Economic history of China (1949–present)

1141:. China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the crisis. China's response both helped stabilize the global economy and also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure. Although China was significantly affected by the crisis due to the export oriented nature of the economy which depends heavily upon international trade, by nearly all accounts its stimulus was hugely successful and an important contributor to global economic recovery. Continued economic growth during the crisis increased China's confidence in its model of development and convinced elites that the global balance of power was shifting. The crisis led Chinese policymakers increasingly to question reliance on U.S.-led global markets and the U.S.'s role in international leadership. 510:

supporting the Third Front as their "primary task," instead downgrading the Third Front assistance to an "important task." The Planning Commission also stated concerns about the amount of Third Front funding leading to neglect of heavy industry elsewhere, as well as insufficient investment in agriculture. After a CCP conference in May 1973 resolved to re-direct state investment efforts from the Third Front to the northeast and the coastal regions, the Third Front was no longer the country's most critical economic objective. Agriculture and light industry became more important priorities. When Reform and Opening Up began in 1978, China started a process of winding down Third Front projects with a "shut down, cease, merge, transform, and move" strategy.

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retain revenue from leasing land. These revenues had previously been required to be paid to the central government. This change led to the development of land financing, in which governments leased land to developers and business for a land-leasing fee (in China, land is in principle all state-owned). Local governments then adapted land financing for public borrowing, establishing investment vehicles which could borrow from state banks to finance large-scale infrastructure projects, using land revenue as their collateral. Land financing became an especially important mechanism for financing transportation projects in interior regions, which in turn improved their ability to attract investment and development.

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households. Households still had to contribute to state quotas but could make their own decisions about what to plant on contracted land and could sell via a multi-tier price system that included the lowest price for payment to the state up until the quota, a higher rate for above-quota sales to the state, and market price for crops allowed to be sold at fairs. This multi-tier price system also resulted in price stabilization effects that encouraged production while protecting households from a decrease in market prices caused by the production boom. By 1983, the responsibility system was adopted by numerous farm units in all sorts of areas.

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development of the Third Front also had the effect of bringing higher quality consumer goods and cultural goods to China's hinterlands. The rapprochement between the United States and China reduced the motivations for the Third Front construction, and projects were ultimately wound down with many privatized during China's Reform and Opening Up. Through the development of infrastructure, industry, and specialized talent in these remote regions, the Third Front construction laid a foundation for continued economic development in China's western regions even after the end of the initiative.

699:. The practice of remitting taxes on profits and retaining the balance became universal by 1985, increasing the incentive for enterprises to maximize profits and substantially adding to their autonomy. A change of potentially equal importance was a shift in the source of investment funds from government budget allocations, which carried no interest and did not have to be repaid, to interest-bearing bank loans. As of 1987 the interest rate charged on such loans was still too low to serve as a check on unproductive investments, but the mechanism was in place. 703:

reached 35 percent. Unlike earlier periods, when China was committed to trying to achieve self-sufficiency, under Deng Xiaoping foreign trade was regarded as an important source of investment funds and modern technology. As a result, restrictions on trade were loosened further in the mid-1960s, and foreign investment was legalized. The most common foreign investments were joint ventures between foreign firms and Chinese units. Sole ownership by foreign investors also became legal, but the feasibility of such undertakings remained questionable.

1016:(WTO) in December 2001, China began pursuing export-led growth and became a key link in global supply chains. Chinese businesses were encouraged to trade directly with foreign companies (instead of working through SOEs as previously). with the exception of certain state monopoly sectors deemed critical to national security. China's industrious and cheap labor also proved attractive to foreign investments. China accumulated large trade surpluses and foreign currency reserves, which greatly increased government resources. 757:. Then-Premier Zhao Ziyang wrote in his memoirs that in the years following the institution of household responsibility system, “the energy that was unleashed … was magical, beyond what anyone could have imagined. A problem thought to be unsolvable had worked itself out in just a few years time … y 1984, farmers actually had more grain than they could sell. The state grain storehouses were stacked full from the annual procurement program.” As the government raised prices for grain and cotton and stimulated the growth of 970: 4650: 4004: 3617: 3384: 981: 36: 663:, and as researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes, it was a "near-complete reversal of the CPC's traditional skepticism toward foreign investment grounded in ideological and historical reasons." The Joint Venture Law was effective in helping to attract and absorb foreign technology and capital from advanced countries like the United States, facilitated China's exports to such countries, and thereby contributed to China's subsequent rapid economic growth. 420:, the growing imbalance between industrial and agricultural growth, dissatisfaction with inefficiency, and lack of flexibility in the decision-making process convinced the nation's leaders – particularly Mao Zedong – that the highly centralized, industry-based Soviet model was not appropriate for China. The income gap between rural and urban Chinese had widened. The situation was one Mao had begun to worry about before 1957, with his 1956 155:"yundong" campaigns that the CCP organized have helped shape the society's policies and how it focused on their goals and how to achieve them. One was creating a change for lower-class members who needed more or better education. Moreover, it is essential to draw attention to the fact that the goals have stayed the same over time. However, policies and developments have changed a lot since there were shifts in the politics of the economy. 4660: 152:

and limit spontaneous exchange between the two sectors of the economy. Leaders also attempted to withdraw currency from circulation and "return it to the cage" to combat "spontaneous capitalist tendencies" among rural consumers. However, despite these policies, Chinese citizens continued to engage in market-based transactions in an informal economy that constituted a substantial proportion of economic output throughout the Mao era.

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handicrafts over the period 1953 to 1956. Its industrial outputs grew by 31% in 1955 and a further 10% in 1956. By 1956, nearly all large-scale commerce and industry had been nationalized and virtually all urban private business business ownership had been ended. China had finished its efforts to complete a socialist transformation of the domestic economy. However, certain market activity persisted and remained underground.

800:'s forced resignation in 1987. Following Hu's resignation, the leadership engaged in an intense debate over the future course of the reforms and how to balance the need for efficiency and market incentives with the need for government guidance and control. The commitment to further reform was affirmed, but its pace, and the emphasis to be placed on macroeconomic and micro-economic levers, remained objects of caution. 859:." The 1993 Decision overhauled the organization of China's economic planning apparatus. State planning was not abolished, but instead reframed as one of three key mechanisms of macro-economic control, along with fiscal policy and monetary policy. Chinese administrators were instructed to plan for markets and to absorb major market trends (both domestically and internationally) into multi-year government programs. 229:. The CCP's success in overcoming hyperinflation and stabilizing prices became a major source of the new government's legitimacy. Price increases from the 1950s to the 1970s were generally minimal, although the periods of the Great Leap Forward and the Great Famine were notable exceptions. China ultimately had one of the most stable fiat currencies in modern history during the Mao era. 901:. China's nonconvertible capital account and its foreign exchange controls were decisive in limiting the impacts of the crisis. China declined to devalue its own currency, a decision which was well-regarded by the international community. China also contributed $ 4 billion to neighboring countries via a combination of bilateral bailouts and contributing to IMF bailout packages. 519:

than 80 percent of staple items and consumer goods. However, by 1975 China's economy was performing well according to most conventional economic measures. Although the economy was not on the verge of collapse as some post-Mao historical narratives portray, it nonetheless faced pervasive economic difficulties caused by political instability and the consequences of China's

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rank, thereby increasing internal wage disparities. Management officials also were given the authority to pay workers (instead of wage funds being distributed by the state). Distribution of wages by management instead of the state abolished China's eight-grade wage scale, which had ensured that workers of the same grade received the same wages in all state enterprises.

761:, household income surged and poverty decreased from 1980 to 1985. Life improved for billions of people in rural China. However, the agricultural policies responsible for the boom also increased inequalities. Regions with fertile soil, transportation hubs, or big cities were far more able to take advantage of market opportunities. 695:

involvement significantly improved the opportunities available to most enterprises, generated high rates of growth, and increased efficiency. Enterprise managers gradually gained greater control over their units, including the right to hire and fire, although the process required endless struggles with bureaucrats and

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households each. Thirty-eight percent of all farm households belonged to mutual aid teams in 1952. By 1952 price stability had been established, commerce had been restored, and industry and agriculture had regained their previous peak levels of production. By 1953, China had rapidly recovered its economy.

105:. This transformation required a complex number of reforms in China's fiscal, financial, enterprise, governance and legal systems and the ability for the government to be able to flexibly respond to the unintended consequences of these changes. This transformation has been accompanied by high levels of 932:

remained major hurdles. Over half of China's state-owned enterprises were inefficient and reporting losses. However, SOEs which operated at a loss sometimes did so for complex reasons, including as a result of policies which deliberately imposed higher income tax and VAT on SOEs than on foreign joint

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activity and professional managerial autonomy. Another difficulty was a wave of crime, corruption, and—in the minds of many older people—moral deterioration caused by the looser economic and political climate. The most fundamental tensions were those created by the widening income disparities between

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and the leadership ultimately rejected shock price reform. Zhao had accepted the argument that the basic concern in economic reform was energizing enterprises. By late summer, what started under the rubric of "coordinated comprehensive package reform" had been diluted to an adjustment in the price of

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Economist Thomas Rawski summarized China's economic development from 1957 to 1979, writing that "a nation that until 1957 could not manufacture tractors, power plants, or wristwatches now produces computers, earth satellites, oral contraceptives, and nuclear weapons. The technical skills required for

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Government control over industry was increased during this period by applying financial pressures and inducements to convince owners of private, modern firms to sell them to the state or convert them into joint public-private enterprises under state control. China nationalized commerce, industry, and

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was the only commercial bank under this centralized system and the only provider of credit, settlement clearance, and teller services. In 1950, the Bank of China became a bureau of the People's Bank of China. Pursuant to regulations issued in 1953, only the Bank of China could handle foreign currency

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The role of foreign trade under the economic reforms increased far beyond its importance in any previous period. Before the reform period, the combined value of imports and exports had seldom exceeded 10 percent of national income. In 1969 it was 15 percent, in 1984 it was 21 percent, and in 1986 it

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Mentioning the "succession issue," which was discussed in the book "Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform" by Kenneth Lieberthal discusses the difficulties of choosing to change a leader and the challenges that come with it (148). This discussion started in 1956 and led leaders to plan new

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Also in 1988, the Enterprise Law was passed. It gave enterprises the authority to make major production decisions (including dismissing workers). Following the law's passage, enterprises were leased from the state to management and became distinct legal entities. Workers in these formerly state-run

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The first few years of the reform program were designated the "period of readjustment," during which key imbalances in the economy were to be corrected and a foundation was to be laid for a well-planned modernization drive. The schedule of Hua Guofeng's ten-year plan was discarded, although many of

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By 1987 the program had achieved remarkable results in increasing supplies of food and other consumer goods and had created a new climate of dynamism and opportunity in the economy. At the same time, however, the reforms also had created new problems and tensions, leading to intense questioning and

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which opened on December 22, 1978, the party leaders decided to undertake a program of gradual but fundamental reform of the economic system. The traditional historical analysis views December 1978 as the beginning of China's economic reform, although some reforms efforts had already begun prior to

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recentralized tax revenues. It did not adjust expenditure requirements for local governments, however. As a result, local governments experienced shortfalls as revenue decreased but expenditure obligations continued. To address these budget pressures, the central government allowed lower levels to

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In industry the complexity and interrelation of production activities prevented a single, simple policy from bringing about the kind of dramatic improvement that the responsibility system achieved in agriculture. Nonetheless, a cluster of policies based on greater flexibility, autonomy, and market

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Wage reform was the initial phase of China's labor reform. It added bonus pay to increase workers' material incentives and in 1979-1980 introduced the piece-wage system. Management positions modeled after western conventions were established in state enterprises with additional pay commensurate to

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In the "Governing China: From Revolution Through Reform," Kenneth Lieberthal mentions, "In the 1980s, the difference was that Deng understood the inadequacies of previous policies and encouraged more significant change as required. The results raised difficult political issues and challenged

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Commerce was stimulated and partially regulated by the establishment of state trading agencies (commercial departments), which competed with private traders in purchasing goods from producers and selling them to consumers or enterprises. State trading agencies served as a mechanism for re-creating

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Throughout the Mao era, the CCP attempted to demonetize and decommodify the Chinese economy through top-down policy interventions and develop institutions to bring economic life under greater state control. The CCP established "puppet-like micro-management institutions" to regulate market activity

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endorsed the plans at its March 1998 session. In 2000, China claimed success in its three-year effort to make the majority of large SOEs profitable. By that year, the state sector accounted for 47% of industrial assets, approximately 50% of government output, and accounted for one-third of urban

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in agriculture, began development in 1979 as a way for poor rural units in mountainous or arid areas to increase their incomes. This system, which came to replace collective farming, maintained public ownership of land and some of the means of production, but made production the responsibility of

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As they develop, the people's material and cultural life will constantly improve. One of our shortcomings after the founding of the People's Republic was that we didn't pay enough attention to developing the productive forces. Socialism means eliminating poverty. Pauperism is not socialism, still

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Mao's last years included a period of general economic disarray as a wave of strikes, factory slowdowns, and worker absenteeism arose in the majority of major industrial centers, accompanied by an increase in crime, including looting of state granaries. The rationing system expanded to cover more

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prioritized ownership of the state-owned economy, although it also gave consideration to some private interests. It did not seek to eliminate capitalism as a whole, instead encouraging private enterprises viewed as beneficial to the national economy and sought to implement a mixed economy. At the

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As the Nationalists fled during their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, they stripped China of liquid assets including gold, silver, and the country's dollar reserves. Nationalists forces also attempted to firebomb industrial sites, but workers were able to stop them at many such locations. By the

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By 2020, China became the largest trading partner of more than 120 countries. At the end of that year, China signed major free trade agreements with the European Union as well as fifteen different Asia-Pacific countries. As of at least 2023, China is the world's largest exporter, a status it has

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We have said that socialism is the primary stage of communism and that at the advanced stage the principle of from each, according to his ability, to each, according to his needs, will be applied. This calls for highly developed productive forces and an overwhelming abundance of material wealth.

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Agriculture also underwent extensive organizational changes. In fall 1953, the CCP's Central Committee instituted a state monopoly in purchasing and marketing of grain (and other raw materials). This policy served to break the relationship between wealthy peasants and grain merchants, ending the

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and stronger measures to control food prices. The year 2000 showed a modest reversal of this trend. Gross domestic product in 2000 grew officially at 8.0% that year, and had quadrupled since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $ 3,800 per capita (PPP), China became the

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Despite political upheavals during the Mao era, China's GNP grew an average of 6.2% annually over the period 1952–1978. Industrialization during the Mao era resulted in the significant accumulation of both physical and human capital, which laid the foundation for China's successful reforms. The

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period that it had succeeded in feeding one fifth of the world's population with only 7% of the world's cultivable land. Once land reform was completed in an area, farmers were encouraged to cooperate in some phases of production through the formation of small "mutual aid teams" of six or seven

141:. As the years passed, the leadership continued to subscribe to these goals. But the economic policies formulated to achieve them were dramatically altered on several occasions in response to major changes in the economy, internal politics, and international political and economic developments. 803:

Through 1987 and into early 1988, Zhao's reform agenda focused on combining enterprise contracting with coastal development efforts. In summer 1988, radical price reform again became on the agenda. It provoked a dramatic reaction: inflation spiraled for the first time since the 1940s, and the

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The period of readjustment produced promising results, increasing incomes substantially; raising the availability of food, housing, and other consumer goods; and generating strong rates of growth in all sectors except heavy industry, which was intentionally restrained. On the strength of these

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model, which prioritized growth in industrial and military capacity rather than consumption. SOE-led investment in heavy industry contributed to economic slowdown in the early 1970s. However, it also established an education pool of workers, low indebtedness, and state capital that served as a

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process began slowly but accelerated in 1955 and 1956. In 1957 about 93.5 percent of all farm households had joined advanced producers' cooperatives. Although the agriculture sector only received 6.2% of the budget during the first five-year plan, agricultural gross outputs increased by 24.7%.

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Unlike other countries, China has played a significant role in developing industrial growth, which has become a substantial source of income more than farming itself. They focused on slow, steady growth rather than fast growth. They did not move to private ownership but kept state ownership, a

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The major goals of the readjustment process were to expand exports rapidly; overcome key deficiencies in transportation, communications, coal, iron, steel, building materials, and electric power; and redress the imbalance between light and heavy industry by increasing the growth rate of light

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Generally, reforms in this period started with local experiments that were adopted and expanded elsewhere once their success had been demonstrated. Officials generally faced few penalties for experimenting and failing and those who developed successful programs received nation-wide praise and

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Agricultural production was also stimulated by official encouragement to establish free farmers' markets in urban areas, as well as in the countryside, and by allowing some families to operate as "specialized households," devoting their efforts to producing a scarce commodity or service on a

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in 1972, investment to the Third Front region gradually declined. Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction. In August 1972, the Planning Commission recommended that the First and Second Fronts no longer view

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Events such as the "Great Leap" and Antirightist movements have played a role in losing highly skilled people from being part of making decisions. It draws attention to the idea that explains how, from 1953 to 1958, the Soviet Union helped China to develop more technical skills. And how such

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China's CCP members have grown significantly. From less than a hundred members in 1921, they grew to five million "victorious" parties by 1949. These parties had different practices and capabilities that played an enormous role in China's power after 1949. the CCP party members use different

1185:, the "Action Outline for Promoting the Development of Big Data", and the "Three-Year Action Plan to Promote the Development of a New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Industry". China's Thirteenth and Fourteenth Five-Year Plans have also emphasized high-tech and innovative development. 493:

campaign began in 1965 and continued during the Cultural Revolution. Motivated by fears of invasion by the Soviet Union or the United States, China implemented a major campaign to develop industry and national security facilities in remote areas, along with the necessary infrastructure. The

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were transferred to the state, conditions for workers improved. The growing number of state workers were entitled to permanent employment, an eight-hour day, medical benefits, subsidized food and housing, as well as an eight-grade wage scale that was consistent across different state owned

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at the Third Session of the Ninth National People's Congress. In Jiang's view, continuing development in China required active participation in global economic competition and that the state should support Chinese enterprises in gradual foreign investment and multi-national operations.

182:. Transportation, communication, and power systems had been destroyed or had deteriorated because of lack of maintenance. Agriculture was disrupted, and food production was some 30 percent below its pre-war peak level. Further, economic ills were compounded by one of the most virulent 1173:

During the Xi Jinping era, the Chinese government continues to use SOEs to serve non-market objectives and CCP control of SOEs has increased while taking some limited steps towards market liberalization, such as increasing mixed ownership of SOEs. Although China has promoted

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Throughout the 1950s, a major challenge for the large-scale economic modernization was the relative lack of managerial talent. Promotion of ordinary workers to management roles was intended to address this challenge while also serving the larger political goal of placing the

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should focus on tightening financial regulations and resisting foreign pressures to open the country's financial markets prematurely.Lessons learned by policymakers also became an important factor in China's evolving approach to managing state-owned assets, particularly its

870:, the state is no more than an investor and controller of stock and assets. Pursuant to the Corporation Law, private and foreign investment in such enterprises must be below 49%. The law also permitted state firms to declare bankruptcy in the event of business failure. 768:—sudden price liberalization—or a more gradual approach. But in 1986, the latter approach won out. "Confronted with the diverse, authoritative warnings about the unforeseeable risks of imposing the shock of price reform and the uncertainty about its benefits" Premier 611:

in the system and by reducing—not eliminating—government planning and direct control. In the CCP's view, economic planning would be a mechanism for steering the market. Therefore, the CCP did not perceive its reforms as the foundation for a liberal market economy.

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announced push for price reforms precipitated panic buying, runs on the bank, and protests in opposition to the market reforms. By fall 1988, price liberalization plans were halted and leadership instead focused on price reform, austerity, and retrenchment.

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Therefore, the fundamental task for the socialist stage is to develop the productive forces. The superiority of the socialist system is demonstrated, in the final analysis, by faster and greater development of those forces than under the capitalist system.

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has set three overarching goals for China's economy. First, to increase China's capacity for innovation so that it will be able to more actively shape global economic rules. Second, to enhance order and security in China's domestic market. Third, creating

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and more prosperous farmers to the 60 to 70 percent of farm families that previously owned little or no land. The success of early land reform meant that at the founding of the PRC in 1949, China could credibly claim that for the first time since the late

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to organize increasingly large and socialized collective units. This collectivization continued over the period 1955 to 1958. From the loosely structured, tiny mutual aid teams, villages were to advance first to lower-stage, agricultural producers'

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of China designed to give new impetus to and reinvigorate the process of economic reform. During the Southern Tour, Deng stated his view that both government planning and use of the market are economic means which can be compatible with socialism.

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The Great Leap Forward's focus on total workforce mobilization resulted in opportunities for women's labor advancement. As women became increasingly needed to work in agriculture and industry, and encouraged by policy to do so, the phenomenon of

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period, China has evolved into a backbone of the world economy. China has been the fastest growing economy in the world since the 1980s, with an average annual growth rate of 10% from 1978 to 2005, based on government statistics. Its GDP reached

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founding of the PRC, the Central Finance and Economy Commission under the transitional Government Administrative Council was the single central government organ in charge of national economic planning and construction management. It was led by

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During the 2000s, China's coastal areas continued to outpace its interior in economic development. As regional disparities widened however, coastal areas became a major source of investment for inland areas.Manufacturing that was lower on the

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In 1986, the Contract Labor Law was passed, increasing management's power. Newly hired workers had to sign year-to-year contracts, with the goal of the policy being to reduce and eventually eliminate permanent employment for state employees.

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Deng and other reformist policy-makers legalized small-scale private businesses. Allowing private individuals to establish small businesses alleviated employment pressures that had developed following the return of approximately 6.5 million

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approved the consolidation of People's Bank of China headquarters as a bureau within the Ministry of Finance, and local branches were merged into local government finance departments. This effective demotion of the PBoC lasted for a decade.

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arose. Women did traditionally male work in both fields and factories, including major movements of women into management positions. Women competed for high productivity, and those who distinguished themselves came to be called Iron Women.

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China's was the only major world economy to experience GDP growth in 2020, when its GDP increased by 2.3%. In 2021, China's GDP growth reached 8.1% (its highest in a decade) and its trade surplus reached an all-time high $ 687.5 billion.

459:, this created a concern for CCP leadership: while rapid economic development and ideological transformation was necessary to release the productive energy of the masses, it also raised a risk that China could backslide into capitalism. 840:

In the early 1990s, economic challenges increased in rural China. Grain farming became unprofitable due to falling prices for staple crops relative to the cost of chemical fertilizers, water, electricity, and other necessary services.

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initial successes, the reform program was broadened, and the leadership under Deng Xiaoping frequently remarked that China's basic policy was "reform and opening," that is, reform of the economic system and opening to foreign trade.

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The government resumed dividend payments to Chinese capitalists whose property had been seized after the revolution (the practice had been suspended as a result of a campaign during the Cultural Revolution), including with interest.

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worked to revive the economy through an increased role for markets, greater material incentives for workers, a lower rate of investment, a more moderate pace for developmental goals, and increased funding for consumer industries.

455:(i.e., in the early 1960s), the economy began to recover from the failures of the Great Leap Forward. China's development was accelerating, including with regard to the production of material goods. In the view of historian 581:'s first report on China assessed the Mao era positively, citing rapid growth and industrialization as well as the "virtual elimination of the worst aspects of poverty," although it also identified room for improvement. 193:

Moreover, the people faced challenges and suffering in political or personal ways during the Cultural Revolution. Second, the people who were not affected by the revolution as they were not participating or involved.

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To bring inflation under control by 1951, the government unified the monetary system, tightened credit, restricted government budgets at all levels and put them under central control, and guaranteed the value of the

588:'s July 1978 report to the State Council, "Act in Accordance with Economic Laws," described the situation of the peasants during as grave and estimated that grain output had merely kept pace with population growth. 1117:

published the revised figures for 2007 financial year in which growth happened at 13 percent instead of 11.9 percent (provisional figures). China's gross domestic product stood at US$ 3.4 trillion while

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central role in China's economic development, which focused on the collectively owned businesses and then on the private ones. This leads to a great way of managing economic growth while interacting with society.

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deeply entrenched interests. Among Deng's greatest accomplishments was his ability in the late 1970s and much of the 1980s to sustain, on balance, pro-reform momentum in a badly divided political system" (128).

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During the middle of the 1950s, state planning controls by the central government relaxed to allow a somewhat increased role for markets and for greater involvement by province and local level governments. The

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the people who were "getting rich" and those who were not and by the pervasive threat of inflation. These concerns played a role in the political struggle that culminated in party general secretary

217:. Its major priorities were restoring national economic order, price stabilization, currency stabilization, establishing a management mechanism for the planned economy, and preparing for the First 70:

also disrupted the economy. However, since the period of economic reform began in 1978, China has seen major improvements in average living standards and has experienced relative social stability.

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Although the Third Five Year Plan would have commenced in 1963, the economic turmoil the Great Leap Forward period prompted CCP leadership to delay Plan until 1966. In the interim, a group led by

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strategies when introducing new ideas or solving existing problems. However, even though those members continued their influence during the years, most CCP members still needed higher education.

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In the early 2000s, the government began to finance construction of cross-regional transportation to improve accessibility to, and develop of, China's interior regions. In March 2004, Premier

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were based only on the amount of labor contributed. In addition, each family was allowed to retain a small private plot on which to grow vegetables, fruit, and livestock for its own use. The

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made these measures public in September 1956, announcing that "minor commodities" could be traded on the market and peasants could develop sideline work like handicrafts or raising poultry.

1192:. First, it seeks to rely more on China's domestic consumers. Second, it seeks to innovate more domestically developed technology and thereby reduce China's reliance on western technology. 1033:

Since the early 2000s, China's clean energy sector has rapidly developed. This growth has enabled renewable energy to have an important role in China's international cooperation, including

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This article is about Economic history of the People's Republic of China. For economic history of the Republic of China during the period when it only controls Taiwan area after 1949, see

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Although the reform program achieved impressive successes, it also gave rise to several serious problems. One problem was the challenge to party authority presented by the principles of

1701:"China Recovery from War, 1949-52 - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System" 236:

The early PRC government established a centralized banking system focused on a few state institutions. Early banking regulations were adopted from the Soviet Union's regulations. The

51:(PRC) in 1949 to the present day. The speed of China's transformation in this period from one of the poorest countries to one of the world's largest economies is unmatched in history. 6332: 640:

industry and reducing investment in heavy industry. Agricultural production was stimulated in 1979 by an increase of over 22 percent in the procurement prices paid for farm products.

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acknowledged that a planned economy was not the only way to develop socialism and that prior policies restricting the commodity economy had hindered socialist development. After the

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In 1996, the Chinese economy continued to grow at a rapid pace, at about 9.5%, accompanied by low inflation. The economy slowed for the next three years, influenced in part by the

331:. Compared to the Soviet planning method, the Chinese approach had less centralized planning with regard to consumer goods and regional planning authorities had greater authority. 6899: 4467: 4417: 3395: 1084: 1207:

begun under US president Donald Trump resulted in increased economic ties between China and the European Union, largely resulting from resulting shifts in commodity flows.

4245: 6480: 4074: 726:. Their success led to the designation of fourteen coastal cities as SEZs in 1984, and then the development of Pudong, a primarily agricultural are in Shanghai. Most of 4422: 4210: 921:

in 2003. China tightened its controls over foreign exchange and capital flows, including making violations of the foreign exchange regulations punishable as crimes.

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ways of changing leaders without causing much chaos, an essential step in China's improvement from violence that has happened for the same reason since the 1880s.

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trended towards moving inland. This trend was termed "industrial transfer." Developing Chinese policymakers reacted by further encouraging industrial transfer.

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was set in motion by Mao Zedong in 1966 and called to a halt in 1968, but the atmosphere of radical leftism persisted until Mao's death and the fall of the

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Since 2015, the CCP has issued several industrial plans designed to emphasize high-tech innovation and digital development. These industrial plans include

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A significant economic debate during this period concerned the approach to price liberalization and whether China should adopt an approach consistent with

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Until the Cultural Revolution, China had paid dividends to the former capitalist class from the value of property that had been seized in the revolution.

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that met in September 1997, Jiang announced plans to sell, merge, or close the vast majority of SOEs in his call for increased "non-public ownership" (

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The central policies of the reform program were introduced experimentally during the readjustment period. The most successful reform policy, the

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time the Nationalists were defeated, commerce had been destroyed, the national currency rendered valueless, and the economy was based on barter.

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Since the PRC was founded in 1949, China has experienced a surprising and turbulent economic development process. It has experienced revolution,

1235: 3570: 3038: 1080: 445: 327:

assisted in developing and installing new heavy industrial facilities, including many entire plants and pieces of equipment purchased from the

6884:

Oi, Jean C. Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Chapter 1.

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moved more aggressively to create a modern market economy. In 1993, the CCP issued its "Decision on Issues Related to the Establishment of a

5051: 233:

and integrating markets and through this process of re-integration between urban and rural economies helped stabilize the value of money.

5061: 4509: 4437: 3454: 2914: 1280: 885:, with official growth of 8.9% in 1997, 7.8% in 1998 and 7.1% for 1999. From 1995 to 1999, inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter 696: 738:. Researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes that "he success of these cities as 'red' treaty ports represented another step in China's overall 5391: 4250: 4235: 3904: 3364: 3107: 6914: 6909: 4770: 4119: 2865: 777: 23: 424:

identifying the important of "the relationship between heavy industry on one hand and light industry and agriculture on the other."

62:, and finally the gradual economic reform and fast economic growth that has characterized the post-Maoist period. The period of the 6904: 5730: 5715: 5615: 5472: 5430: 4567: 4255: 1134: 659:

In July 1979, China adopted its first Law on Joint Venture Using Chinese and Foreign Investment. The Joint Venture Law encouraged

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The crisis helped solidify Chinese policymakers' views that China should not move towards a liberal market economy, and that its

734:

and therefore have symbolic significance in demonstrating a "reversal of fortunes" in China's dealings with foreigners since the

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By 1984, agricultural production had boomed following the institution of the household responsibility system, which replaced

1700: 1178:

since the Jiang Zemin administration, it has done so particularly strongly since 2017, especially in the technology sector.

1110:

during his delivery of the Annual Report of the State Council. This initiative was added to the Politburo's agenda in 2006.

847:

While market reforms prior to 1993 focused generally on reform within the larger context of the planned economy, after 1993

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Beginning in 1978 and running through 2007, China's economy grew by 10% annually and per capita income increased tenfold.

549:? We were not quite clear about this in the past. Marxism attaches utmost importance to developing the productive forces. 6766: 5700: 5071: 4820: 3924: 3673: 3475: 874: 3012: 1040:

Following the CCP's Third Plenum, held in October 2003, Chinese legislators unveiled several proposed amendments to the

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under the slogan "Learn from the Soviet Union." The Soviet approach to economic development was manifested in the First

125:(CCP) came to power in 1949, its leaders' fundamental long-range goals were to transform China into a modern, powerful, 6790: 6685: 5600: 5435: 4815: 4101: 3428: 3166:

Li, Xiaobing (2024). "Beijing's Military Power and East Asian-Pacific Hot Spots". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.).

3123: 1451: 1130:. Based on these figures, in 2007 China recorded its fastest growth since 1994 when the GDP grew by 13.1 percent. 1123: 910: 897:

affected China at the margin, mainly through decreased foreign direct investment and a sharp drop in the growth of its

773:

steel (although its price was both important had carried symbolic weight) as well as partial tax and financial reform.

19: 6803: 5445: 5422: 5386: 5242: 5237: 5034: 4557: 4519: 4499: 4452: 4205: 4069: 3460: 3218: 3179: 2836: 2664: 2551: 2339: 2328:

Everyday Lives in China's Cold War Military Industrial Complex: Voices from the Shanghai Small Third Front, 1964-1988

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The People's Bank of China suspended its commercial banking service during the Cultural Revolution. In 1969, the

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had dismantled about half the machinery in the major industrial areas of the northeast and shipped it to the

48: 1543:

Eyferth, Jacob (2022). "One Country, Two Material Cultures". In Altehenger, Jennifer; Ho, Denise Y. (eds.).

6583: 6578: 5990: 5303: 5249: 5217: 5044: 4620: 4603: 4562: 4489: 4165: 4106: 4081: 4007: 3889: 3695: 3680: 3660: 3656: 3600: 3515: 1693: 1076: 417: 299:, and other revolutionary veterans was prepared to embark on an intensive program of industrial growth and 266: 1048:

rights. Legislators also indicated there would be a new emphasis on certain aspects of overall government

440:

production and commodity exchange. In doing so, Mao affirmed the theoretical view previously expressed by

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Lieberthal, Kenneth. Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform. 2d edition.New York: Norton, 2004.

6740: 6735: 6730: 6490: 6368: 6353: 5960: 5917: 5853: 5836: 5710: 5232: 4979: 4742: 4625: 4480: 4303: 4091: 4017: 3919: 3899: 3823: 3575: 3560: 3470: 3387: 1265: 894: 882: 2439:Šebeňa, Martin (2023). "Chinese Economic Miracle". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). 1786:. Vol. 2. Translated by Sun, Li; Bryant, Shelly. Montreal, Quebec: Royal Collins Publishing Group. 6771: 6725: 6005: 5885: 5641: 5595: 5578: 5561: 5308: 5272: 5119: 4694: 4552: 4494: 4442: 4298: 4240: 3715: 3705: 3555: 3485: 3418: 2294: 1821: 1107: 106: 3312:

China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace

683:, marking a major shift in the thinking of Chinese policymakers with regard to market mechanisms. The 6708: 6608: 6200: 6024: 5905: 5858: 5802: 5267: 5212: 4939: 4825: 4752: 4653: 4407: 4177: 4114: 4022: 3994: 3990: 3860: 3845: 3747: 3700: 3690: 3590: 3350: 3239: 2711: 918: 765: 660: 237: 134: 3139:

China's Vulnerability Paradox: How the World's Largest Consumer Transformed Global Commodity Markets

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Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector

2468: 1037:

in which China is a major source of clean energy technology transfer to other developing countries.

448:

because in socialism the money economy is designed to consolidate and develop socialist production.

378:

The industrial working class grew from 6 million to 10 million. Industrial work places organized as

311:(1953–57), which Soviet planners helped formulate. As in the Soviet economy, priority was placed on 6566: 6195: 6141: 6066: 5742: 5677: 5519: 5502: 5480: 5313: 5288: 5227: 5129: 4882: 4797: 4384: 4349: 4328: 4039: 4034: 3970: 3939: 3805: 3620: 3565: 3550: 3443: 3413: 3074: 2825:

The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order

2788: 2365: 1382: 1088: 1061: 1013: 914: 856: 781: 308: 269:

which had begun before the CCP victory and continued afterwards, titles to about 45 percent of the

218: 4899: 6776: 6616: 6398: 6114: 6000: 5995: 5900: 5875: 5819: 5653: 5605: 5440: 5361: 5356: 5298: 5222: 5207: 5066: 4847: 4457: 4397: 4283: 4153: 4143: 4131: 3872: 3833: 3795: 3720: 3520: 3465: 3408: 3278: 3210: 3171: 3142: 2656: 1504: 1260: 1245: 1065: 1034: 691:, reform focused on building a socialist planned commodity economy with Chinese characteristics. 533: 122: 5021: 3236:

China's Rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order

6571: 6378: 6212: 6168: 6146: 5843: 5293: 5197: 5004: 4747: 4586: 4124: 4027: 3840: 3813: 3790: 3780: 3710: 3637: 1255: 1127: 929: 867: 821: 735: 245: 2539: 2241:

Revolution and Its Narratives: China's Socialist Literary and Cultural Imaginaries (1949-1966)

6561: 6556: 6511: 6447: 6358: 6061: 6010: 5948: 5670: 5507: 5495: 5485: 5254: 4887: 4687: 4581: 4484: 4313: 3752: 2828: 2613: 2402: 2244: 2139: 2038: 1747: 1285: 739: 707: 110: 81: 3105: 6821: 6287: 6235: 6095: 5890: 5865: 5792: 5787: 5622: 5514: 5490: 5348: 4830: 4668: 4542: 4374: 4308: 4158: 3975: 3855: 3775: 3685: 3625: 3510: 1095:. The plan called for a relatively conservative 45% increase in GDP and a 20% reduction in 925: 411: 86: 8: 6872: 6588: 6433: 6327: 6322: 6292: 6250: 6173: 6136: 6056: 6041: 5870: 5831: 5538: 5152: 5056: 4807: 4547: 4293: 4136: 3850: 3735: 3730: 3610: 3438: 3286: 2944: 2193: 2131: 1057: 490: 476: 437: 253: 67: 6475: 6470: 6455: 6307: 6275: 6270: 6163: 6085: 6073: 5982: 5648: 5568: 5556: 5524: 5179: 5174: 5092: 4792: 4402: 4369: 4323: 4318: 3894: 3828: 3433: 3310:

Korolev, Alexander S. (2023). "Political and Economic Security in Multipolar Eurasia".

2895: 2887: 2857: 2802: 2331: 2169: 2161: 1412: 1404: 1182: 1148:'s administration began in 2003, increased further after the global financial crisis. 1119: 905: 754: 407: 166:

In 1949, China's economy was suffering from the debilitating effects of decades of the

138: 63: 2708:

The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy

742:

plan while legitimizing the leadership of the CPC over the Chinese state and people."

357:, and increase government access to agricultural products, the authorities encouraged 113:, a process that has influenced every aspect of China's society, culture and economy. 6867: 6831: 6534: 6526: 6240: 6107: 6078: 6036: 5965: 5922: 5880: 5747: 5687: 5459: 5396: 5258: 5039: 5009: 4835: 4354: 4344: 3960: 3651: 3605: 3595: 3493: 3329: 3319: 3290: 3253: 3243: 3214: 3175: 3146: 3088: 3078: 2980: 2948: 2899: 2877: 2832: 2792: 2725: 2715: 2670: 2660: 2627: 2617: 2582: 2547: 2520: 2510: 2448: 2416: 2406: 2379: 2369: 2335: 2308: 2298: 2258: 2248: 2212: 2173: 2151: 2082: 2052: 2042: 1984: 1974: 1914: 1904: 1829: 1787: 1761: 1751: 1682: 1641: 1591: 1552: 1518: 1508: 1457: 1447: 1416: 1394: 1299: 1164: 644:

industrial development are no longer confined within a few isolated urban enclaves."

170:. Many mines and factories had been damaged or destroyed. At the end of the war with 167: 2806: 1971:

Revolution and Counterrevolution: China's Continuing Class Struggle Since Liberation

1068:. The National People's Congress approved the amendments when it met in March 2004. 483:

in 1976. During this period, there were several distinct phases of economic policy.

353:

To facilitate the mobilization of agricultural resources, improve the efficiency of

6826: 6813: 6652: 6645: 6544: 6539: 6465: 6393: 6312: 6227: 6217: 6188: 6124: 6119: 5953: 5927: 5912: 5797: 5775: 5759: 5665: 5114: 5104: 4944: 4737: 4722: 4714: 4663: 4359: 4288: 4012: 3914: 3909: 3742: 3373: 2869: 2605: 2500: 2202: 2143: 1672: 1631: 1583: 1386: 1250: 1189: 1188:

During the Xi Jinping administration, China has emphasized an economic strategy of

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China's economy saw continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% since 1991. During a

608: 520: 382:(danwei) provided subsidized housing, permanent jobs, education, and medical care. 371: 129:

nation. In economic terms these objectives meant industrialization, improvement of

47:

describes the changes and developments in China's economy from the founding of the

30: 1575:"Path to prosperity: Chinas transition to market economy in the last four decades" 244:

Another of the CCP's early steps was to nationalize enterprises that the defeated

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By 2002, the profits of industrial state-owned enterprises had grown by 163.6%.

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3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party

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In 1958, Mao criticized leftists within the CCP who sought to abolish socialist

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Sovereign Funds: How the Communist Party of China Finances its Global Ambitions

312: 252:(SOEs) accounted for more than 40% of industrial production. As the industrial 201: 3333: 3257: 3092: 2729: 2631: 2524: 2420: 2312: 2207: 2188: 1988: 1918: 1677: 1660: 6893: 6862: 6626: 6373: 6207: 6046: 5848: 5169: 5157: 4999: 4860: 4609: 4364: 3818: 3757: 3535: 2780: 2703: 2383: 2262: 2216: 1765: 1686: 1645: 1522: 957: 945: 567: 441: 300: 102: 6677: 2165: 2056: 1461: 928:

during the past two decades, reforming the state sector and modernizing the

97:

period in 1978, China has been transitioning from a state dominated planned

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Building for Oil: Daqing and the Formation of the Chinese Socialist State

1021: 969: 848: 769: 395: 363: 347: 270: 2873: 2646: 890:

second largest economy in the world after the US when measuring in PPP.

444:

that commodity production should not necessarily be identified with the

6418: 5326: 5137: 4865: 2652: 2505: 1390: 1159: 1103: 1060:

between urban and rural regions, and to maintain economic growth while

1044:. One of the most significant was a proposal to provide protection for 852: 797: 792: 578: 463: 429: 320: 296: 292: 2610:

Accidental Conflict: America, China, and the Clash of False Narratives

1744:

Mao Zedong and China in the Twentieth-Century World: A Concise History

1618: 6857: 6428: 6383: 5321: 5262: 4575: 4504: 3315: 3283:

China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One

2976: 2444: 1900: 1619:"Return to the Cage: Monetary Policy in China's First Five-Year Plan" 1443: 1145: 980: 604: 585: 542: 379: 324: 183: 126: 98: 55: 35: 2189:"Markets under Mao: Measuring Underground Activity in the Early PRC" 1661:"Markets under Mao: Measuring Underground Activity in the Early PRC" 6503: 6496: 5809: 4096: 3342: 2574: 2362:

The Cultural Revolution at the Margins: Chinese Socialism in Crisis

711: 607:

but to make it work better by substantially increasing the role of

527: 316: 274: 226: 210: 90: 816: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4679: 4615: 2493:

CPC Futures The New Era of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics

715: 546: 354: 214: 1144:

State ownership of the economy, which had been increasing since

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China's Good War: How World War II is Shaping a New Nationalism

2862:

Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise

898: 719: 367: 358: 94: 59: 22:. For The economic history of China between 1912 and 1949, see 4418:

Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement

2943:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: 4710: 3001:

China Revises Figures, 'Becomes World's Number Three Economy'

1151:

In 2010, China became the largest shipbuilder in the world.

1091:. In March 2006, the National People's Congress approved the 844:

Private business ownership gained full legal status in 1992.

832:

in early 1992, China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping made a

750:

who returned from rural to urban areas during 1978 and 1979.

291:

Having restored a viable economic base, the leadership under

171: 4246:

State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission

584:

Chinese reformers were more critical, however. For example,

4075:

National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation

808:

enterprises lost the protections of being state employees.

4423:

Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement

2136:

Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise

866:

adopted the landmark Corporation Law. It provides that in

2546:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 320. 1897:

How China Escaped Shock Therapy: The Market Reform Debate

973: 66:

famine negatively impacted the economy. The chaos of the

1300:

China's Public Finance: Reforms, Challenges, and Options

1113:

On January 14, 2009, as confirmed by the World Bank the

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The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism

2291:

Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China

2079:

China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future

1122:

GDP was US$ 3.3 trillion for 2007. This made China the

1079:

through more balanced wealth distribution and improved

1056:(now in the 8–10% range in urban areas), to re-balance 4196:

China Council for the Promotion of International Trade

1784:

An Ideological History of the Communist Party of China

524:

foundation for the success of the subsequent reforms.

470: 938:

15th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party

603:

The purpose of the reform program was not to abandon

3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 388:

8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party

76:

Institutional Foundations of Chinese Economic Growth

2941:

The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History

1030:In 2003, China became a financial creditor nation. 976:

increase, 1990–98 and 1990–2006, in major countries

6900:Economic history of the People's Republic of China 6848:History of trade of the People's Republic of China 1617: 1573: 630: 303:. For this purpose the administration adopted the 206:Chinese People's Political consultative Conference 4060:China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund 3188: 3073:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of 1167:and increasing wealth distribution to the poor. 6891: 1973:(2nd ed.). Paris: Foreign Languages Press. 528:Reform of the economic system, beginning in 1978 286: 196:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform. 157:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform. 147:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform. 20:Economic history of Taiwan § Modern history 4221:Ministry of Industry and Information Technology 4045:China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation 2243:. Rebecca E. Karl, Xueping Zhong, 钟雪萍. Durham: 1170:In 2013, China became a middle-income country. 624:political struggles over the program's future. 337:Governing China: from Revolution Through Reform 116: 1099:(energy consumption per unit of GDP) by 2010. 1071:The Fifth Plenum in October 2005 approved the 401: 6707: 6693: 6346: 4695: 4186:All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce 3358: 3036: 2540:"The succession to Mao and the end of Maoism" 2399:Cultural Revolution and Revolutionary Culture 956:In March 2000, Jiang announced the policy of 681:Decision on the Reform of the Economic System 161: 4226:National Financial Regulatory Administration 3124:"China economy growing again while US limps" 1824:monograph series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1501:China's Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know 1154: 4438:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership 3455:Grasping the large, letting go of the small 3201: 3039:"China revises 2007 GDP growth rate to 13%" 3013:"China passes Germany in economic rankings" 2915:"Most Americans Rate China's Economy First" 2822: 2537: 2491:Pieke, Frank N; Hofman, Bert, eds. (2022). 2490: 2130: 1440:The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth 1281:Grasping the large, letting go of the small 315:and capital goods. Large numbers of Soviet 6700: 6686: 4702: 4688: 4659: 4413:Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area 4251:State Administration for Market Regulation 4236:National Development and Reform Commission 3365: 3351: 3141:. 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Zheng, Qian (ed.). 1737: 1658: 1542: 1498: 204:approved in late September 1949 by the 6892: 5637:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 4231:National Bureau of Statistics of China 4201:China Securities Regulatory Commission 3233: 3136: 3065: 3061: 3059: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2644: 2497:National University of Singapore Press 2438: 2325: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2226: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1777: 1775: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1545:Material Contradictions in Mao's China 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1372: 1370: 1368: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 335:movements made all that work go away. 6681: 4683: 3346: 3277: 2970: 2938: 2932: 2818: 2816: 2604: 2600: 2598: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2441:Contemporary China: a New Superpower? 2427: 2396: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2238: 2063: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1968: 1891: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1781: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1322: 1320: 1318: 1316: 679:In October 1984, the CCP adopted its 671:Reform and opening, beginning in 1982 24:Economic history of China (1912–1949) 6782:Technological and industrial history 4448:Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone 4393:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 4191:All-China Federation of Trade Unions 3372: 3264: 2961: 2845: 2702: 2560: 2269: 1800: 1741: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1196:maintained continuously since 2010. 1135:Global financial crisis of 2008–2009 6333:Major Historical and Cultural Sites 3925:Hong Kong Trade Development Council 3207:The Political Thought of Xi Jinping 3159: 3130: 3056: 2912: 2779: 2736: 2681: 2573: 2319: 2223: 2095: 2032: 1925: 1815: 1772: 1714: 1529: 1376: 471:Cultural Revolution period, 1966–76 13: 5471: 4709: 3429:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns 3165: 2823:Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024). 2813: 2785:How China Escaped the Poverty Trap 2595: 2479: 2359: 2348: 2326:Xu, Youwei; Wang, Y. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: The 2913:Chu, Kathy (February 14, 2011). 1075:(2006–2010) aimed at building a 759:township and village enterprises 537: 241:and international transactions. 6905:Contemporary history by country 6797:History of agriculture in China 6404:Four Paragons of the Early Tang 5601:Political parties and movements 4965:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 4950:Northern and Southern dynasties 4510:2015–16 stock market turbulence 4433:Pearl River Delta Economic Zone 3303: 3227: 3116: 3099: 2993: 2906: 2638: 2531: 2461: 2390: 2180: 1572:Yifu Lin, Justin (2021-04-22), 1271:History of agriculture in China 1176:its national champion companies 1108:The Rise of the Central Regions 1073:11th Five-Year Economic Program 857:Socialist Market Economy System 649:household responsibility system 631:Period of readjustment, 1979–81 250:China's state-owned enterprises 4428:Northeast China Revitalization 4065:China Internet Investment Fund 4050:China Government Guidance Fund 2651:. New York: Published for the 2538:MacFarquhar, Roderick (1987). 2134:; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022-11-15). 1826:Harvard University Asia Center 1652: 1609: 1565: 1549:University of Washington Press 1468: 1052:, including efforts to reduce 950:9th National People's Congress 728:China's special economic zones 422:On the Ten Major Relationships 93:in 2005. Since the end of the 1: 6804:China–United States trade war 6787:History of transport in China 4520:China–United States trade war 4385:Regional economic initiatives 4338:National economic initiatives 4055:China-Africa Development Fund 3449:Deng Xiaoping's southern tour 2293:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: 1307: 1303:. Cambridge University Press. 1205:China–United States trade war 1124:world's third largest economy 446:capitalist mode of production 287:First Five-Year Plan, 1953–57 39:Chinese inflation 1987 - 2022 5706:Ministry of National Defense 5045:Chinese Communist Revolution 4621:List of Chinese by net worth 4604:China Compulsory Certificate 4515:Protein export contamination 4166:Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange 4082:China Investment Corporation 3546:Business process outsourcing 2289:Meyskens, Covell F. (2020). 2081:. New York, NY: 1804 Books. 1616:Lowenstein, Matthew (2019). 1236:Resources in other libraries 1077:socialist harmonious society 964: 811: 636:its elements were retained. 117:Economic policies, 1949–1989 7: 6750:Modern China (1912–present) 6369:Flowers of the Four Seasons 6354:Four Treasures of the Study 5973:Water supply and sanitation 5701:Central Military Commission 5696:Outline of military history 5446:Province-level subdivisions 3935:Water supply and sanitation 3314:. Mher Sahakyan. New York: 3041:. Xinhuanet. Archived from 1588:10.4337/9781800374980.00009 1582:, Edward Elgar Publishing, 1266:History of banking in China 1210: 948:in euphemistic terms). The 924:Despite China's impressive 895:1997 Asian financial crisis 778:International Monetary Fund 566:— Chinese paramount leader 402:Great Leap Forward, 1958–61 137:, and production of modern 10: 6931: 5642:Primary stage of socialism 5584:National People's Congress 5052:People's Republic of China 4443:Rise of Central China Plan 4241:National Energy Commission 2645:Rawski, Thomas G. (1979). 2397:Russo, Alessandro (2020). 2295:Cambridge University Press 1822:Harvard-Yenching Institute 1499:Kroeber, Arthur R (2016). 1377:Liu, Zongyuan Zoe (2023). 1062:protecting the environment 864:National People's Congress 776:In 1981, China joined the 531: 405: 162:Recovery from war, 1949–52 49:People's Republic of China 28: 17: 6840: 6812: 6791:History of rail transport 6749: 6715: 6709:Economic history of China 6639: 6607: 6525: 6446: 6226: 6032: 6023: 5981: 5941: 5783: 5774: 5686: 5537: 5467: 5458: 5421: 5392:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 5347: 5281: 5190: 5128: 5100: 5091: 5020: 4898: 4846: 4806: 4730: 4721: 4639: 4533: 4476:2005–2011 property bubble 4466: 4408:China Western Development 4383: 4337: 4269: 4176: 4115:Dalian Commodity Exchange 3989: 3953: 3871: 3804: 3766: 3484: 3394: 3380: 3240:Stanford University Press 3205:; Cheung, Olivia (2024). 2971:Lewis, Joanna I. (2023). 2712:Stanford University Press 2208:10.1017/S0305741023001133 1742:Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). 1678:10.1017/s0305741023001133 1231:Resources in your library 1155:Xi Jinping administration 1012:After its entry into the 911:foreign exchange reserves 661:foreign direct investment 248:had controlled. By 1952, 45:economic history of China 6567:Catholic Church in China 5711:People's Liberation Army 5678:One country, two systems 4350:Belt and Road Initiative 4329:Rural credit cooperative 4102:Foreign exchange reserve 4035:Beijing Financial Street 3444:Socialist market economy 3238:. Stanford, California: 3234:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). 3137:Massot, Pascale (2024). 3075:Harvard University Press 3037:Mo Hong'e (2009-01-15). 2827:. New Haven and London: 2789:Cornell University Press 2710:. Stanford, California: 2366:Harvard University Press 1383:Harvard University Press 1276:Regional Policy in China 1014:World Trade Organization 933:and privates companies. 273:were redistributed from 186:rates in world history. 6399:Four Pillars of Destiny 6184:Regional discrimination 5606:Chinese Communist Party 4592:Globalization and women 4458:Zhongyuan Economic Zone 4398:Beibu Gulf Economic Rim 4178:Government institutions 4154:Shenzhen Stock Exchange 4144:Shanghai Metal Exchange 4132:Shanghai Stock Exchange 3796:Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park 3781:Megalopolises in China 3211:Oxford University Press 3172:Leiden University Press 3143:Oxford University Press 3110:April 15, 2009, at the 2939:Crean, Jeffrey (2024). 2657:Oxford University Press 2473:academics.wellesley.edu 2239:Cai, Xiang; 蔡翔 (2016). 1624:Twentieth-Century China 1505:Oxford University Press 1381:. The Belknap Press of 1297:Lin, Shuanglin (2022). 1261:Historical GDP of China 1246:Chinese economic reform 1035:South-South cooperation 868:state owned enterprises 824:trend from 1952 to 2015 534:Chinese economic reform 346:ability to profit from 123:Chinese Communist Party 6152:Science and technology 5825:Special economic zones 5077:persecution of Uyghurs 5005:Century of humiliation 4631:Science and technology 4525:2020–2021 reform spree 4279:International rankings 4125:Beijing Stock Exchange 3791:Suzhou Industrial Park 3786:Special Economic Zones 1969:Ching, Pao-Yu (2021). 1256:Globalization in China 1139:Economic Stimulus Plan 1128:gross domestic product 1093:11th Five-Year Program 1009: 977: 913:, and its creation of 883:Asian Financial Crisis 825: 736:century of humiliation 730:are located in former 708:special economic zones 416:Before the end of the 238:People's Bank of China 40: 6767:1949–1976 wage reform 6359:Four Great Inventions 5743:People's Armed Police 3981:Intellectual property 3476:1949–1976 wage reform 3419:Industrial Revolution 2829:Yale University Press 2614:Yale University Press 2544:The Politics of China 2403:Duke University Press 2245:Duke University Press 2140:Yale University Press 2077:Hammond, Ken (2023). 2039:Duke University Press 1748:Duke University Press 1637:10.1353/tcc.2019.0003 1286:Trade policy of China 1137:, China launched its 1064:and improving social 983: 972: 906:reform and opening up 819: 740:reform and opening-up 656:profit-making basis. 596:Mao's death in 1976. 514:Gang of Four, 1974–76 453:Second Five-Year Plan 451:In the middle of the 305:Soviet economic model 82:Reform and Opening Up 38: 6814:Contemporary economy 6338:World Heritage Sites 5866:Foreign aid received 5574:Environmental policy 5372:Environmental policy 5367:Environmental issues 4669:Economy of East Asia 4375:Youth Business China 4211:Ministry of Commerce 4159:SZSE Component Index 3776:Dalian Software Park 2807:10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j 2581:. New York: Viking. 2364:. Cambridge, Mass.: 2360:Wu, Yiching (2014). 2148:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k 2132:Marquis, Christopher 1507:. pp. 210–214. 1442:. Cambridge, Mass.: 926:economic development 418:First Five-Year Plan 412:Great Chinese Famine 267:land reform movement 6873:Chinese exploration 6584:History of religion 6579:Freedom of religion 6434:Four Pests campaign 6379:Four Classic Novels 5991:Automotive industry 5871:Foreign aid program 5562:Pro-democratisation 5057:Cultural Revolution 4216:Ministry of Finance 4137:SSE Composite Index 4107:Hedge fund industry 3954:Law and regulations 3661:academic publishing 3439:Four Modernizations 3287:Bloomsbury Academic 3045:on January 16, 2009 2945:Bloomsbury Academic 2874:10.2307/j.ctv2n7q6b 2858:Heilmann, Sebastian 2194:The China Quarterly 1665:The China Quarterly 1133:In response to the 1058:income distribution 477:Cultural Revolution 265:Under a nationwide 254:means of production 68:Cultural Revolution 6491:Population history 6471:Internal migration 6086:Harmonious Society 5961:Telecommunications 5918:Standard of living 5837:Online advertising 5589:Standing Committee 4626:Chinese economists 4599:National Standards 4495:2007 slave scandal 4403:Bohai Economic Rim 4370:Made in China 2025 4319:Internal migration 4304:Standard of living 4092:Financial services 3966:Labor contract law 3920:Illegal drug trade 3890:World Trade Center 3726:Telecommunications 3674:equipment industry 3506:Advanced materials 3471:Population history 3434:Great Leap Forward 3388:Companies of China 3019:. January 15, 2009 2506:10.56159/eai.52060 2332:Palgrave MacMillan 2033:Lin, Chun (2006). 1899:. Abingdon, Oxon: 1580:China and the West 1480:data.worldbank.org 1391:10.2307/jj.2915805 1183:Made in China 2025 1042:state constitution 1010: 995: 10 year bond 989: 30 year bond 984:China bond yields 978: 875:1994 fiscal reform 826: 755:collective farming 507:Nixon's China trip 408:Great Leap Forward 139:military equipment 135:income differences 64:Great Leap Forward 41: 6881: 6880: 6868:China Association 6772:Industrialization 6675: 6674: 6635: 6634: 6442: 6441: 6019: 6018: 6006:Shipping industry 5770: 5769: 5736:Strategic Support 5611:General Secretary 5596:National security 5579:Foreign relations 5533: 5532: 5454: 5453: 5417: 5416: 5120:Natural disasters 5087: 5086: 5040:Chinese Civil War 5035:Republic of China 5010:Taiping Rebellion 4883:Spring and Autumn 4788:Foreign relations 4677: 4676: 4490:2007 stock bubble 4355:Common prosperity 4345:Beijing Consensus 4299:Income inequality 3768:Development Zones 3325:978-1-003-35258-7 3296:978-1-350-26724-4 3249:978-1-5036-3060-4 3152:978-0-19-777140-2 3084:978-0-674-98426-4 2986:978-0-262-54482-5 2954:978-1-350-23394-2 2883:978-962-996-827-4 2798:978-1-5017-0020-0 2721:978-1-5036-3415-2 2623:978-0-300-26901-7 2606:Roach, Stephen S. 2588:978-1-9848-7828-1 2516:978-981-18-5206-0 2454:978-1-03-239508-1 2412:978-1-4780-1218-4 2375:978-0-674-41985-8 2304:978-1-108-78478-8 2254:978-0-8223-7461-9 2157:978-0-300-26883-6 2048:978-0-8223-3785-0 1980:978-2-491182-89-2 1910:978-1-138-59219-3 1835:978-0-674-26022-1 1793:978-1-4878-0391-9 1757:978-0-8223-4780-4 1597:978-1-80037-498-0 1558:978-0-295-75085-9 1217:Library resources 1165:common prosperity 1007: 1 year bond 1001: 2 year bond 887:monetary policies 609:market mechanisms 591:At the milestone 574: 573: 570:on June 30, 1984 560:less communism." 168:Chinese Civil War 107:industrialization 6922: 6702: 6695: 6688: 6679: 6678: 6655: 6648: 6545:Tibetan Buddhism 6540:Chinese Buddhism 6394:Four Holy Beasts 6344: 6343: 6196:Social relations 6125:Standard Chinese 6120:Chinese language 6030: 6029: 5815:Economic history 5781: 5780: 5760:Maritime Militia 5469: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5436:Border crossings 5431:Baseline islands 5126: 5125: 5098: 5097: 5062:Tiananmen Square 4945:Sixteen Kingdoms 4753:Military history 4728: 4727: 4704: 4697: 4690: 4681: 4680: 4664:Outline of China 4662: 4661: 4652: 4651: 4485:pet food recalls 4360:Dual circulation 4111:Stock Exchanges 4040:Financial system 4006: 4005: 3945:Trading partners 3691:Renewable energy 3619: 3618: 3386: 3385: 3374:Economy of China 3367: 3360: 3353: 3344: 3343: 3338: 3337: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3275: 3262: 3261: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3199: 3186: 3185: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3120: 3114: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3063: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3050: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3024: 3009: 3003: 2999:The World bank. 2997: 2991: 2990: 2968: 2959: 2958: 2936: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2854: 2843: 2842: 2820: 2811: 2810: 2777: 2734: 2733: 2700: 2679: 2678: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2602: 2593: 2592: 2571: 2558: 2557: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2508: 2488: 2477: 2476: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2436: 2425: 2424: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2357: 2346: 2345: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2286: 2267: 2266: 2236: 2221: 2220: 2210: 2184: 2178: 2177: 2128: 2093: 2092: 2074: 2061: 2060: 2030: 1993: 1992: 1966: 1923: 1922: 1889: 1840: 1839: 1816:Hou, Li (2021). 1813: 1798: 1797: 1779: 1770: 1769: 1739: 1712: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1680: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1639: 1621: 1613: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1577: 1569: 1563: 1562: 1540: 1527: 1526: 1503:. 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4333: 4265: 4172: 3985: 3971:Labor relations 3949: 3867: 3800: 3762: 3648:Pharmaceuticals 3480: 3414:Five-year plans 3390: 3376: 3371: 3341: 3326: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3276: 3265: 3250: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3200: 3189: 3182: 3174:. p. 261. 3164: 3160: 3153: 3135: 3131: 3122: 3121: 3117: 3112:Wayback Machine 3104: 3100: 3085: 3064: 3057: 3048: 3046: 3035: 3031: 3022: 3020: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2987: 2969: 2962: 2955: 2937: 2933: 2923: 2921: 2911: 2907: 2884: 2855: 2846: 2839: 2821: 2814: 2799: 2778: 2737: 2722: 2701: 2682: 2667: 2643: 2639: 2624: 2603: 2596: 2589: 2572: 2561: 2554: 2536: 2532: 2517: 2489: 2480: 2469:"Deng Xiaoping" 2467: 2466: 2462: 2455: 2437: 2428: 2413: 2405:. p. 264. 2395: 2391: 2376: 2368:. p. 205. 2358: 2349: 2342: 2324: 2320: 2305: 2287: 2270: 2255: 2237: 2224: 2185: 2181: 2158: 2129: 2096: 2089: 2075: 2064: 2049: 2031: 1996: 1981: 1967: 1926: 1911: 1893:Weber, Isabella 1890: 1843: 1836: 1814: 1801: 1794: 1780: 1773: 1758: 1740: 1715: 1706: 1704: 1699: 1698: 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5364: 5362:Climate policy 5359: 5357:Climate change 5353: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5263:Central Plains 5252: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5240: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5194: 5192: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5184: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5134: 5132: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5110:Extreme points 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5049: 5048: 5047: 5042: 5032: 5026: 5024: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4918:Three Kingdoms 4915: 4910: 4904: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4888:Warring States 4885: 4880: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4858: 4852: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4818: 4812: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4801: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4779: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4748:Historiography 4745: 4740: 4734: 4732: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4707: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4684: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4656: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4584: 4579: 4572: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4550: 4545: 4539: 4537: 4535:Related topics 4531: 4530: 4528: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4478: 4472: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4389: 4387: 4381: 4380: 4378: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4341: 4339: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4284:Social welfare 4281: 4275: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4182: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4171: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4163: 4162: 4161: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4140: 4139: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4117: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4010: 3999: 3997: 3987: 3986: 3984: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3905:Postal history 3902: 3900:Communications 3897: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3879: 3877:infrastructure 3869: 3868: 3866: 3865: 3864: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3843: 3838: 3837: 3836: 3834:Oil refineries 3831: 3821: 3816: 3810: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3772: 3770: 3764: 3763: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3739: 3738: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3668: 3663: 3654: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3629: 3628: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3576:Electric power 3573: 3571:Electric motor 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3502: 3501: 3490: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3479: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3466:Historical GDP 3463: 3458: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3424:Iron rice bowl 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3400: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3370: 3369: 3362: 3355: 3347: 3340: 3339: 3324: 3318:. p. 19. 3302: 3295: 3263: 3248: 3226: 3219: 3187: 3180: 3158: 3151: 3145:. p. 34. 3129: 3115: 3098: 3083: 3055: 3029: 3004: 2992: 2985: 2960: 2953: 2931: 2905: 2882: 2844: 2837: 2812: 2797: 2781:Ang, Yuen Yuen 2735: 2720: 2704:Zhao, Suisheng 2680: 2665: 2637: 2622: 2594: 2587: 2559: 2552: 2530: 2515: 2478: 2460: 2453: 2426: 2411: 2389: 2374: 2347: 2340: 2318: 2303: 2268: 2253: 2222: 2179: 2156: 2094: 2087: 2062: 2047: 1994: 1979: 1924: 1909: 1841: 1834: 1799: 1792: 1771: 1756: 1713: 1692: 1651: 1608: 1596: 1564: 1557: 1528: 1513: 1491: 1476:"China | Data" 1467: 1453:978-0262640640 1452: 1422: 1399: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1227: 1226: 1215: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1156: 1153: 1003: 997: 991: 985: 966: 963: 930:banking system 919:Central Huijin 813: 810: 672: 669: 632: 629: 572: 571: 563: 562: 532:Main article: 529: 526: 515: 512: 472: 469: 403: 400: 313:heavy industry 309:Five-Year Plan 288: 285: 219:Five-Year Plan 202:Common Program 163: 160: 118: 115: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6927: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6888: 6885: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6863:Canton System 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6839: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6819: 6817: 6815: 6811: 6805: 6802: 6798: 6795: 6792: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6752: 6748: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6703: 6698: 6696: 6691: 6689: 6684: 6683: 6680: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6654: 6650: 6647: 6643: 6642: 6638: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6614: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6573: 6572:Protestantism 6570: 6568: 6565: 6564: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6557:Folk religion 6555: 6553: 6550: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6537: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6505: 6501: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6461:Ethnic groups 6459: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6449: 6445: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6374:Four Beauties 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6345: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6282: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6225: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6213:Urban society 6211: 6209: 6206: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6169:Social issues 6167: 6165: 6162: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6147:Rural society 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6109: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6094: 6093: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6080: 6077: 6076: 6075: 6072: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6047:Chinese Dream 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6022: 6012: 6011:Space program 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5980: 5974: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5962: 5959: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5845: 5842: 5838: 5835: 5834: 5833: 5830: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5773: 5761: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5753: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5744: 5741: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5676: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5662: 5661:State Council 5659: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5638: 5635: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5604: 5603: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5547:Civil service 5545: 5544: 5542: 5540: 5536: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5457: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5399: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5346: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5153:South Central 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5090: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5053: 5050: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5019: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4940:Jin (266–420) 4938: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4897: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4845: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4783:Ethnic groups 4781: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4700: 4698: 4693: 4691: 4686: 4685: 4682: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4657: 4655: 4647: 4646: 4642: 4641: 4638: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4611: 4610:Made in China 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4587:Globalization 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4532: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4365:Go Out policy 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4336: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4175: 4167: 4164: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4133: 4130: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4052: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4015: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4001: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3885:Trade history 3883: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3848: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3826: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3814:Energy policy 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3782: 3779: 3777: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3765: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3737: 3734: 3733: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3675: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3643:Pearl farming 3641: 3639: 3638:Online gaming 3636: 3634: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3623: 3622: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3541:Biotechnology 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3500: 3497: 3496: 3495: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3363: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3349: 3348: 3345: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3298: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3230: 3222: 3220:9780197689363 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3183: 3181:9789087284411 3177: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3154: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3077:. p. 8. 3076: 3072: 3068: 3062: 3060: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3018: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2988: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2967: 2965: 2956: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2935: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2840: 2838:9780300266900 2834: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2817: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2666:0-19-520151-5 2662: 2659:. p. 6. 2658: 2654: 2650: 2649: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2619: 2615: 2612:. New Haven: 2611: 2607: 2601: 2599: 2590: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2555: 2553:9780521588638 2549: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2495:. 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