901:
of the time after the disturbance and the magnitude of the voltage irregularity or frequency irregularity. Voltage issues also give legacy equipment the opportunity to perform new operations. Notably, inverters can regulate the voltage output of DGs. Changing inverter impedances can change voltage fluctuations of DG, meaning inverters have the ability to control DG voltage output. To reduce the effect of DG integration on mechanical grid equipment, transformers and load tap changers have the potential to implement specific tap operation vs. voltage operation curves mitigating the effect of voltage irregularities due to DG. That is, load tap changers respond to voltage fluctuations that last for a longer period than voltage fluctuations created from DG equipment.
991:. Combined cycle plants with cogeneration have the highest known thermal efficiencies, often exceeding 85%. In countries with high pressure gas distribution, small turbines can be used to bring the gas pressure to domestic levels whilst extracting useful energy. If the UK were to implement this countrywide an additional 2-4 GWe would become available. (Note that the energy is already being generated elsewhere to provide the high initial gas pressure - this method simply distributes the energy via a different route.)
33:
204:. These, in turn, supply the traditional transmission and distribution (T&D) grid that distributes bulk power to load centers and from there to consumers. These were developed when the costs of transporting fuel and integrating generating technologies into populated areas far exceeded the cost of developing T&D facilities and tariffs. Central plants are usually designed to take advantage of available economies of scale in a site-specific manner, and are built as "one-off", custom projects.
888:
significant amount of cycles( on the order of 10,000 cycles). Short term use batteries, at a large enough scale of use, can help to flatten the duck curve and prevent generator use fluctuation and can help to maintain voltage profile. However, cost is a major limiting factor for energy storage as each technique is prohibitively expensive to produce at scale and comparatively not energy dense compared to liquid fossil fuels. Finally, another method of aiding in integration is in the use of
3411:
3990:
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gain through unit size. These increased value—due to improvements in financial risk, engineering flexibility, security, and environmental quality—of these resources can often more than offset their apparent cost disadvantages. Distributed generation (DG), vis-à-vis central plants, must be justified on a life-cycle basis. Unfortunately, many of the direct, and virtually all of the indirect, benefits of DG are not captured within traditional utility
769:(4–6% per year) as well as low investment and maintenance costs, they are currently the predominant technology used in small-scale, residential PV systems, as lithium-ion batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, as storage devices for PV systems are stationary, the lower energy and power density and therefore higher weight of lead-acid batteries are not as critical as for
1139:
1013:). This single point of common coupling with the macrogrid can be disconnected. The microgrid can then function autonomously. Generation and loads in a microgrid are usually interconnected at low voltage and it can operate in DC, AC, or the combination of both. From the point of view of the grid operator, a connected microgrid can be controlled as if it were one entity.
212:
all power failures originated in the grid. Thus, the grid had become the main driver of remote customers' power costs and power quality problems, which became more acute as digital equipment required extremely reliable electricity. Efficiency gains no longer come from increasing generating capacity, but from smaller units located closer to sites of demand.
861:, voltage stability, harmonics, reliability, protection, and control. Behavior of protective devices on the grid must be examined for all combinations of distributed and central station generation. A large scale deployment of distributed generation may affect grid-wide functions such as frequency control and allocation of reserves. As a result,
881:
respond too often and wear out much more quickly than utilities anticipated. Also, without any form of energy storage during times of high solar generation, companies must rapidly increase generation around the time of sunset to compensate for the loss of solar generation. This high ramp rate produces what the industry terms the
1039:(100,000 US gal) of diesel fuel. It is also able to sustain the island for three whole days if the sun were not to shine at all during that period. This is a great example of how micro-grid systems can be implemented in communities to encourage renewable resource usage and localized production.
900:
There have been some efforts to mitigate voltage and frequency issues due to increased implementation of DG. Most notably, IEEE 1547 sets the standard for interconnection and interoperability of distributed energy resources. IEEE 1547 sets specific curves signaling when to clear a fault as a function
665:
Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of renewable energy and its potential has already been explored to a large extent or is compromised due to issues such as environmental impacts on fisheries, and increased demand for recreational access. However, using modern 21st century technology, such
211:
began to fail in the late 1960s and, by the start of the 21st century, Central Plants could arguably no longer deliver competitively cheap and reliable electricity to more remote customers through the grid, because the plants had come to cost less than the grid and had become so reliable that nearly
1016:
Microgrid generation resources can include stationary batteries, fuel cells, solar, wind, or other energy sources. The multiple dispersed generation sources and ability to isolate the microgrid from a larger network would provide highly reliable electric power. Produced heat from generation sources
704:
and animal manure will decompose and discharge methane-containing gas that can be collected and used as fuel in gas turbines or micro turbines to produce electricity as a distributed energy resource. Additionally, a
California-based company, Gate 5 Energy Partners, Inc. has developed a process that
1114:(DER) users to implement energy management and control systems. Especially, communication upgrades and data information systems can make it expensive. Thus, some projects try to simplify the control of DER via off-the shelf products and make it usable for the mainstream (e.g. using a Raspberry Pi).
1042:
To plan and install
Microgrids correctly, engineering modelling is needed. Multiple simulation tools and optimization tools exist to model the economic and electric effects of Microgrids. A widely used economic optimization tool is the Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model (DER-CAM)
270:
of DG is typically more expensive than conventional, centralized sources on a kilowatt-hour basis, this does not consider negative aspects of conventional fuels. The additional premium for DG is rapidly declining as demand increases and technology progresses, and sufficient and reliable demand may
258:
Capital markets have come to realize that right-sized resources, for individual customers, distribution substations, or microgrids, are able to offer important but little-known economic advantages over central plants. Smaller units offered greater economies from mass-production than big ones could
1126:
On 11 October 2017, California
Governor Jerry Brown signed into law a bill, SB 338, that makes utility companies plan "carbon-free alternatives to gas generation" in order to meet peak demand. The law requires utilities to evaluate issues such as energy storage, efficiency, and distributed energy
880:
Each distributed generation resource has its own integration issues. Solar PV and wind power both have intermittent and unpredictable generation, so they create many stability issues for voltage and frequency. These voltage issues affect mechanical grid equipment, such as load tap changers, which
638:
can be distributed energy resources or they can be built at utility scale. These have low maintenance and low pollution, but distributed wind unlike utility-scale wind has much higher costs than other sources of energy. As with solar, wind energy is variable and non-dispatchable. Wind towers and
681:
neither require dams nor impoundments, as they utilize the kinetic energy of water motion, either waves or flow. No construction is needed on the shoreline or sea bed, which minimizes environmental impacts to habitats and simplifies the permitting process. Such power generation also has minimal
172:
One of the major issues with the integration of the DER such as solar power, wind power, etc. is the uncertain nature of such electricity resources. This uncertainty can cause a few problems in the distribution system: (i) it makes the supply-demand relationships extremely complex, and requires
887:
that is a major concern for grid operators in the future. Storage can fix these issues if it can be implemented. Flywheels have shown to provide excellent frequency regulation. Also, flywheels are highly cyclable compared to batteries, meaning they maintain the same energy and power after a
1106:
IEEE 2030.7 microgrid controller standard. That concept relies on 4 blocks: a) Device Level control (e.g. Voltage and
Frequency Control), b) Local Area Control (e.g. data communication), c) Supervisory (software) controller (e.g. forward looking dispatch optimization of generation and load
790:
may serve as future storage devices, since most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time, their batteries could be used to let electricity flow from the car to the power lines and back. Other rechargeable batteries that are considered for distributed PV systems include,
1038:
Micro-grids have seen implementation in a number of communities over the world. For example, Tesla has implemented a solar micro-grid in the Samoan island of Ta'u, powering the entire island with solar energy. This localized production system has helped save over 380 cubic metres
337:) systems are small-scale power generation or storage technologies (typically in the range of 1 kW to 10,000 kW) used to provide an alternative to or an enhancement of the traditional electric power system. DER systems typically are characterized by high initial
856:
For reasons of reliability, distributed generation resources would be interconnected to the same transmission grid as central stations. Various technical and economic issues occur in the integration of these resources into a grid. Technical problems arise in the areas of
705:
transforms natural waste materials, such as sewage sludge, into biofuel that can be combusted to power a steam turbine that produces power. This power can be used in lieu of grid-power at the waste source (such as a treatment plant, farm or dairy).
1090:-7-420 is published by IEC TC 57: Power systems management and associated information exchange. It is one of the IEC 61850 standards, some of which are core Standards required for implementing smart grids. It uses communication services mapped to
274:
DG reduces the amount of energy lost in transmitting electricity because the electricity is generated very near where it is used, perhaps even in the same building. This also reduces the size and number of power lines that must be constructed.
719:
A distributed energy resource is not limited to the generation of electricity but may also include a device to store distributed energy (DE). Distributed energy storage systems (DESS) applications include several types of battery,
782:, have the potential to replace lead-acid batteries in the near future, as they are being intensively developed and lower prices are expected due to economies of scale provided by large production facilities such as the
173:
complicated optimization tools to balance the network, and (ii) it puts higher pressure on the transmission network, and (iii) it may cause reverse power flow from the distribution system to transmission system.
1754:
183:(macrogrid). Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized grid and operate autonomously, strengthen grid resilience, and help mitigate grid disturbances. They are typically low-voltage AC grids, often use
199:
Historically, central plants have been an integral part of the electric grid, in which large generating facilities are specifically located either close to resources or otherwise located far from populated
506:
units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years. For a price of $ 22,600 before installation. For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place.
325:
or government support. Since the 2010s, grid parity for solar and wind has become a reality in a growing number of markets, including
Australia, several European countries, and some states in the U.S.
282:(FIT) scheme have low maintenance, low pollution and high efficiencies. In the past, these traits required dedicated operating engineers and large complex plants to reduce pollution. However, modern
321:) that is less than or equal to the end consumer's retail price. Reaching grid parity is considered to be the point at which an energy source becomes a contender for widespread development without
2424:
2814:
1941:
847:) to a very high speed of about 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure. Flywheels can respond quickly as they store and feed back electricity into the grid in a matter of seconds.
110:
over long distances. By contrast, DER systems are decentralized, modular, and more flexible technologies that are located close to the load they serve, albeit having capacities of only 10
2403:
3111:
2074:
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1906:
617:, but has no fuel costs, operating pollution, as well as greatly reduced mining-safety and operating-safety issues. It produces peak power around local noon each day and its
2381:
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682:
environmental impact and non-traditional microhydro applications can be tethered to existing construction such as docks, piers, bridge abutments, or similar structures.
1762:
2438:
Agalgaonkar, Y.P.; et al. (16 September 2013). "Distribution
Voltage Control Considering the Impact of PV Generation on Tap Changers and Autonomous Regulators".
2638:
Advanced
Control Technologies for Distribution Grid Voltage and Stability With Electric Vehicles and Distributed Generation on (Report). March 2015. pp. 48–50.
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Along with higher relative prices for energy, higher overall complexity and total costs for regulatory oversight, tariff administration, and metering and billing.
2100:
169:. Distributed generation and storage enables the collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve the security of supply.
1017:
such as microturbines could be used for local process heating or space heating, allowing flexible trade off between the needs for heat and electric power.
2881:
2416:
955:
Cogenerators find favor because most buildings already burn fuels, and the cogeneration can extract more value from the fuel. Local production has no
2811:
1103:
3208:
586:
technology accounts for about 10 percent of global photovoltaic deployment. In recent years, PV technology has improved its sunlight to electricity
271:
bring economies of scale, innovation, competition, and more flexible financing, that could make DG clean energy part of a more diversified future.
3051:
2831:
1945:
1009:
is a localized grouping of electricity generation, energy storage, and loads that normally operates connected to a traditional centralized grid (
765:. Compared to the other types, lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density. However, due to their high reliability, low
463:. In addition to natural gas-based schemes, distributed energy projects can also include other renewable or low carbon fuels including biofuels,
3262:
2613:
2025:
1123:
In 2010 Colorado enacted a law requiring that by 2020 that 3% of the power generated in
Colorado utilize distributed generation of some sort.
1063:
designed OpenDSS to simulate the distribution system (for
Microgrids). A professional integrated DER-CAM and OpenDSS version is available via
187:, and are installed by the community they serve. Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy resources, such as
1998:
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the increasing relative economy of mass production of smaller appliances over heavy manufacturing of larger units and on-site construction;
219:
are built away from cities to prevent their heavy air pollution from affecting the populace. In addition, such plants are often built near
17:
2931:
2067:
1654:
Lovins; Small Is
Profitable: The Hidden Economic Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size; Rocky Mountain Institute, 2002.
2248:
2173:
2133:
2047:"Launch of New 'Ene-Farm' Home Fuel Cell Product More Affordable and Easier to Install - Headquarters News - Panasonic Newsroom Global"
1681:
Lovins; Small Is Profitable: The Hidden Economic Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size; Rocky Mountain Institute; 2002
3168:
647:, as wind tends to complement solar because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year.
1350:
1372:
1329:
1074:. A European tool that can be used for electrical, cooling, heating, and process heat demand simulation is EnergyPLAN from the
639:
generators have substantial insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. Distributed generation from
114:(MW) or less. These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components; in this instance, they are referred to as
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2221:
2046:
1619:
1574:
1056:
1044:
3993:
3410:
3121:
2795:
1052:
2512:
Lazarewicz, Matthew; Rojas, Alex (10 June 2004). "Grid frequency regulation by recycling electrical energy in flywheels".
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1319:
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can be deployed in arrays to serve the needs on a residential, commercial, industrial, municipal or even regional scale.
2321:
2299:
2208:"The Economic Viability of Battery Storage for Residential Solar Photovoltaic Systems - A Review and a Simulation Model"
4024:
3940:
3255:
3233:
3229:
3037:
1663:
Takahashi, et al; Policy Options to Support Distributed Resources; U. of Del., Ctr. for Energy & Env. Policy; 2005.
564:
503:
2782:
Khalilpour, R. and Vassallo, A., 2015. Leaving the grid: An ambition or a real choice?. Energy Policy, 82, pp.207-221.
2108:
1599:
1554:
4019:
3560:
3216:
3141:
2865:
2529:
2369:
2322:"Contribution to Bulk System Control and Stability by Distributed Energy Resources connected at Distribution Network"
1060:
750:
568:
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DOE; The Potential Benefits of Distributed Generation and Rate-Related Issues that May Impede Their Expansion; 2007.
2588:
1404:
4014:
3723:
3648:
3519:
721:
2662:"Performance of U.S. hybrid distributed energy systems: Solar photovoltaic, battery and combined heat and power"
2483:
2764:
free open access Emerging economic viability of grid defection in a northern climate using solar hybrid systems
2627:
Performance of Distributed Energy and Resources During and After System Disturbance on (Report). December 2013.
1907:
Performance of U.S. hybrid distributed energy systems: Solar photovoltaic, battery and combined heat and power.
370:
241:
Distributed energy resources are mass-produced, small, and less site-specific. Their development arose out of:
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3693:
3593:
3248:
2999:
1067:
968:
925:
725:
599:
491:
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1034:
Generate power locally to reduce dependence on long distance transmission lines and cut transmission losses.
245:
concerns over perceived externalized costs of central plant generation, particularly environmental concerns;
3748:
3708:
3285:
1726:
1294:
956:
526:, or waste-to-energy processes such as the Gate 5 Energy System are used as a distributed energy resource.
892:
that have the capability to also store the energy when there is more energy production than consumption .
3975:
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3688:
3663:
3653:
3629:
3624:
3330:
2902:
1243:
1193:
1182:
1111:
889:
733:
150:
107:
2336:
Pareto Optimal Reconfiguration of Power Distribution Systems Using a Genetic Algorithm Based on NSGA-II.
1843:
3890:
3608:
3578:
3355:
3164:
The UK District Energy Association - advocating the construction of locally distributed energy networks
877:
stations are added to the grid. Conflicts occur between utilities and resource managing organizations.
758:
644:
572:
511:
374:
188:
103:
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combines wind power with other DER systems. One such example is the integration of wind turbines into
426:
systems can provide full electric power for single family residences without extreme storage expenses.
4029:
3945:
3434:
3395:
1269:
1233:
792:
732:. Access to energy storage for commercial applications is easily accessible through programs such as
640:
378:
216:
2559:
817:
Future generations of electric vehicles may have the ability to deliver power from the battery in a
3920:
3728:
3668:
3325:
1701:
1314:
1238:
1213:
1055:. There are also some power flow and electrical design tools guiding the Microgrid developers. The
1021:
822:
484:
2649:
Optimal OLTC Voltage Control Scheme High Solar Penetrations on (Report). April 2018. pp. 7–9.
1702:"One simple chart shows why an energy revolution is coming — and who is likely to come out on top"
1420:"Distributed energy systems: A review of classification, technologies, applications, and policies"
1110:
A wide variety of complex control algorithms exist, making it difficult for small and residential
3859:
3849:
3839:
2573:
2005:
1228:
1158:
1097:
836:
614:
556:
3188:
2404:
A Medium-Term Coalition-Forming Model of Heterogeneous DERs for a Commercial Virtual Power Plant
670:, can make large amounts of new hydropower capacity available, with minor environmental impact.
3780:
3426:
3315:
3174:
IEEE P1547 Draft Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems
1198:
796:
729:
2953:
Fürst, Jonathan; Gawinowski, Nik; Buettrich, Sebastian; Bonnet, Philippe (25 September 2013).
2205:
3915:
3683:
3678:
3658:
2417:"Propelling the transition: The battle for control of virtual power plants is just beginning"
1208:
943:
technology. For example, the Rocky Mountain Institute has proposed that there may wide scale
914:
762:
754:
695:
587:
515:
423:
405:
3086:"Power for Development: A Review of Distributed Generation Projects in the Developing World"
3052:"California Gov. Brown signs bill directing utilities to plan storage, DERs for peak demand"
2268:
3509:
3271:
3019:
2720:
2673:
2393:
The Design of a Risk-hedging Tool for Virtual Power Plants via Robust Optimization Approach
2351:; International Journal of Power System Operation and Energy Management(IJPSOEM), Nov. 2011
1431:
1218:
971:). Some larger installations utilize combined cycle generation. Usually this consists of a
746:
583:
448:
3225:
3102:
3085:
1966:
1823:
Distributed Energy Resources Interconnection Systems: Technology Review and Research Needs
1351:"On Site Generation: Learn more about our onsite renewable energy generation technologies"
8:
3880:
3713:
3613:
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3350:
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839:(FES) stores the electricity generated from distributed resources in the form of angular
800:
714:
595:
579:
535:
523:
395:
352:
154:
64:
2724:
2709:"Levelized cost of electricity for solar photovoltaic, battery and cogen hybrid systems"
2677:
1507:
1435:
987:. The condenser of the steam cycle provides the heat for space heating or an absorptive
248:
the increasing age, deterioration, and capacity constraints upon T&D for bulk power;
3754:
3365:
3132:
Power from the people : how to organize, finance, and launch local energy projects
3116:
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2980:
2753:
Kumagai, J., 2014. The rise of the personal power plant. IEEE Spectrum,51(6), pp.54-59.
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314:
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2954:
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2525:
2382:
Decision Making Tool for Virtual Power Plants Considering Midterm Bilateral Contracts
2365:
2249:"Spinning into control: High-tech reincarnations of an ancient way of storing energy"
2207:
1880:
1615:
1570:
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1492:
1480:
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1177:
227:
plants are by their nature limited to operating at sites with sufficient water flow.
2984:
2539:
2469:
1629:
1600:"Impact of clustering microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts"
1584:
1539:
1506:
De Carne, Giovanni; Buticchi, Giampaolo; Zou, Zhixiang; Liserre, Marco (July 2018).
3854:
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3499:
3494:
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2685:
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2517:
2455:
2447:
2260:
1892:
1872:
1861:"Cost Effective Grid-Connected Inverter for a Micro Combined Heat and Power System"
1607:
1562:
1519:
1472:
1461:"Data-driven Planning for Renewable Distributed Generation in Distribution Systems"
1439:
1304:
1248:
770:
610:
476:
460:
399:
299:
287:
235:
224:
184:
180:
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are modern, localized, small-scale grids, contrary to the traditional, centralized
146:
122:
60:
2334:
Tomoiagă, B.; Chindriş, M.; Sumper, A.; Sudria-Andreu, A.; Villafafila-Robles, R.
2225:
2206:
Joern Hoppmann; Jonas Volland; Tobias S. Schmidt; Volker H. Hoffmann (July 2014).
1604:
2015 International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE)
1598:
Saleh, M. S.; Althaibani, A.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi, Y.; Mohamed, A. A. (October 2015).
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1309:
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1010:
818:
779:
691:
618:
519:
490:
Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales, the fuel cell
413:
283:
165:). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a
68:
32:
3000:"A flexible low cost PV/EV microgrid controller concept based on a Raspberry Pi"
2792:
2349:
Reliability Assessment of A Distributed Generation Connected Distribution System
2146:"NREL: Energy Analysis - Distributed Generation Energy Technology Capital Costs"
1611:
1418:
Nadeem, Talha Bin; Siddiqui, Mubashir; Khalid, Muhammad; Asif, Muhammad (2023).
3910:
3900:
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932:
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279:
91:
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1822:
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Mohammadi Fathabad, Abolhassan; Cheng, Jianqiang; Pan, Kai; Qiu, Feng (2020).
1444:
1419:
234:. The low pollution permits the plants to be near enough to a city to provide
4008:
3930:
3718:
3603:
3583:
3514:
3504:
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3345:
3300:
2521:
2335:
1884:
1876:
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1531:
1523:
1484:
1377:
1324:
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984:
980:
910:
858:
783:
540:
452:
390:
99:
95:
83:
1982:
1100:
is also used for the communication between different entities of DER system.
895:
559:
technology doubling its worldwide installed capacity every couple of years.
494:
passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012. 20.000 units were sold in
341:
per kilowatt. DER systems also serve as storage device and are often called
3950:
3925:
3790:
3759:
3573:
3375:
2460:
1553:
Saleh, M.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi, Y.; Brandauer, W.; Mohamed, A. (October 2016).
1284:
1279:
964:
918:
874:
804:
787:
635:
543:, by far the most important solar technology for distributed generation of
499:
468:
444:
436:
419:
338:
291:
115:
3213:
2812:
Net metering changes could drive people off grid, Michigan researchers say
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3524:
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3290:
1299:
972:
656:
603:
552:
544:
310:
231:
138:
126:
2762:
Abhilash Kantamneni, Richelle Winkler, Lucia Gauchia, Joshua M. Pearce,
230:
Low pollution is a crucial advantage of combined cycle plants that burn
3738:
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3546:
3529:
3385:
3240:
2858:
Smart grid: modernizing electric power transmission and distribution...
1755:"Grid parity: Why electric utilities should struggle to sleep at night"
1188:
967:
in transformers where in general 8-15% of the energy is lost (see also
960:
931:
Many authors now think that these technologies may enable a mass-scale
883:
862:
701:
667:
660:
630:
548:
472:
365:
295:
166:
142:
3184:
The iDEaS project by University of Southampton on Decentralised Energy
700:
Municipal solid waste (MSW) and natural waste, such as sewage sludge,
3454:
3449:
3335:
3295:
3193:
2903:"Tesla powers a whole island with solar to show off its energy chops"
1727:"Bloomberg's Latest Forecast Predicts Rapidly Falling Battery Prices"
1264:
1253:
1087:
1000:
560:
440:
260:
176:
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2174:
Distributed Generation Systems:A New Paradigm for Sustainable Energy
2134:
Distributed Generation Systems:A New Paradigm for Sustainable Energy
1152:
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71:-connected or distribution system-connected devices referred to as
3120:, 29 November 2010. Discusses distributed generation and the U.S.
2192:- The Role of Energy Storage with Renewable Electricity Generation
1064:
613:
sources and unlike coal and nuclear, solar PV is variable and non-
3489:
3479:
3226:
What are distributed energy resources (DER) and how do they work?
2660:
Shah, Kunal K.; Mundada, Aishwarya S.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2015).
1138:
988:
322:
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1118:
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resources), and d) Grid Layer (e.g. communication with utility).
1047:. Another frequently used commercial economic modelling tool is
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1986:
1970:
1928:
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480:
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302:. This reduces the size of power plant that can show a profit.
134:
3194:
Microgrids projects and DER Optimization Model at Berkeley Lab
2952:
2928:"How a Pacific Island Changed From Diesel to 100% Solar Power"
451:
to turn generators. The hot exhaust is then used for space or
3159:
MIGRIDS -Worldwide Business and Marketing Microgrid Directory
2791:
The Economics of Grid Defection - Rocky Mountain Institute
1458:
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Small power stations of 5–10 MW to serve the micro-grids
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can also be classified as a DER system and is often called a
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348:
DER systems may include the following devices/technologies:
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3163:
2707:
Mundada, Aishwarya; Shah, Kunal; Pearce, Joshua M. (2016).
2169:
2129:
1290:
Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
318:
191:, which significantly reduce the amount of carbon emitted.
87:
3158:
2959:
2013 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)
2484:"What the Duck Curve Tells Us About Managing A Green Grid"
1508:"Reverse Power Flow Control in a ST-Fed Distribution Grid"
1505:
106:, are centralized and often require electric energy to be
3198:
3079:
2362:
Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power System
1405:"Empowering the future with distributed energy resources"
896:
Mitigating voltage and frequency issues of DG integration
3214:
Distributed Generation—Educational Module, Virginia Tech
2292:"Canada's first grid storage system launches in Ontario"
1833:
1831:
1597:
1555:"Design and implementation of CCNY DC microgrid testbed"
1417:
3203:
3169:
Decentralized Power as Part of Local and Regional Plans
2614:"Smart Grid, Smart Inverters for a Smart Energy Future"
1905:
Kunal K. Shah, Aishwarya S. Mundada, Joshua M. Pearce.
1552:
2188:
1819:
1559:
2016 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting
286:
can provide these traits with automated operation and
3112:
Making the Consumer an Active Participant in the Grid
3020:"Going Solar Is Harder Than It Looks, a Valley Finds"
2882:"Power crisis and grid collapse: Is it time to think"
1828:
1059:
designed the public available GridLAB-D tool and the
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technologies used in today's PV systems include, the
317:
source can generate electricity at a levelized cost (
2514:
IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2004
2020:
2018:
1134:
921:
to make stand alone distributed generation systems.
563:
range from distributed, residential, and commercial
498:
in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project. With a
36:
Centralized (left) vs distributed generation (right)
3040:
blog by Kate Galbraith on NYTimes.Com 22 March 2010
1746:
924:Recent work has shown that such systems have a low
909:It is now possible to combine technologies such as
571:installations, to large, centralized utility-scale
418:or a combination of the above. For example, hybrid
3129:
2955:"COSMGrid: Configurable, off-the-shelf micro grid"
2773:, 378–389 (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.013
2060:
149:, and increasingly play an important role for the
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2659:
2101:"Deutsche Bank predicts second solar "gold-rush""
2015:
1104:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
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2073:. Fraunhofer ISE. 28 July 2014. pp. 18–19.
935:because consumers can produce electricity using
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1028:Small micro-grids covering 30–50 km radius
947:. This is backed up by studies in the Midwest.
786:. In addition, the Li-ion batteries of plug-in
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555:to convert sunlight into electricity. It is a
439:sources use steam turbines, natural gas-fired
3256:
3204:Center for Energy and innovative Technologies
3007:Center for Energy and innovative Technologies
2793:http://www.rmi.org/electricity_grid_defection
2324:. IEEE PES Technical Report. 15 January 2017.
1119:Legal requirements for distributed generation
1020:Micro-grids were proposed in the wake of the
904:
3209:Decentralized Power System (DPS) in Pakistan
3136:. Santa Rosa, Calif: Post Carbon Institute.
3038:"Colorado Increases Renewables Requirements"
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2246:
2196:
2179:
2026:"Latest Developments in the Ene-Farm Scheme"
851:
778:However, lithium-ion batteries, such as the
2437:
2240:
2004:(Report). FuelCellToday.com. Archived from
1865:IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics
1858:
223:to minimize the cost of transporting coal.
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3249:
3090:Annual Review of Environment and Resources
1641:
1639:
606:in at least 19 different markets in 2014.
3189:Biofuels and gas pressure energy recovery
3101:
2459:
2098:
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1443:
518:using natural gas, such as the ones from
3270:
2713:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
2616:. National Renewable Energy Labortatory.
1373:"Introduction to Distributed Generation"
1258:Standard for Interconnecting Distributed
1061:Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
31:
3179:World Alliance for Decentralized Energy
2997:
1794:. NREL. 2002. p. 1. Archived from
1636:
1330:World Alliance for Decentralized Energy
675:Next generation kinetic energy turbines
14:
4007:
2856:Stan Mark Kaplan, Fred Sissine, (ed.)
2414:
2289:
1260:Resources with Electric Power Systems)
3244:
3103:10.1146/annurev-environ-051112-111930
1699:
1343:
1057:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
1045:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
825:has the potential to serve as a DESS.
3127:
3122:Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
3049:
2427:from the original on 19 August 2020.
2247:Castelvecchi, Davide (19 May 2007).
1785:"Using Distributed Energy Resources"
1761:. Washingtonpost.com. Archived from
799:batteries, two prominent types of a
153:system. A grid-connected device for
27:Decentralised electricity generation
2516:. Vol. 2. pp. 2038–2042.
2099:Parkinson, Giles (7 January 2014).
1841:Lexicon Distributed Energy Resource
1320:Sustainable community energy system
24:
3941:Renewable energy commercialization
3230:Australian Renewable Energy Agency
3073:
2930:. 23 February 2017. Archived from
2440:IEEE Transactions on Power Systems
2415:Bandyk, Matthew (18 August 2020).
2080:from the original on 9 August 2014
1999:The fuel cell industry review 2013
1465:IEEE Transactions on Power Systems
811:
685:
343:Distributed energy storage systems
25:
4041:
3151:
2586:
2210:. ETH Zürich, Harvard University.
1753:McFarland, Matt (25 March 2014).
1672:Hirsch; 1989; cited in DOE, 2007.
751:valve regulated lead-acid battery
708:
578:The predominant PV technology is
159:distributed energy storage system
67:performed by a variety of small,
3989:
3988:
3409:
2832:"How big are Power line losses?"
2666:Energy Conversion and Management
1910:Energy Conversion and Management
1151:
1137:
3050:Bade, Gavin (12 October 2017).
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1512:IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
957:electricity transmission losses
950:
430:
328:
2686:10.1016/j.enconman.2015.07.048
2364:, John Wiley & Sons, 2011
2360:Math H. Bollen, Fainan Hassan
1967:Trigeneration with gas engines
1859:Du, R.; Robertson, P. (2017).
1591:
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1397:
1094:as per IEC 61850-8-1 standard.
821:into the grid when needed. An
650:
529:
305:
13:
1:
3936:Renewable Energy Certificates
3896:Cost of electricity by source
3818:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
3694:High-voltage shore connection
2576:. Energy Storage Association.
2298:. pv-tech.org. Archived from
1336:
1053:National Renewable Laboratory
1051:, originally designed by the
969:cost of electricity by source
939:systems primarily made up of
926:levelized cost of electricity
739:
679:Microhydro kinetic generators
624:
600:levelised cost of electricity
492:micro combined heat and power
385:Micro combined heat and power
333:Distributed energy resource (
57:district/decentralized energy
3951:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
3749:Transmission system operator
3709:Mains electricity by country
3286:Automatic generation control
2589:"Teaching the "Duck" to Fly"
2347:P. Mazidi, G. N. Sreenivas;
2338:Energies 2013, 6, 1439-1455.
2290:Willis, Ben (23 July 2014).
2265:10.1002/scin.2007.5591712010
1971:http://www.clarke-energy.com
1929:http://www.clarke-energy.com
1700:Berke, Jeremy (8 May 2018).
1295:Renewable energy development
1082:Communication in DER systems
994:
829:
73:distributed energy resources
18:Distributed Energy Resources
7:
3976:List of electricity sectors
3971:Electric energy consumption
3689:High-voltage direct current
3664:Electric power transmission
3654:Electric power distribution
3331:Energy return on investment
3022:article by Kirk Johnson in
2860:The Capitol Net Inc, 2009,
1988:, retrieved 9 December 2013
1690:Michigan (Citation pending)
1612:10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295
1244:Grid-tied electrical system
1194:Electric power transmission
1183:Energy storage as a service
1130:
1112:Distributed Energy Resource
1076:Aalborg University, Denmark
734:energy storage as a service
590:, reduced the installation
573:photovoltaic power stations
502:of around 60,000 hours for
194:
151:electric power distribution
10:
4046:
3891:Carbon offsets and credits
3609:Three-phase electric power
3080:Brass, J. N.; Carley, S.;
2733:10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.084
2452:10.1109/TPWRS.2013.2279721
1706:Business Insider Singapore
1477:10.1109/TPWRS.2020.3001235
998:
963:or energy losses from the
905:Stand alone hybrid systems
712:
689:
654:
645:solar hybrid power systems
628:
533:
512:molten carbonate fuel cell
189:solar hybrid power systems
121:DER systems typically use
4025:Electric power generation
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3959:
3946:Renewable Energy Payments
3869:
3806:
3768:
3622:
3559:
3470:
3435:Fossil fuel power station
3425:
3418:
3407:
3278:
2998:Stadler, Michael (2018).
2967:10.1109/GHTC.2013.6713662
1445:10.1016/j.esr.2023.101096
1270:Local flexibility markets
1234:Future energy development
852:Integration with the grid
843:by accelerating a rotor (
641:wind hybrid power systems
278:Typical DER systems in a
4020:Power station technology
3729:Single-wire earth return
3669:Electrical busbar system
3326:Energy demand management
2522:10.1109/PES.2004.1373235
2170:https://www.academia.edu
2130:https://www.academia.edu
1877:10.1109/TIE.2017.2677340
1838:http://www.smartgrid.gov
1567:10.1109/IAS.2016.7731870
1524:10.1109/TSG.2017.2651147
1315:Stand-alone power system
1239:Green power superhighway
1214:Energy demand management
1022:July 2012 India blackout
823:electric vehicle network
602:(LCOE), and has reached
485:associated petroleum gas
410:Small wind power systems
3860:Residual-current device
3850:Power system protection
3840:Generator interlock kit
2836:Schneider Electric Blog
1983:Gas engine applications
1925:Gas engine cogeneration
1846:6 December 2017 at the
1759:www.washingtonpost.com/
1424:Energy Strategy Reviews
1229:Flywheel energy storage
1159:Renewable energy portal
837:flywheel energy storage
4015:Distributed generation
3644:Distributed generation
3316:Electric power quality
3084:; Baldwin, E. (2012).
2798:12 August 2016 at the
2068:"Photovoltaics Report"
1381:. 2007. Archived from
1199:Electricity generation
807:battery, respectively.
730:thermal energy storage
621:is around 20 percent.
516:solid oxide fuel cells
41:Distributed generation
37:
3916:Fossil fuel phase-out
3684:Electricity retailing
3679:Electrical substation
3659:Electric power system
2821:- MidWest Energy News
1973:, retrieved 9.12.2013
1931:, retrieved 9.12.2013
1209:Electricity retailing
890:intelligent inverters
763:lithium-ion batteries
696:Waste-to-energy plant
673:Modular and scalable
588:conversion efficiency
534:Further information:
449:reciprocating engines
406:Reciprocating engines
355:(CHP), also known as
102:dams and large-scale
35:
3272:Electricity delivery
3219:15 July 2015 at the
2817:15 June 2016 at the
2296:storage.pv-tech.org/
1606:. pp. 195–200.
1070:11 July 2018 at the
975:whose exhaust boils
867:virtual power plants
747:rechargeable battery
584:thin-film solar cell
459:for cooling such as
396:Photovoltaic systems
371:Hybrid power systems
104:solar power stations
3881:Availability factor
3833:Sulfur hexafluoride
3714:Overhead power line
3614:Virtual power plant
3589:Induction generator
3542:Sustainable biofuel
3351:Home energy storage
3341:Grid energy storage
3306:Droop speed control
3128:Pahl, Greg (2012).
2961:. pp. 96–101.
2934:on 25 February 2017
2725:2016RSERv..57..692M
2678:2015ECM...105...71S
2189:http://www.NREL.gov
1915:, pp. 71–80 (2015).
1820:http://www.NREL.gov
1801:on 8 September 2014
1436:2023EneSR..4801096N
1385:on 10 December 2018
1168:Autonomous building
871:grid energy storage
715:Grid energy storage
596:energy payback time
580:crystalline silicon
569:building integrated
536:Photovoltaic system
524:Bloom energy server
353:Combined heat power
155:electricity storage
125:sources, including
98:plants, as well as
3755:Transmission tower
3366:Nameplate capacity
3117:The New York Times
3025:The New York Times
2011:on 7 October 2013.
1204:Electricity market
941:solar photovoltaic
457:absorptive chiller
315:alternative energy
209:economies of scale
49:on-site generation
45:distributed energy
38:
4002:
4001:
3906:Environmental tax
3786:Cascading failure
3555:
3554:
3391:Utility frequency
2976:978-1-4799-2402-8
2810:Andy Balaskovitz
2302:on 31 August 2014
2222:"Energy VPN Blog"
1765:on 18 August 2014
1621:978-1-4673-8732-3
1576:978-1-4799-8397-1
1219:Energy efficiency
1178:Energy harvesting
959:on long distance
771:electric vehicles
755:lead–acid battery
455:, or to drive an
217:coal power plants
185:diesel generators
16:(Redirected from
4037:
4030:Renewable energy
3992:
3991:
3901:Energy subsidies
3855:Protective relay
3796:Rolling blackout
3423:
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3381:Power-flow study
3321:Electrical fault
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2493:. California ISO
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2267:. Archived from
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2228:on 12 April 2012
2224:. Archived from
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2172:, Janet Marsdon
2167:
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2132:, Janet Marsdon
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2107:. Archived from
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1944:. Archived from
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1871:(7): 5360–5367.
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1561:. pp. 1–7.
1550:
1544:
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1518:(4): 3811–3819.
1503:
1497:
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1471:(6): 4357–4368.
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1347:
1305:Smart power grid
1249:Hydrogen station
1161:
1156:
1155:
1147:
1142:
1141:
611:renewable energy
477:coal bed methane
461:air-conditioning
414:Stirling engines
400:rooftop solar PV
288:renewable energy
284:embedded systems
236:district heating
181:electricity grid
147:geothermal power
123:renewable energy
59:, is electrical
21:
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3998:
3980:
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3886:Capacity factor
3874:
3872:
3865:
3845:Numerical relay
3823:Circuit breaker
3811:
3809:
3802:
3764:
3704:Load management
3674:Electrical grid
3639:Demand response
3632:
3627:
3618:
3599:Microgeneration
3551:
3466:
3414:
3405:
3401:Vehicle-to-grid
3274:
3269:
3239:
3221:Wayback Machine
3154:
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3076:
3074:Further reading
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2839:
2838:. 25 March 2013
2830:
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2819:Wayback Machine
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2800:Wayback Machine
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2259:(20): 312–313.
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2111:on 28 June 2014
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1965:
1961:
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1949:
1942:"Heiß auf kalt"
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1848:Wayback Machine
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1725:
1724:
1720:
1710:
1708:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1637:
1622:
1596:
1592:
1577:
1551:
1547:
1504:
1500:
1457:
1453:
1416:
1412:
1403:
1402:
1398:
1388:
1386:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1356:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1310:Solar Guerrilla
1275:Microgeneration
1259:
1173:Demand response
1157:
1150:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1121:
1084:
1072:Wayback Machine
1003:
997:
953:
907:
898:
854:
832:
819:vehicle-to-grid
814:
812:Vehicle-to-grid
780:Tesla Powerwall
742:
717:
711:
698:
692:Waste-to-energy
690:Main articles:
688:
686:Waste-to-energy
663:
655:Main articles:
653:
633:
627:
619:capacity factor
594:as well as its
551:assembled into
538:
532:
520:FuelCell Energy
433:
331:
313:occurs when an
308:
197:
96:nuclear powered
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4043:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3973:
3967:
3965:
3961:Statistics and
3960:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3911:Feed-in tariff
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3877:
3875:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3830:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3772:
3770:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3699:Interconnector
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3649:Dynamic demand
3646:
3641:
3635:
3633:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3579:Combined cycle
3576:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3431:
3429:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3356:Load-following
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3311:Electric power
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3268:
3267:
3260:
3253:
3245:
3238:
3237:
3223:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3153:
3152:External links
3150:
3149:
3148:
3142:
3125:
3108:
3082:MacLean, L. M.
3075:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3042:
3030:
3012:
2990:
2975:
2945:
2919:
2894:
2870:
2849:
2823:
2803:
2784:
2775:
2755:
2746:
2699:
2652:
2641:
2630:
2619:
2605:
2579:
2565:
2556:|journal=
2530:
2504:
2475:
2446:(1): 182–192.
2430:
2407:
2396:
2385:
2374:
2353:
2340:
2327:
2313:
2282:
2271:on 6 June 2014
2239:
2213:
2195:
2178:
2162:
2137:
2122:
2091:
2059:
2038:
2014:
1990:
1975:
1959:
1948:on 18 May 2015
1933:
1917:
1898:
1851:
1827:
1812:
1776:
1745:
1733:. 21 June 2018
1718:
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1683:
1674:
1665:
1656:
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1620:
1590:
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1340:
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1335:
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1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1224:Energy storage
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1148:
1132:
1129:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1108:
1101:
1095:
1083:
1080:
1065:BankableEnergy
1036:
1035:
1032:
1029:
999:Main article:
996:
993:
952:
949:
945:grid defection
933:grid defection
906:
903:
897:
894:
853:
850:
849:
848:
841:kinetic energy
831:
828:
827:
826:
813:
810:
809:
808:
797:vanadium redox
775:
774:
767:self-discharge
759:nickel–cadmium
741:
738:
726:compressed air
713:Main article:
710:
709:Energy storage
707:
687:
684:
652:
649:
629:Main article:
626:
623:
531:
528:
432:
429:
428:
427:
416:
411:
408:
403:
393:
388:
382:
368:
363:
330:
327:
307:
304:
280:feed-in tariff
268:levelized cost
256:
255:
252:
249:
246:
196:
193:
84:power stations
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4042:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4010:
3995:
3987:
3986:
3983:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3958:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3931:Pigouvian tax
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
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3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3868:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3828:Earth-leakage
3826:
3825:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3805:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:Failure modes
3767:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3719:Power station
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3604:Rankine cycle
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3584:Cooling tower
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3427:Non-renewable
3424:
3421:
3417:
3412:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3346:Grid strength
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3301:Demand factor
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3266:
3261:
3259:
3254:
3252:
3247:
3246:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3145:
3143:9781603584098
3139:
3134:
3133:
3126:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3110:Gies, Erica.
3109:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3077:
3057:
3053:
3046:
3039:
3034:
3027:
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3016:
3008:
3001:
2994:
2986:
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2972:
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2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2883:
2877:
2875:
2867:
2866:1-58733-162-4
2863:
2859:
2853:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2788:
2779:
2772:
2769:
2768:Energy Policy
2765:
2759:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
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2645:
2634:
2623:
2615:
2609:
2590:
2583:
2575:
2569:
2561:
2549:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2531:0-7803-8465-2
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2492:
2485:
2479:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2461:10044/1/12201
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2400:
2394:
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2378:
2371:
2370:1-118-02901-1
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2227:
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2209:
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2200:
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2190:
2185:
2183:
2175:
2171:
2166:
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2147:
2141:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2076:
2069:
2063:
2048:
2042:
2027:
2021:
2019:
2007:
2000:
1994:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1886:
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1862:
1855:
1849:
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1839:
1834:
1832:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1797:
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1760:
1756:
1749:
1732:
1728:
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1696:
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1617:
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1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
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1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1406:
1400:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1378:Virginia Tech
1374:
1368:
1352:
1346:
1342:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1325:Trigeneration
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
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1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1154:
1149:
1146:
1145:Energy portal
1140:
1135:
1128:
1124:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1002:
992:
990:
986:
985:Rankine cycle
982:
981:steam turbine
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
929:
927:
922:
920:
916:
912:
911:photovoltaics
902:
893:
891:
886:
885:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:power quality
846:
842:
838:
834:
833:
824:
820:
816:
815:
806:
802:
798:
794:
793:sodium–sulfur
789:
788:electric cars
785:
784:Gigafactory 1
781:
777:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
743:
737:
735:
731:
727:
723:
716:
706:
703:
697:
693:
683:
680:
676:
671:
669:
662:
658:
648:
646:
642:
637:
636:Wind turbines
632:
622:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
592:cost per watt
589:
585:
581:
576:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
541:Photovoltaics
537:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
510:In addition,
508:
505:
504:PEM fuel cell
501:
497:
493:
488:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
453:water heating
450:
446:
445:microturbines
442:
438:
425:
421:
417:
415:
412:
409:
407:
404:
401:
397:
394:
392:
391:Microturbines
389:
386:
383:
380:
376:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
361:trigeneration
358:
354:
351:
350:
349:
346:
344:
340:
339:capital costs
336:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
276:
272:
269:
264:
262:
253:
250:
247:
244:
243:
242:
239:
238:and cooling.
237:
233:
228:
226:
225:Hydroelectric
222:
218:
215:For example,
213:
210:
205:
203:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
119:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
100:hydroelectric
97:
93:
89:
85:
82:Conventional
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
34:
30:
19:
3926:Net metering
3873:and policies
3791:Power outage
3760:Utility pole
3724:Pumped hydro
3643:
3630:distribution
3625:Transmission
3574:Cogeneration
3376:Power factor
3131:
3115:
3093:
3089:
3059:. Retrieved
3056:Utility Dive
3055:
3045:
3033:
3023:
3015:
3006:
2993:
2958:
2948:
2936:. Retrieved
2932:the original
2922:
2910:. Retrieved
2906:
2897:
2885:. Retrieved
2857:
2852:
2840:. Retrieved
2835:
2826:
2806:
2787:
2778:
2770:
2767:
2758:
2749:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2669:
2665:
2655:
2644:
2633:
2622:
2608:
2596:. Retrieved
2587:Lazar, Jim.
2582:
2568:
2513:
2507:
2495:. Retrieved
2490:
2478:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2421:Utility Dive
2420:
2410:
2399:
2388:
2377:
2361:
2356:
2348:
2343:
2330:
2316:
2306:12 September
2304:. Retrieved
2300:the original
2295:
2285:
2275:12 September
2273:. Retrieved
2269:the original
2256:
2253:Science News
2252:
2242:
2230:. Retrieved
2226:the original
2216:
2165:
2153:. Retrieved
2150:www.nrel.gov
2149:
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2115:14 September
2113:. Retrieved
2109:the original
2105:REnewEconomy
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1796:the original
1792:www.nrel.gov
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1376:
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1345:
1285:Peak shaving
1280:Net metering
1257:
1125:
1122:
1049:Homer Energy
1041:
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1019:
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1006:
1004:
965:Joule effect
954:
951:Cost factors
930:
923:
919:cogeneration
908:
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879:
875:power to gas
855:
835:An advanced
722:pumped hydro
718:
699:
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615:dispatchable
608:
577:
557:fast-growing
553:solar panels
539:
509:
489:
469:landfill gas
437:cogeneration
435:Distributed
434:
431:Cogeneration
420:photovoltaic
375:solar hybrid
360:
357:cogeneration
356:
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329:Technologies
309:
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263:accounting.
257:
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3921:Load factor
3776:Black start
3744:Transformer
3445:Natural gas
3396:Variability
3371:Peak demand
3361:Merit order
3291:Backfeeding
3096:: 107–136.
3028:3 June 2010
2719:: 692–703.
2574:"Flywheels"
2372:, pages v-x
1805:8 September
1737:18 December
1711:18 December
1357:17 December
1300:Smart meter
1127:resources.
973:gas turbine
961:power lines
865:functions,
801:molten salt
657:Small hydro
651:Hydro power
604:grid parity
598:(EPBT) and
549:solar cells
545:solar power
530:Solar power
398:(typically
379:wind hybrid
311:Grid parity
306:Grid parity
232:natural gas
139:solar power
127:small hydro
108:transmitted
4009:Categories
3963:production
3808:Protective
3739:Super grid
3734:Smart grid
3561:Generation
3495:Geothermal
3386:Repowering
3061:18 October
2868:, page 217
2176:, pp. 8, 9
2155:31 October
1731:Inside EVs
1430:: 101096.
1389:23 October
1337:References
1189:Electranet
884:duck curve
863:smart grid
740:PV storage
702:food waste
668:wave power
661:Wave power
631:Wind power
625:Wind power
561:PV systems
473:sewage gas
441:fuel cells
422:, CHP and
387:(MicroCHP)
366:Fuel cells
300:geothermal
290:, such as
266:While the
221:collieries
177:Microgrids
167:smart grid
143:wind power
86:, such as
61:generation
3871:Economics
3594:Micro CHP
3472:Renewable
3455:Petroleum
3450:Oil shale
3336:Grid code
3296:Base load
2907:The Verge
2741:110914380
2694:107189983
2672:: 71–80.
2558:ignored (
2548:cite book
2491:caiso.com
2084:31 August
1885:0278-0046
1532:1949-3061
1493:225734643
1485:1558-0679
1353:. E.ON SE
1265:Islanding
1254:IEEE 1547
1088:IEC 61850
1011:macrogrid
1007:microgrid
1001:Microgrid
995:Microgrid
915:batteries
830:Flywheels
736:(ESaaS).
323:subsidies
261:cash-flow
118:systems.
112:megawatts
3994:Category
3781:Brownout
3569:AC power
3279:Concepts
3217:Archived
2985:19202084
2815:Archived
2796:Archived
2598:29 April
2540:20032334
2497:29 April
2470:16686085
2425:Archived
2075:Archived
1844:Archived
1630:25664994
1585:16464909
1540:49354817
1131:See also
1068:Archived
937:off grid
873:such as
845:flywheel
609:As most
582:, while
522:and the
500:Lifetime
381:systems)
345:(DESS).
195:Overview
90:-fired,
3810:devices
3520:Thermal
3515:Osmotic
3510:Current
3490:Biomass
3480:Biofuel
3462:Nuclear
3419:Sources
2938:9 March
2912:9 March
2721:Bibcode
2674:Bibcode
1893:1042325
1432:Bibcode
1407:. 2023.
1185:(ESaaS)
989:chiller
745:Common
565:rooftop
547:, uses
424:battery
131:biomass
65:storage
43:, also
3505:Marine
3485:Biogas
3199:DERlab
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465:biogas
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135:biogas
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3862:(GFI)
3751:(TSO)
3537:Solar
3525:Tidal
3500:Hydro
3234:ARENA
3003:(PDF)
2981:S2CID
2737:S2CID
2690:S2CID
2594:. RAP
2592:(PDF)
2536:S2CID
2487:(PDF)
2466:S2CID
2078:(PDF)
2071:(PDF)
2009:(PDF)
2002:(PDF)
1889:S2CID
1799:(PDF)
1788:(PDF)
1626:S2CID
1581:S2CID
1536:S2CID
1489:S2CID
1043:from
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977:water
496:Japan
292:solar
3628:and
3547:Wind
3530:Wave
3440:Coal
3138:ISBN
3063:2017
2971:ISBN
2940:2018
2914:2018
2889:2015
2862:ISBN
2844:2015
2600:2015
2560:help
2526:ISBN
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2366:ISBN
2308:2014
2277:2014
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1881:ISSN
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