane–pain merger
1801:
1710:
1706:
1695:In this scheme,
1692:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1649:
1648:
1623:
1622:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1574:Weinreich (1954)
1563:
1556:
1553:curly brackets:
1549:
1542:
1535:
1532:double slashes:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1489:
1488:
1475:
1401:
1397:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1332:
1328:
1309:
1253:critical periods
1166:Washington, D.C.
1091:mele kalikimaka.
986:language contact
948:
944:
940:
931:prestige dialect
897:
892:
887:
879:
874:
867:
862:
857:
849:
844:
837:
832:
827:
819:
814:
807:
802:
797:
789:
784:
760:
756:
714:General American
696:Canadian English
620:Weinreich (1954)
598:approaches; and
552:
510:
509:
480:
476:
472:
460:
456:
444:
440:
347:
330:sociolinguistics
270:cognitively real
266:Harold E. Palmer
228:
205:
200:
190:
185:
175:
170:
165:
138:
137:
134:
126:
118:
110:
102:
90:
78:
69:language cluster
45:
41:
5202:
5201:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5193:
5192:
5191:
5167:
5166:
5146:
5108:
5096:
5076:
5051:
5031:
5021:
5001:
4998:
4996:Further reading
4993:
4940:American Speech
4912:American Speech
4684:Trudgill, Peter
4599:American Speech
4442:
4405:
4197:American Speech
4179:
4178:
3886:Sound Symbolism
3850:
3849:
3811:
3809:
3787:American Speech
3715:American Speech
3603:American Speech
3341:10.2307/3087780
3329:American Speech
3283:American Speech
3276:
3271:
3263:
3259:
3251:
3247:
3239:
3235:
3223:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3188:
3167:
3163:
3150:
3146:
3138:
3134:
3126:
3122:
3117:Trudgill (1974)
3114:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3090:
3086:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3062:
3053:
3049:
3043:Trudgill (1974)
3039:hypercorrection
3032:
3028:
3020:
3016:
3011:Trudgill (1974)
3007:Bickerton (1975
3005:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2976:
2972:
2960:
2956:
2948:
2944:
2936:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2911:
2907:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2883:
2877:Bickerton (1973
2875:
2871:
2862:
2858:
2852:Derek Bickerton
2846:
2842:
2834:
2830:
2819:
2815:
2807::65), cited in
2803:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2779:
2775:
2769:Weinreich (1954
2767:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2733:Trudgill (1983)
2731:
2727:
2719:
2715:
2707:
2703:
2695:
2691:
2675:
2671:
2659:
2655:
2647:
2643:
2635:
2631:
2625:Silverman (1992
2623:
2619:
2611:
2607:
2591:
2587:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2514:
2510:
2498:
2494:
2485:
2481:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2450:Weinreich (1954
2448:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2391:
2387:
2381:Weinreich (1954
2379:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2352:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2328:
2324:
2316:
2312:
2306:Stockwell (1959
2300:
2296:
2288:
2284:
2276:
2272:
2264:
2260:
2254:Weinreich (1954
2252:
2248:
2242:Weinreich (1953
2236:
2232:
2220:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2195:
2191:
2183:
2179:
2168:
2164:
2156:
2152:
2143:Lavandera (1978
2141:
2137:
2129:
2125:
2117:
2113:
2107:Weinreich (1953
2101:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2079:Stockwell (1959
2077:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2051:Stockwell (1959
2049:
2045:
2039:Stockwell (1959
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2002:
1998:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1922:
1918:
1907:
1903:
1892:
1888:
1879:
1875:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1854:
1845:
1841:
1828:
1824:
1815:
1811:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1775:Morphophonology
1746:
1677:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1644:
1624:
1618:
1601:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1546:vertical bars:
1526:
1514:Geraghty (1983)
1447:Trudgill (1974)
1420:Trudgill (1974)
1359:coalescence of
1330:
1326:
1230:Trudgill (1983)
1178:Charlottesville
1127:
1119:Bickerton (1973
1098:
1082:Merry Christmas
1041:
959:
927:Qur'anic Arabic
916:General Chinese
641:Beginning with
490:Bickerton (1973
473:(with both the
427:Uriel Weinreich
419:
351:
310:innovative ones
302:Uriel Weinreich
254:
103:) with that of
79:) with that of
59:is an abstract
53:
52:
51:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5200:
5190:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5165:
5164:
5144:
5123:10.2307/411215
5117:(2): 303–316,
5106:
5094:
5074:
5063:(1–3): 54–72,
5049:
5029:
5019:
5010:(3): 522–604,
4997:
4994:
4992:
4991:
4980:10.2307/415180
4974:(4): 917–923,
4963:
4952:10.2307/455432
4935:
4924:10.2307/455176
4904:
4876:
4867:
4850:(2): 231–252,
4836:
4814:
4802:
4791:10.2307/410660
4785:(1): 116–135,
4774:
4749:(1): 213–224,
4738:
4727:10.2307/522070
4710:
4701:
4692:
4680:
4664:
4655:
4646:
4634:
4622:
4611:10.2307/453704
4605:(4): 258–268,
4594:
4583:10.2307/411400
4577:(1): 306–341,
4566:
4555:10.2307/411598
4538:
4511:(2): 289–328,
4500:
4472:
4435:
4416:(3–4): 83–91,
4398:
4387:10.2307/411875
4381:(2): 218–224,
4370:
4361:
4333:
4324:(2): 275–302,
4313:
4304:
4276:
4248:
4220:
4209:10.2307/455242
4192:
4169:
4160:
4147:
4134:
4125:
4116:
4099:(4): 563–567,
4088:
4077:10.2307/411352
4071:(4): 497–508,
4060:
4043:(3): 439–445,
4032:
4015:(2): 171–182,
4004:
3993:10.2307/412333
3987:(4): 715–762,
3976:
3968:Labov, William
3964:
3955:
3946:
3935:10.2307/410723
3929:(2): 111–122,
3918:
3907:10.2307/412579
3901:(2): 514–516,
3890:
3881:
3872:
3863:
3837:
3817:
3795:
3782:
3773:
3762:10.2307/410058
3756:(2): 210–231,
3738:
3727:10.2307/454074
3721:(3): 225–229,
3710:
3694:
3681:
3672:
3663:
3646:(2): 253–286,
3635:
3626:
3615:10.2307/455431
3598:
3587:10.2307/411253
3570:
3557:
3529:
3520:
3511:
3500:10.2307/410329
3483:
3470:
3459:10.2307/412198
3453:(1): 191–209,
3442:
3429:
3420:
3403:(2): 299–308,
3392:
3381:10.2307/412355
3375:(3): 640–669,
3361:
3352:
3324:
3315:
3306:
3295:10.2307/455241
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3269:
3265:Geraghty (1983
3257:
3253:Pederson (1989
3245:
3241:Pederson (1987
3233:
3217:
3205:
3193:
3186:
3161:
3157:morphophonemic
3144:
3132:
3120:
3108:
3104:Geraghty (1983
3096:
3092:Geraghty (1983
3084:
3072:
3060:
3056:Trudgill (1983
3047:
3035:Trudgill (1983
3026:
3022:Trudgill (1974
3014:
2999:
2987:
2970:
2954:
2942:
2930:
2918:
2905:
2893:
2881:
2869:
2856:
2840:
2836:Trudgill (1983
2828:
2813:
2809:Campbell (1971
2797:
2785:
2773:
2761:
2749:
2737:
2725:
2721:Trudgill (1974
2713:
2701:
2697:Trudgill (1983
2689:
2679::441), citing
2669:
2653:
2641:
2629:
2617:
2605:
2585:
2568:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2508:
2492:
2479:
2466:
2454:
2442:
2430:
2414:
2402:
2385:
2373:
2361:
2356::224), citing
2346:
2334:
2322:
2310:
2294:
2282:
2270:
2258:
2246:
2240::277), citing
2230:
2214:
2202:
2189:
2177:
2162:
2150:
2135:
2131:Pederson (1977
2123:
2111:
2095:
2083:
2071:
2067:Geraghty (1983
2059:
2053::262), citing
2043:
2031:
2019:
1996:
1972:
1960:
1956:Twaddell (1935
1948:
1936:
1916:
1911::364), citing
1901:
1896::326), citing
1886:
1873:
1870:Crystal (2011)
1861:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1839:
1822:
1809:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1680:
1673:
1664:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1647:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1596:
1589:
1566:
1565:
1558:
1551:
1544:
1537:
1525:
1524:Representation
1522:
1443:Ballard (1971)
1403:
1402:
1394:variations in
1392:
1378:
1367:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1310:in words like
1244:De Camp (1971)
1234:Peter Trudgill
1182:
1181:
1174:
1168:
1158:
1136:Peter Trudgill
1126:
1123:
1097:
1094:
1040:
1037:
994:pidgin English
958:
955:
899:
898:
893:
888:
883:
880:
875:
869:
868:
863:
858:
853:
850:
845:
839:
838:
833:
828:
823:
820:
815:
809:
808:
803:
798:
793:
790:
785:
779:
778:
773:
770:
767:
764:
722:
721:
707:
678:
677:
663:
657:
628:Voegelin (1956
539:
538:
535:
533:
530:
529:
526:
524:
521:
520:
517:
514:
447:syllable onset
418:
415:
399:
398:
395:
392:
391:
388:
385:
384:
381:
378:
377:
374:
371:
370:
367:
364:
363:
360:
357:
356:
353:
253:
250:
207:
206:
201:
196:
192:
191:
186:
181:
177:
176:
171:
166:
161:
157:
156:
153:
149:
148:
145:
142:
46:⟩, see
22:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5199:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5174:
5172:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5145:
5142:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5071:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5053:Halle, Morris
5050:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5030:
5026:
5020:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5005:
5000:
4999:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4964:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4936:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4908:Wolfram, Walt
4905:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4877:
4873:
4868:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4775:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4739:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4711:
4707:
4702:
4698:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4595:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4567:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4539:
4536:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4501:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4473:
4469:
4468:2027.42/98164
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4441:
4436:
4432:
4431:2027.42/98384
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4404:
4399:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4344:(1): 93–119,
4343:
4339:
4334:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4305:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4277:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4183:
4175:
4170:
4166:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4135:
4131:
4126:
4122:
4117:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3952:
3947:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3919:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3878:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3846:
3842:
3841:Jones, Daniel
3838:
3835:
3831:
3828:(2): 99–105,
3827:
3823:
3818:
3807:
3803:
3802:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3783:
3779:
3774:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3742:Haugen, Einar
3739:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3581:(1): 97–112,
3580:
3576:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3558:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3430:
3426:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3393:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3312:
3307:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3279:
3278:
3266:
3261:
3254:
3249:
3242:
3237:
3230:
3226:
3221:
3214:
3209:
3202:
3197:
3189:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3174:
3165:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3141:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3105:
3100:
3093:
3088:
3081:
3080:Kazazis (1976
3076:
3069:
3068:Ballard (1971
3064:
3057:
3051:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3008:
3003:
2996:
2991:
2980:
2974:
2967:
2963:
2962:Kurath (1964)
2958:
2951:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2922:
2915:
2914:Wolfram (1991
2909:
2902:
2897:
2890:
2885:
2878:
2873:
2866:
2865:Francis (1983
2860:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2837:
2832:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2794:
2789:
2782:
2777:
2770:
2765:
2758:
2753:
2746:
2741:
2734:
2729:
2722:
2717:
2710:
2705:
2698:
2693:
2686:
2685:Newton (1972)
2682:
2678:
2677:McMahon (1996
2673:
2666:
2662:
2661:Goodman (1967
2657:
2650:
2645:
2638:
2633:
2626:
2621:
2614:
2613:Diebold (1961
2609:
2602:
2598:
2595::54), citing
2594:
2589:
2582:
2577:
2576:Pulgram (1964
2572:
2565:
2560:
2553:
2548:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2524:
2517:
2512:
2505:
2502::48), citing
2501:
2496:
2489:
2483:
2476:
2470:
2463:
2462:Kaufman (2006
2458:
2451:
2446:
2439:
2434:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2411:
2406:
2399:
2395:
2394:Turner (1966)
2389:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2359:
2355:
2350:
2343:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2319:Kurath (1957)
2314:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2291:
2290:Saporta (1965
2286:
2279:
2274:
2267:
2262:
2255:
2250:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2227:
2223:
2222:Wolfram (1991
2218:
2211:
2206:
2199:
2198:Romaine (1981
2193:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2171:
2170:Romaine (1981
2166:
2159:
2158:Wolfram (1991
2154:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2132:
2127:
2120:
2115:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2092:
2087:
2080:
2075:
2068:
2063:
2056:
2055:Hockett (1955
2052:
2047:
2040:
2035:
2028:
2023:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2004:Shores (1984)
2000:
1994:
1990:
1989:Moulton (1961
1986:
1982:
1976:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1952:
1945:
1940:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1914:
1913:Palmer (1931)
1910:
1905:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1883:
1877:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1849:
1843:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1819:
1813:
1806:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1760:Ernst Pulgram
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1560:backslashes:
1559:
1552:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1496:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1451:Moulton (1985
1448:
1444:
1440:
1439:Berdan (1977)
1436:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:the vowel of
1379:
1369:variation of
1368:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1324:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1143:
1141:
1140:Wolfram (1982
1137:
1133:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:Bailey (1971)
1108:
1103:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
990:Nagara (1972)
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
954:
952:
936:
932:
928:
924:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
904:Yuen Ren Chao
894:
889:
884:
881:
876:
871:
864:
859:
854:
851:
846:
841:
834:
829:
824:
821:
816:
811:
804:
799:
794:
791:
786:
781:
777:
774:
771:
768:
762:
761:
755:
753:
749:
745:
740:
738:
734:
730:
726:
719:
715:
711:
708:
705:
701:
697:
693:
690:
689:
688:
686:
681:
675:
671:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
651:
648:
647:
646:
644:
639:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
615:
614:
609:
605:
601:
597:
596:structuralist
593:
592:
587:
583:
582:Troike (1971)
579:
575:
571:
566:
564:
560:
556:
555:Saporta (1965
547:
536:
534:
532:
531:
527:
525:
523:
522:
518:
515:
512:
511:
508:
506:
502:
498:
497:Saporta (1965
493:
491:
487:
482:
470:
466:
452:
448:
436:
432:
428:
424:
414:
412:
408:
404:
396:
394:
393:
389:
387:
386:
382:
380:
379:
375:
373:
372:
368:
366:
365:
361:
359:
358:
354:
349:
348:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
322:William Labov
319:
314:
311:
307:
303:
299:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
249:
247:
243:
239:
235:
230:
225:
221:
217:
213:
202:
197:
194:
193:
187:
179:
178:
172:
167:
159:
158:
154:
151:
150:
139:
136:
130:
122:
114:
106:
98:
94:
86:
82:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
49:
37:
33:
31:
27:
19:
5177:Dialectology
5152:
5148:
5114:
5110:
5101:
5085:(1): 61–71,
5082:
5078:
5060:
5056:
5037:
5033:
5024:
5007:
5003:
4971:
4967:
4946:(1): 22–32,
4943:
4939:
4915:
4911:
4884:
4880:
4871:
4847:
4843:
4822:
4818:
4809:
4782:
4778:
4746:
4742:
4718:
4714:
4705:
4696:
4687:
4675:
4671:
4659:
4650:
4641:
4629:
4602:
4598:
4574:
4570:
4549:(1): 18–41,
4546:
4542:
4526:10150/227271
4508:
4504:
4480:
4476:
4450:
4446:
4413:
4409:
4378:
4374:
4365:
4341:
4337:
4321:
4317:
4308:
4287:(4): 66–82,
4284:
4280:
4256:
4252:
4228:
4224:
4200:
4196:
4173:
4164:
4158:(4): 141–167
4155:
4151:
4145:(9): 361–367
4142:
4138:
4129:
4120:
4096:
4092:
4068:
4064:
4040:
4036:
4012:
4008:
3984:
3980:
3971:
3959:
3950:
3926:
3922:
3898:
3894:
3885:
3876:
3867:
3844:
3825:
3821:
3810:, retrieved
3806:the original
3800:
3790:
3786:
3777:
3753:
3749:
3718:
3714:
3708:(4): 337–345
3705:
3701:
3689:
3685:
3676:
3667:
3643:
3639:
3630:
3606:
3602:
3578:
3574:
3565:
3561:
3537:
3533:
3524:
3515:
3491:
3487:
3481:(4): 363–397
3478:
3474:
3450:
3446:
3437:
3433:
3424:
3400:
3396:
3372:
3368:
3356:
3332:
3328:
3319:
3310:
3286:
3282:
3260:
3248:
3236:
3225:Jones (1950)
3220:
3208:
3201:Cadora (1970
3196:
3172:
3164:
3147:
3135:
3129:Sledd (1966)
3123:
3111:
3099:
3087:
3075:
3063:
3050:
3029:
3017:
3002:
2995:Kurath (1957
2990:
2979:Kurath (1957
2973:
2957:
2945:
2933:
2921:
2908:
2896:
2884:
2872:
2859:
2843:
2831:
2816:
2805:Troike (1970
2800:
2788:
2776:
2764:
2752:
2740:
2728:
2716:
2704:
2692:
2681:Brown (1972)
2672:
2664:
2656:
2644:
2637:Haugen (1950
2632:
2620:
2608:
2601:Haugen (1954
2593:Nagara (1972
2588:
2580:
2571:
2564:Nagara (1972
2559:
2552:Oliver (1972
2547:
2540:Nagara (1972
2535:
2523:
2516:Nagara (1972
2511:
2504:Haugen (1954
2500:Nagara (1972
2495:
2487:
2482:
2474:
2469:
2457:
2445:
2433:
2417:
2405:
2388:
2376:
2364:
2349:
2337:
2331:Sledd (1966)
2325:
2313:
2297:
2285:
2273:
2261:
2249:
2238:Nagara (1972
2233:
2217:
2210:Fasold (1991
2205:
2192:
2185:Fasold (1991
2180:
2174:Labov (1969)
2165:
2153:
2147:Labov (1966)
2138:
2126:
2119:Nagara (1972
2114:
2103:Nagara (1972
2098:
2086:
2074:
2062:
2046:
2034:
2022:
2015:
2014:in place of
2011:
2007:
1999:
1993:Jones (1950)
1975:
1963:
1951:
1939:
1932:Jones (1962)
1930::69) citing
1919:
1904:
1898:Jones (1932)
1889:
1876:
1865:
1847:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1812:
1799:
1737:
1731:
1724:
1720:
1694:
1578:
1570:Orten (1991)
1567:
1527:
1494:
1484:
1466:Newton (1972
1463:
1458:
1455:Bailey (1973
1437:
1432:
1428:
1417:
1412:
1404:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1341:postvocalic
1335:
1321:
1315:
1311:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1273:
1268:
1261:
1242:
1237:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1183:
1172:Philadelphia
1147:
1144:
1128:
1099:
1090:
1080:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1060:
1049:Haugen (1956
1044:
1042:
1017:Nagara (1972
1013:interference
1006:
966:bilingualism
962:Einar Haugen
960:
957:Bilingualism
925:
902:
751:
747:
741:
736:
732:
725:Hankey (1965
723:
717:
709:
703:
691:
684:
682:
679:
673:
669:
665:
659:
656:restrictions
650:Phonological
649:
640:
622:argued that
618:
611:
603:
599:
589:
567:
563:historically
562:
542:
494:
483:
468:
464:
434:
431:dialectology
421:Inspired by
420:
417:Dialectology
410:
406:
405:
402:
341:
337:
315:
295:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
262:Daniel Jones
257:
255:
237:
233:
231:
212:Diaphonology
211:
210:
147:Diaphonemes
128:
120:
112:
104:
96:
92:
84:
80:
72:
61:phonological
56:
54:
42:and ⟨
24:
18:
5155:: 429–442,
4918:(1): 3–18,
4887:(1): 1–21,
4721:(1): 5–62,
4453:(1): 7–18,
4281:Linguistics
3847:, Amsterdam
3609:(1): 3–21,
3562:Linguistics
3540:(1): 1–20,
3494:(1): 4–13,
3227:, cited in
3213:Orten (1991
3153:Smith (1967
3140:Trask (1996
2966:Allen (1977
2964:, cited in
2950:Allen (1977
2938:Wells (1982
2926:Wells (1982
2901:Wells (1982
2889:Wells (1982
2781:Smith (1967
2757:Wells (1982
2735:, chapter 1
2438:Wells (1982
2426:Wells (1982
2422:Wells (1970
2410:Fudge (1969
2398:Wells (1970
2396:, cited in
2354:Allen (1977
2342:Allen (1977
2302:Allen (1977
2278:Allen (1977
2266:Davis (1973
2226:Labov (1966
2091:Wells (1982
2027:Trask (1996
2016:diaphoneme.
1991::502), and
1985:Wells (1982
1944:Wells (1982
1928:Wells (1982
1882:Wells (1982
1770:Lexical set
1480:words like
1459:potentially
1333:in others.
1300:phonotactic
1270:diaphoneme.
1009:Shen (1952)
654:phonotactic
586:Reed (1972)
574:Hans Kurath
459:/njuːˈjɔːk/
224:Old English
216:orthography
5171:Categories
3812:August 26,
3692:(6): 43–55
3440:(1): 10–19
3187:0208014756
2793:Chao (1946
2597:Shen (1959
2477:, p 75 ff.
2304::224) and
2280::169, 226)
1983:(cited in
1968:Chao (1946
1924:Chao (1946
1909:Chao (1934
1858:References
1835:polylectal
1296:Hall (1965
1263:John Wells
1089:, becomes
1033:Allophones
1029:morphology
970:isomorphic
763:Diaphoneme
718:impassable
710:Impossible
565:accurate.
546:mid vowels
537:'classes'
439:/nuːˈjɔrk/
283:diaphoneme
238:diaphoneme
155:Variety B
152:Variety A
57:diaphoneme
5182:Phonology
5040:: 78–86,
4901:144204468
4864:143523909
4678:: 228–234
4505:Phonology
4497:143910013
4483:: 37–56,
4358:145207144
4301:143746333
4273:220739363
4259:: 54–56,
4245:144640809
4231:: 48–71,
4113:250440905
4037:Phonology
4029:146327225
3660:242934301
3554:144889049
3417:144397602
3054:Cited in
2292::218–219)
2256::389–390)
1831:panlectal
1755:Diasystem
1039:Borrowing
878:#tʲʼitʲab
852:'pigweed'
769:Otontepec
666:Incidence
561:, may be
516:Uruguayan
513:Castilian
501:Castilian
350:Phonetic
306:been lost
298:diasystem
256:The term
246:allophone
144:Phonemes
65:varieties
5111:Language
5100:(1967),
4968:Language
4779:Language
4715:Language
4686:(1974),
4640:(1996),
4571:Language
4543:Language
4535:37481099
4375:Language
4182:citation
4065:Language
4057:61967017
3981:Language
3970:(1966),
3923:Language
3895:Language
3853:citation
3750:Language
3744:(1950),
3575:Language
3488:Language
3447:Language
3369:Language
3243::48, 51)
3094::19, 20)
2928::71, 76)
2903::69, 71)
2599::7) and
2109::14, 29)
2008:diaphone
1884::69–71).
1848:straight
1744:See also
1701:Kirkwall
1472:phoneme
1276:straight
1087:Hawaiian
1059:include
1045:diaphone
996:used by
896:tʃʼitʃab
891:tsʼitsab
886:tʲʼitʲab
776:Potosino
704:artistic
692:Autistic
660:Phonetic
528:'class'
477:and the
435:New York
334:New York
291:diaphone
287:diaphone
274:diaphone
258:diaphone
234:diaphone
40:/ /
36:Help:IPA
4751:Bibcode
4176:, Tokyo
3834:1263295
3568:: 30–43
3349:3087780
3274:Sources
3267::19–22)
2603::10–11)
2057::18–22)
2012:phoneme
1987::70)),
1557:}
1424:Norwich
1292:England
1198:Nanking
1194:Beijing
1186:Chinese
1162:Toronto
1156:Buffalo
1102:pidgins
1076:caballo
1057:Spanish
974:Spanish
792:'snake'
772:Central
744:Huastec
580:; both
242:phoneme
28:in the
5149:Lingua
5141:411215
5139:
5079:Lingua
5034:Lingua
4988:415180
4986:
4960:455432
4958:
4932:455176
4930:
4899:
4862:
4799:410660
4797:
4771:956528
4769:
4735:522070
4733:
4619:453704
4617:
4591:411400
4589:
4563:411598
4561:
4533:
4495:
4395:411875
4393:
4356:
4299:
4271:
4243:
4217:455242
4215:
4111:
4085:411352
4083:
4055:
4027:
4001:412333
3999:
3943:410723
3941:
3915:412579
3913:
3832:
3770:410058
3768:
3735:454074
3733:
3658:
3623:455431
3621:
3595:411253
3593:
3552:
3508:410329
3506:
3467:412198
3465:
3415:
3389:412355
3387:
3347:
3303:455241
3301:
3184:
2187::8–15)
1711:while
1650:
1564:
1555:{b.ɪ.t
1550:
1543:
1536:
1388:, and
1331:FLEECE
1304:rhotic
1238:ad hoc
1069:) and
1066:aceite
1025:syntax
882:'comb'
822:'flea'
818:#tʃʼak
634:where
608:Kurath
519:Gloss
355:Score
195:eight
141:Words
44:
5137:JSTOR
4984:JSTOR
4956:JSTOR
4928:JSTOR
4897:S2CID
4860:S2CID
4795:JSTOR
4731:JSTOR
4615:JSTOR
4587:JSTOR
4559:JSTOR
4531:S2CID
4493:S2CID
4443:(PDF)
4406:(PDF)
4391:JSTOR
4354:S2CID
4297:S2CID
4269:S2CID
4241:S2CID
4213:JSTOR
4109:S2CID
4081:JSTOR
4053:S2CID
4025:S2CID
3997:JSTOR
3939:JSTOR
3911:JSTOR
3830:JSTOR
3766:JSTOR
3731:JSTOR
3656:S2CID
3619:JSTOR
3591:JSTOR
3550:S2CID
3504:JSTOR
3463:JSTOR
3413:S2CID
3385:JSTOR
3345:JSTOR
3299:JSTOR
3231::101)
3168:e.g.
3151:e.g.
3142::111)
3127:e.g.
3115:e.g.
3082::515)
3070::267)
3024::141)
2997::120)
2968::221)
2952::221)
2879::643)
2867::18).
2811::194)
2783::311)
2771::390)
2747::916)
2723::135)
2711::156)
2639::212)
2627::289)
2615::107)
2554::362)
2530::295)
2452::394)
2412::272)
2400::245)
2383::395)
2344::227)
2317:e.g.
2133::274)
2081::262)
2041::262)
2029::111)
2006:uses
1791:Notes
1562:\bɪt\
1548:|bɪt|
1541:!bɪt!
1534:⫽bɪt⫽
1478:Greek
1322:happy
1312:derby
1148:house
1071:kàwíy
1053:Huave
951:hamza
848:#tʲiθ
836:tsʼak
831:tʃʼak
826:tʃʼak
788:#tʃan
737:tiger
733:ashes
674:farce
670:grass
606:) by
467:uːˈjɔ
449:; in
445:as a
352:value
342:dance
252:Usage
180:wait
160:late
129:eight
105:eight
85:eight
32:(IPA)
5057:Word
4819:Word
4767:PMID
4188:link
3859:link
3814:2017
3793:(26)
3255::54)
3215::50)
3182:ISBN
3106::64)
3058::29)
2940::76)
2891::70)
2838::10)
2795::12)
2759::72)
2699::29)
2683:and
2651::40)
2542::49)
2518::52)
2506::11)
2464::65)
2440::83)
2428::73)
2392:See
2370:here
2244::18)
2228::53)
2212::17)
2196:See
2160::24)
2121::47)
2069::20)
1970::12)
1958::29)
1946::69)
1726:loch
1723:and
1721:lock
1715:and
1707:and
1572:and
1490:and
1433:daze
1431:and
1429:days
1400:/aʊ/
1398:and
1396:/aɪ/
1390:sure
1386:door
1382:poor
1373:and
1363:and
1316:star
1314:and
1284:wait
1282:and
1280:late
1211:and
1205:who
1196:and
1164:and
1061:àsét
1027:and
1015:and
873:#tʲʼ
866:tʃiθ
861:tsiθ
856:tʲiθ
813:#tʃʼ
806:tsan
801:tʃan
796:tʃan
766:word
750:and
702:say
632:Hopi
604:PEAS
584:and
503:and
443:/nj/
316:The
264:and
244:and
227:/oː/
204:⫽ex⫽
199:/ɛɪ/
189:⫽ei⫽
184:/ɛɪ/
169:/eː/
164:/eː/
133:⫽ex⫽
125:⫽ei⫽
121:wait
113:late
109:/ɛɪ/
101:/eː/
97:wait
93:late
89:/ɛɪ/
81:wait
77:/eː/
73:late
5157:doi
5127:hdl
5119:doi
5087:doi
5065:doi
5042:doi
5012:doi
4976:doi
4948:doi
4920:doi
4889:doi
4852:doi
4827:doi
4787:doi
4759:doi
4723:doi
4607:doi
4579:doi
4551:doi
4521:hdl
4513:doi
4485:doi
4463:hdl
4455:doi
4426:hdl
4418:doi
4383:doi
4346:doi
4326:doi
4289:doi
4261:doi
4233:doi
4205:doi
4101:doi
4073:doi
4045:doi
4017:doi
3989:doi
3931:doi
3903:doi
3758:doi
3723:doi
3648:doi
3611:doi
3583:doi
3542:doi
3496:doi
3455:doi
3405:doi
3377:doi
3337:doi
3291:doi
3033:In
2983:/r/
2977:In
2566::9)
2268::1)
1734:IPA
1709:/x/
1705:/k/
1510:/y/
1506:/u/
1502:/i/
1497:λιά
1476:in
1474:/y/
1375:/u/
1371:/ʊ/
1365:/ɔ/
1361:/ɑ/
1355:/ɵ/
1349:/e/
1343:/r/
1327:KIT
1308:/r/
1218:can
1213:pen
1209:pin
1176:in
1170:in
1160:in
1154:in
1000:on
947:/ʔ/
943:/j/
939:*aj
933:of
843:#tʲ
783:#tʃ
712:in
694:in
551:/s/
479:/r/
475:/j/
455:/r/
340:or
338:bad
308:or
174:⫽e⫽
135:).
117:⫽e⫽
95:or
83:or
5173::
5153:21
5151:,
5135:,
5125:,
5115:39
5113:,
5083:35
5081:,
5061:18
5059:,
5036:,
5006:,
4982:,
4972:62
4970:,
4954:,
4944:66
4942:,
4926:,
4916:57
4914:,
4895:,
4885:27
4883:,
4858:,
4846:,
4823:10
4821:,
4793:,
4783:32
4781:,
4765:,
4757:,
4747:60
4745:,
4729:,
4719:11
4717:,
4674:,
4613:,
4603:34
4601:,
4585:,
4575:43
4573:,
4557:,
4547:42
4545:,
4529:,
4519:,
4507:,
4491:,
4481:17
4479:,
4461:,
4449:,
4445:,
4424:,
4412:,
4408:,
4389:,
4379:41
4377:,
4352:,
4342:17
4340:,
4322:49
4320:,
4295:,
4283:,
4267:,
4257:22
4255:,
4239:,
4229:20
4227:,
4211:,
4201:52
4199:,
4184:}}
4180:{{
4156:16
4154:,
4143:14
4141:,
4107:,
4097:14
4095:,
4079:,
4069:37
4067:,
4051:,
4041:13
4039:,
4023:,
4011:,
3995:,
3985:45
3983:,
3937:,
3927:33
3925:,
3909:,
3899:52
3897:,
3855:}}
3851:{{
3826:18
3824:,
3791:31
3789:,
3764:,
3754:26
3752:,
3748:,
3729:,
3719:40
3717:,
3704:,
3688:,
3654:,
3642:,
3617:,
3607:66
3605:,
3589:,
3579:37
3577:,
3566:73
3564:,
3548:,
3536:,
3502:,
3492:22
3490:,
3477:,
3461:,
3451:47
3449:,
3438:12
3436:,
3411:,
3401:11
3399:,
3383:,
3373:49
3371:,
3343:,
3333:46
3331:,
3297:,
3287:52
3285:,
3180:.
1717:GA
1713:RP
1495:οι
1487:λο
1384:,
1278:,
1232:,
1031:.
1004:.
953:.
920:Wu
752:ts
748:ch
720::
706::
507::
471:k/
463:/n
425:,
397:6
390:5
383:4
376:3
369:2
362:1
344::
248:.
229:.
55:A
5159::
5129::
5121::
5089::
5067::
5044::
5038:8
5014::
5008:2
4978::
4950::
4922::
4891::
4854::
4848:6
4829::
4789::
4761::
4753::
4725::
4676:4
4609::
4581::
4553::
4523::
4515::
4509:9
4487::
4465::
4457::
4451:9
4428::
4420::
4414:4
4385::
4348::
4328::
4291::
4285:2
4263::
4235::
4207::
4190:)
4103::
4075::
4047::
4019::
4013:7
3991::
3933::
3905::
3861:)
3760::
3725::
3706:1
3690:9
3650::
3644:5
3613::
3585::
3544::
3538:7
3498::
3479:4
3457::
3407::
3379::
3339::
3293::
3190:.
3045:.
1820:.
1807:.
1679:/
1672:/
1663:x
1659:.
1656:s
1653:v
1646:k
1641:A
1638:K
1635:,
1632:E
1629:S
1626:S
1620:k
1615:A
1612:G
1609:,
1606:P
1603:R
1595:/
1588:/
1493:κ
1485:ύ
1483:ξ
1180:.
602:(
469:r
465:j
131:(
123:(
115:(
107:(
99:(
87:(
75:(
50:.
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