Education in Mongolia

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of capitalism led 36.3% of the Mongolian population below the poverty line by 1995. At one point more than 15% of rural children were being put to work herding every year, and over 8% of urban children were working in cities rather than attending school. Some herders questioned the need for education if their children were only going to be tending flocks. The dropout phenomenon was exacerbated by the fact that many children needed to attend distant boarding schools. At one point these schools implemented a "Meat Requirement" to help cover the cost of feeding students. A family had to pay 70 kg of meat per child a year. The "Meat Requirement" was in essence a school fee that some families could not afford; it has since been rescinded.

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opportunities presented by the high level of economic growth, which has brought more resources into the sector. However, it showed that as Mongolia emerges onto the world stage, the disparity between rich and poor could leave many marginalized when it comes to benefiting from education. The report argued that the Mongolian government has made an immense effort to develop the education sector at all levels since its transition to democracy with an admirable openness and willingness to progress towards its further development. This was particularly noted in accommodating for Mongolia's unique country characteristics such as the nomadic lifestyle, low population density in remote areas, and striving toward meeting international standards.

227: 514:, which involved extensive pharmacopeia and training in herbal medicines, higher education was esoteric and unworldly. Major monasteries supported four colleges: philosophy, doctrine, and protocol; medicine; mathematics, astrology, and divination; and demonology and demon suppression. In the early 20th century, officials and wealthy families hired tutors for their children. Government offices operated informal apprenticeships that taught the intricacies of written records, standard forms, and accounting. Official Mongolian sources, which tended to depict the prerevolutionary period as one of total backwardness, probably underestimated the level of 189:

view of the role and influence of the international volunteers, with 67% of respondents regarding them as having played a crucial role in education. While just over half of respondents had an experience of working with international volunteers, 94% of respondents were willing to work with them in the future. At this stage in Mongolia’s development, the relevance and impact of international volunteering were highlighted when addressing these challenges and future priorities in taking the education sector forward to achieve its ultimate goal of "Education for All."

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Culture. In the summer, all students had a work semester, in which they helped with the harvest, formed "shock work" teams for construction projects, or went to work in the Soviet Union or another Com-econ country. In early 1989, the education authorities announced that third-year and fourth-year engineering students would be told which enterprise they would be assigned to after graduation, so that their training could be focused on practical ends in mind.

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However, there were 98,031 students at the public universities compared to 31,197 private students, indicating the continued importance of publicly funded higher education in Mongolia. Under communist rule all higher education was provided free of charge. Since the early 1990s, fees have been introduced, though the government offers grants and scholarships. The quality of education in the privately owned institutions is usually perceived as inferior.

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introduced, the Mongolian education system was reformed through decentralization and handing control over to local provincial governments. Before this, the government highly subsidized education, with education spending, consuming 27% of the budget in 1985 (by 1999 this number dropped below 15% of the total budget). Every child, no matter how rural, could go to well-equipped schools that had some of the lowest student-to-teacher ratios in the world.

1632: 425:. The focus of these distance education programs is on rural populations that need more skills than their urban counterparts. The radio classes are conducted using booklets sent to the participants and video instruction at learning centres. They are designed to help adults learn about topics that they might find useful in everyday life. Subjects such as nutrition, first aid, and hygiene are taught to help improve health. Classes ranging from 24: 214:

There were then two years of upper-secondary non-compulsory education that either have a vocational, technical, or general education focus. The expansion began in 2004 with the official school entry age dropping from age 8 to 7. A further expansion was set to take place in 2008 with the entry grade level dropping one more year to age 6. The goal is to have a 12-year 6-4-2 system for primary and secondary education.

634: 563:. It took from 1941 to 1946—sources differ on the date—to implement the change completely. Mongolian authorities announced that universal adult literacy had been achieved by 1968. A Russian-owned printing shop, opened in Yihe Huree in the early twentieth century, turned out Mongolian translations of Russian novels and political tracts; in 1915 it printed Mongolia's first newspaper, 185:

there were still many challenges that remain to be tackled. The findings also showed that amongst all stakeholders, there was an overwhelming majority who gave a negative response when asked about the performance of the sector at present; this was in the quality of education (68%), access to education (83%), and the inclusiveness of the system for disadvantaged groups (76%).

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copy, or get a copy from colleagues abroad. About 83% of scholars use the Internet for research, which is about the same percentage of English speakers. The increasing importance of the Internet in research and global academic exchanges has pushed more scholars to favor English over the language that used to dominate Mongolia's academia, Russian.

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in Ulaanbaatar, which was founded in 1942 (as Choybalsan University) with three departments: education, medicine, and veterinary medicine. The faculty was Russian, as was the language of instruction. In 1983 the university's engineering institute and Russian-language teacher training institute became

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Higher education in Mongolia came with the communist revolution in the early 20th century and was based on a Soviet model. Since its inception the higher education system has seen significant growth to this day. As of 2003 there were 178 colleges and universities, though only 48 of those were public.

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published a report on the education sector which looked at progress, challenges, and future priorities given the current socio-economic changes in Mongolia. The report, which was launched to commemorate IYV+10 (10th Anniversary of the International Year of Volunteers), showed that there were numerous

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This situation changed when the privatization of herds and the economic downturn of the 1990s put pressure on the financial stability of families and strained school budgets. This led to an increasing number of children being taken from school and put to work helping their families. The introduction

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Primary education has experienced some turbulence with the rise of free markets and increasing urbanization. As more families move to the cities urban schools are suffering from overcrowding while rural schools suffer from low attendance. After the communist regime stepped down and free markets were

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programs promoting basic skill development. About 100,000 of Mongolia's 1,200,000 adults are taking part in some form of distance education. The program often uses radio communications to overcome the problem of distance. This is particularly suitable to nomads, since their mobile lifestyles are not

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Mongolia has a tradition of respect for knowledge and wisdom. Chinggis Khaan summoned scholars to The Council of Sages, highly respected helping run the state and domestic and foreign policies. Members were ranked according to function; for instance, some had to record the Khaan’s orders or announce

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Besides Mongolian State University there were seven other institutions of higher learning: the Institute of Medicine, the Institute of Agriculture, the Institute of Economics, the State Pedagogical Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Russian Language, and the Institute of Physical

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According to the ranking of Mongolia's high schools based on university entrance exam results, nine out of ten schools were private (with tuition), while three were Turkish schools. In Ulaanbaatar, there are several private secondary schools that have instruction in English and Mongolian, and just a

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Education expanded slowly throughout the 1920s. As late as 1934, when 55 percent of all party members were illiterate, secular state schools enrolled only 2.7 percent of all children between the ages of eight and seventeen, while 13 percent of that age group were in monastic schools. Suppression of

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As of 2003, there were 688 primary and secondary schools with about 528,000 students and 20,725 teachers. There were 32 vocational and technical training centers with 20,000 students and over 800 teachers. General education starts at age 6. In 2015, Mongolian children enroll in school at the age of

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Boys suffered the most from the dropout rates because they were more likely to be needed tending herds and were often seen as problem students. Fortunately, primary education in Mongolia has largely rebounded and school dropout rates are decreasing. However, the quick growth of dropouts during the

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was the language of instruction, the canonical, and liturgical language, and it was used at the lower levels of education. Higher-level education was available in the major monasteries, and often many years were required to complete formal degrees, which included training in logic and debate. With

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In concluding what VSO Mongolia achieved in its education program over the last 20 years, the report showed that international volunteers have and continue to make a significant impact in the development of the education sector. Stakeholders who took part in this research generally held a positive

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The report also showed that Mongolian people have always valued education over other attributes and have habitually made it their priority to educate their children. Due to these efforts, the findings showed that overall the parents were satisfied with their children’s progress at school. However,

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resources are underdeveloped and not satisfactory to scholars. Furthermore, it may not be possible for scholars to subscribe to professional journals because of cost and language barriers. The most popular ways for scholars to find information are to borrow articles from colleagues, use a library

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As in many post-socialist countries, Mongolia's school system, previously based on the ten-year school, has been shifting towards twelve-year education. The official school entrance age was lowered to six starting in 2008. Compulsory education is nine years. The school year begins on 1 September.

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The system for lower-level education in Mongolia has been similar to the one used during communist times, though the government has begun reforms to expand it. The original system included four years of compulsory schooling followed by a further four years of compulsory lower-secondary education.

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has its own Education and Culture Department which administers formal and non-formal education programs within its borders. Each aimag is responsible for developing the content of their programs and implementing them. For non-formal distance education, there are two country-wide programs: "The

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Mongolia has a high literacy rate, consistently rated around 98%. For comparison, the World Bank, which supports the above figure, puts Mongolia’s more prosperous neighbor China’s literacy rate at 91%. Mongolia benefited from compulsory primary education under the communist regime in the 20th

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to Mongolian children were operating in the capital. Its graduates, in a pattern that was to become familiar, went to cities in Russia for further education. Perhaps in response to the challenge of the few secular schools, monasteries in the 1920s ran schools for boys who did not have to take

446:, and classes on math and current events. Non-formal education is one of the only ways for students who dropped out of school to attain a primary school equivalency education. From 2000 to 2004, 28,356 students earned this equivalency through the non-formal programme. 437:

are taught as ways to help rural people improve skills and possibly generate income. Likewise, basic business classes on production, accounting, and marketing are taught to improve rural residents' financial situation. There are courses using classic

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Scholars suffer from Mongolia’s isolation from the world's knowledge society. Mongolian scholars tend to be dissatisfied with their access to information in general and some are still uncomfortable with online databases. In many cases, university

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Mongolian as their primary language may help literacy in that resources can be largely focused on one language. The Mongolian government's non-formal distance education programs also provide opportunities for citizens to learn to read and write.

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them to the people. In 1264, Chinggis’s grandson Khubilai Khaan founded the Institute of Learned Scholars, from which came the concept of the Academy. Here, all the wise with their own tasks and duties were ranked and named.

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Choijoo, Altangerel. "Mongolia Teacher Training Survey." Global Strategic Planning Meeting on Teacher Training in Human Rights Education, June 2005. Accessed from the University of Minnesota Human Rights Library, 9 July

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the monasteries in 1938 and 1939 closed the monastic schools, and the state schools expanded steadily throughout the 1940s and the 1950s. In 1941 the traditional Mongol script, based on the Uighur script, was replaced by

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National Program of Non-Formal Education Development" and the "National Program for Distance Education." Pedagogical training for the instructors is taken care of by the Center for Non-formal Education, which is part of

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has undergone colossal changes in the 20th century. The education reforms during communist times were a stark break with traditional education that was often religious and esoteric. These reforms were modeled on

1034:"Weidman, John C. "Developing the Mongolia Education Sector Strategy 2000-2005: Reflections of a Consultant for the Asian Development Bank." Current Issues in Comparative Education, 2001. Retrieved 3 July 2008" 817:

Robinson, Bernadette. "In the Green Desert: Non-Formal Distance Education Project for Women in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia." Education for All: Making it Work Innovation Series, 12. UNESCO, Paris, France (1997)

299:). Currently, there are three public schools with Cambridge programs, providing the opportunity for students nationwide to access international education while experimenting with and implementing the reform. 715: 624:

economically turbulent 1990s illustrates how fragile access to education can be in Mongolia. And while legal safeguards guarantee eight years of primary education, there is no way to enforce these laws.

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in the 1990s has had some negative impacts on education in Mongolia, though these setbacks have been ameliorated some by an improving economy and policy reforms. Many adults benefit from the non-formal

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Steiner-Khamsi and Stolpe (2005). Non-Traveling "Best Practices" for a Traveling Population: The Case of Nomadic Education in Mongolia. European Educational Research Journal. Retrieved 9 July 2008.

458:. There is a National Education Inspection Service that monitors the programs, so it is not clear how much control the national-level of the Ministry of Education is compared to the aimag-level. 1132:

Mongolia entry in World Data on Education website: International Bureau of Education – United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (IBE-UNESCO). Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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separate establishments, called the Polytechnic Institute and the Institute of Russian Language, respectively. The Polytechnic Institute, with 5,000 students, concentrated on

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Mongolia has an extensive, state-financed pre-school education system. There are over 700 state and private kindergartens (name for daycare). During socialist times, every

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Krätli, Saverio. Education Provision to Nomadic Pastoralists: A Literature Review. Brighton, U.K.: Institute of Development Studies, 2001. 84 p. Retrieved 5 July 2008.

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authority in 1911. A Mongol-language school under Russian auspices opened in Yihe Huree in 1912; much of the teaching of the 47 pupils was done by Buryat Mongols from

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for pupils from the countryside. Many of these sum schools only go to the ninth grade. Pupils who want to complete secondary school have to attend schools in the

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Yadamsuren, Borchuluun. "Report of the Study on Information Needs of Mongolian Scholars." American Center for Mongolian Studies Library. Retrieved 24 June 2008.

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The non-formal distance education program makes use of "enlightenment centers," often in schools or government offices, to distribute educational materials.

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Developing the Mongolia Education Sector Strategy 2000-2005. John C. Weidman, 2001. Current Issues in Comparative Education. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

426: 1860: 1146: 1121: 1064: 434: 1231: 1090: 522: 177: 1117:

Mongolia. Okhidoi Otgonjargal, 2003. The International Comparative Higher Education Finance and Accessibility Project. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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had at least one nursery school and a kindergarten. Currently, there are only kindergartens that enroll children over the age of 3. In

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Del Rosario, Mercedes. "Mongolian Dropout Study." Mongolian Education Alliance, Ulaanbataar, Mongolia, 2005. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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Literacy Resource Centre of Mongolia (LRCM). National Centre for Non-Formal and Distance Education (NFDE). Retrieved 12 June 2008.

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Historically most of the Mongolian population could not read. As late as 1934, 55% of communist party members were illiterate.

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education systems and greatly expanded access to education for Mongolian citizens. Among the changes was a transition from the

41: 2088: 1511: 673: 67: 1141: 816: 2037: 1179: 1137:

Robinson, B. (1995). Mongolia in transition: a role for distance education. Open Learning, 10, 3-14. Retrieved 7 July 2008.

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The Changing Structure of Higher Education in Mongolia. World Education News and Reviews, July 2003. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

1106: 686: 291:. As a result, numerous public and private schools have been established, offering Cambridge Pathway (Primary, Checkpoint, 1556: 1126: 1122:

Mongolian Higher Education in Transition. John. C. Weidman, 1999. International Higher Education. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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Baasanjav, Mijid; Munkhbaatar, Begzjav and Lkhamsuren, Udval. "The Changing Structure of Higher Education in Mongolia."

74: 205:, there are some privately run nursery schools and kindergartens; many offer language training, for example, Russian. 2081: 107: 1187: 1096: 665: 369:. Much instruction was in Russian, reflecting the lack of Mongol-language texts in advanced and specialized fields. 2030: 1872: 321: 966: 56: 1787: 1256: 1166: 325: 1221: 1216: 1174: 2398: 2311: 2142: 1797: 1346: 45: 521:

The earliest example of public education in Mongolia is a secular school set up by the Buddhist monk and poet

2124: 2047: 1926: 1697: 1661: 413: 260:, though of mixed quality. Ulaanbaatar also has some foreign-language themed public schools, for example for 785: 2166: 1845: 1809: 1792: 1772: 1551: 1456: 1112:

Higher Education Systems. International Association of Universities online database. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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Del Rosario, Mercedes. "Mongolian Dropout Study." Mongolian Education Alliance Ulaanbataar, Mongolia, 2005.

727:"Education." Mongolian Embassy to the United States. Mongolianembassy.us. No date. Retrieved 3 July 2008. 2240: 2230: 2071: 1887: 643: 858:

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, New York, 2003. Retrieved 9 July 2008.

2009: 1953: 1894: 1877: 1850: 1814: 1249: 892: 856:"Surch Amidarya: Learning for Life Non-formal Basic Distance Education in Mongolia Impact Evaluation." 550:

monastic vows. Such schools used the Mongol language and the curricula had heavily religious content.

2296: 2250: 2025: 1909: 1882: 1506: 1471: 1426: 649: 226: 2268: 2225: 2178: 2129: 2059: 1991: 1802: 1777: 1767: 1727: 1654: 1396: 1391: 1286: 1278: 81: 726: 2114: 2064: 1516: 1491: 1406: 1386: 1336: 1306: 1296: 770: 545:. In the same year, a military school with Russian instructors opened. By 1914 a school teaching 140:

was greatly expanded as most of the population enjoyed free primary school. However, the move to

34: 967:"(Mongolian site) National Centre for Non Formal and Distance Education. Retrieved 12 June 2008" 2291: 2119: 2076: 2014: 1782: 1602: 1481: 1476: 1356: 1222:

Mongolian National Council for Higher Education Accreditation website. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

2152: 2134: 2052: 2042: 2004: 1833: 1752: 1496: 1451: 1421: 1321: 1040: 992:

Omniglot, "Writing Systems and Languages of the World." Omniglot.com. Retrieved 12 June 2008.

943: 296: 2329: 2301: 1979: 1702: 1521: 1436: 1416: 1301: 1291: 855: 288: 8: 2361: 2260: 2147: 2102: 1867: 1689: 1576: 1566: 1501: 1466: 1401: 1381: 1371: 1331: 1316: 1311: 1180:

https://web.archive.org/web/20080917201408/http://www.wes.org/ewenr/03july/Practical.htm

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century, continuing in a similar form today. The fact that 90% of the population speaks

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Education in Mongolia. World Education News and Reviews, 2003. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

954: 2377: 2342: 2316: 2306: 2286: 2245: 1941: 1936: 1631: 1446: 1411: 1366: 1361: 867: 669: 1722: 1203: 1097:

Mongolia Dossiers. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

1065:"Mongolia: Education for All." Asian Development Bank, 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2013. 601: 585: 546: 526: 506: 287:, the Ministry of Education has undergone a major educational reform to match with 273: 269: 265: 261: 242: 198: 129: 1217:

Consortium of Mongolian Universities and Colleges website. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

1147:"Education for All." Asian Development Bank. Adb.org, 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2013. 944:"Mongolia" Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Retrieved 7 May 2008. 357:. More than 90 percent of the faculty were Mongolian; teachers also came from the 2188: 1931: 1762: 1188:

http://www.vsointernational.org/Images/mongolian-education-sector_tcm76-32635.pdf

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Mongolian Education Alliance Ulaanbataar, Mongolia, 2005. Retrieved 9 July 2008.

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Mongolian Education Alliance Ulaanbataar, Mongolia, 2005. Retrieved 9 July 2008.

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Mongolian Education Alliance Ulaanbataar, Mongolia, 2005. Retrieved 9 July 2008.

694: 746:"www.baabar.mn | Шилдэг нийтлэлчдийн клуб | Дунд сургуулиудын чансаа" 366: 346: 749: 2392: 1958: 1742: 1707: 1625: 638: 593: 1963: 1747: 1732: 1136: 1017: 1002: 589: 538: 358: 338: 145: 125: 2334: 1899: 1855: 1635: 1022:

Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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Mongolian embassy to the U.S. Education website. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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The Mongolian Education Sector and the Role of International Volunteers

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to reform the secondary education on par with international standards.

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Worden, Robert L., and Savada, Andrea Matles, editors. "Education" in

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Worden, Robert L., and Savada, Andrea Matles, editors. "Education" in

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Danzan Ravjaa: The Heritage of the "Terrible Noble Saint of the Gobi."

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In 2020, the Ministry of Education announced its collaboration with

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Education in Mongolia traditionally was controlled by the Buddhist

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programmes sponsored by the government in conjunction with foreign

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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and outside government organizations, has implemented non-formal

253: 337:. Mongolian State University, with about 4,000 students, taught 2321: 2198: 577: 483:

Government of Denmark (funded the Gobi Nomadic Women’s Project)

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Official website Ministry of Education, Culture and Science

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Mongolian literacy has its start near the beginning of the

716:"Mongolia." World Bank, June 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2008. 480:

UNICEF program to help children who drop out from school.

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Official website Mongolian State University of Education

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Secular education began soon after the collapse of the

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Education USA Mongolia Centers. Retrieved 3 July 2008.

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Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science (Mongolia)

553: 48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 899:Danzanravjaa.org, no date. Retrieved 27 June 2008. 208: 157:. Today education in Mongolia is overseen by the 2390: 1204:http://www.un-mongolia.mn/web/news300611mon.html 868:"Mongolia: Fostering Partnerships with Parents." 399: 474: 1662: 1257: 1196:http://www.un-mongolia.mn/web/news300611.html 1084: 909:"Mongolia" World Bank Education at a Glance. 687:"Sedgwick, Robert. "Education in Mongolia." 285:Cambridge Assessment International Education 166:Cambridge Assessment International Education 854:Robinson, Clinton and Otgonbayar, Chultem. 410:Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science 376: 159:Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science 1669: 1655: 1264: 1250: 923:No date. World Bank. Retrieved 8 May 2008. 911:No date. World Bank. Retrieved 8 May 2008. 921:"China" World Bank Education at a Glance. 108:Learn how and when to remove this message 664:Tsolmon Gundenbal & Aliénor Salmon, 303:few that have English-only instruction. 225: 218:six for 12 years (5-4-3) of education. 192: 2391: 600:to create what became the traditional 1676: 1650: 1271: 1245: 877:UNICEF, 2004. Retrieved 9 July 2008. 464: 241:Schools in sum centers usually have 46:adding citations to reliable sources 17: 532: 492: 311: 13: 1212:http://www.undp.mn/news300611.html 554:Creation of a public school system 306: 171: 14: 2410: 1157: 1823: 1630: 1621: 1620: 774:World Education News and Reviews 689:World Education News and Reviews 632: 565:Niysleliyn Hureeniy Sonon Bichig 412:, and often in conjunction with 324:. The most prominent one is the 22: 1069: 1058: 1026: 1011: 996: 985: 959: 948: 937: 926: 914: 902: 880: 861: 848: 835: 822: 326:National University of Mongolia 252:In Ulaanbaatar and cities like 209:Primary and secondary education 33:needs additional citations for 1588:British Indian Ocean Territory 810: 797: 779: 764: 738: 720: 709: 691:, 2003. Retrieved 3 July 2008" 679: 658: 518:, but it was undoubtedly low. 1: 627: 567:(News of the Capital Huree). 400:Non-formal distance education 470:Gobi Nomadic Women's Project 132:, from 1941 to 1946, to the 130:traditional Mongolian script 7: 1861:Historical cities and towns 1798:Mongolian People's Republic 570: 475:Funding and support sources 121:Mongolia's education system 10: 2415: 1020:Mongolia: A Country Study. 1005:Mongolia: A Country Study. 843:"Mongolian Dropout Study." 830:"Mongolian Dropout Study." 805:"Mongolian Dropout Study." 487: 390: 221: 2355: 2259: 2174: 2165: 2110: 2101: 1987: 1978: 1841: 1832: 1821: 1688: 1616: 1575: 1535: 1277: 1085:Further reading and links 895:17 September 2011 at the 791:30 September 2011 at the 650:Federal Research Division 610: 2038:Administrative divisions 1728:Eastern Turkic Khaganate 1337:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 1172:(in English and Russian) 1164:(in English and Russian) 873:16 November 2018 at the 732:12 February 2009 at the 377:Research and scholarship 322:universities in Mongolia 1598:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 841:Del Rosario, Mercedes. 828:Del Rosario, Mercedes. 803:Del Rosario, Mercedes. 423:landline communications 289:international standards 57:"Education in Mongolia" 2292:Goyol Fashion Festival 2082:Chief of General Staff 604:, or "Mongol Bichig." 449:Each of Mongolia's 21 283:In collaboration with 234: 2399:Education in Mongolia 2053:Third neighbor policy 1753:Northern Yuan dynasty 229: 2312:Traditional medicine 2031:Constitutional Court 1873:Environmental issues 1703:Prehistoric Mongolia 1512:United Arab Emirates 697:on 17 September 2008 193:Pre-school education 42:improve this article 1997:State Great Khural 1788:Soviet intervention 1539:limited recognition 676:) VSO Mongolia 2011 501:and was limited to 230:School children in 2236:List of Mongolians 2143:Telecommunications 1783:Chinese occupation 1237:UNESCO in Mongolia 973:on 27 January 2012 418:distance education 361:, Eastern Europe, 235: 151:distance education 2386: 2385: 2351: 2350: 2161: 2160: 2097: 2096: 2089:Political parties 2048:Foreign relations 1974: 1973: 1644: 1643: 1581:other territories 1272:Education in Asia 674:978-1-903697-10-8 592:commissioned the 510:the exception of 465:Specific projects 118: 117: 110: 92: 2406: 2371: 2364: 2338: 2337:(New Year's Day) 2325: 2277: 2204:Southern Mongols 2172: 2171: 2138: 2108: 2107: 2018: 2000: 1985: 1984: 1839: 1838: 1827: 1723:Rouran Khaganate 1671: 1664: 1657: 1648: 1647: 1634: 1624: 1623: 1593:Christmas Island 1279:Sovereign states 1266: 1259: 1252: 1243: 1242: 1210: 1202: 1194: 1186: 1173: 1165: 1078: 1073: 1067: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1053: 1051: 1045: 1039:. 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Retrieved 695:the original 688: 681: 660: 644: 631: 622: 618: 614: 606: 590:Genghis Khan 583: 574: 564: 557: 536: 523:Dazan Ravjaa 520: 496: 469: 468: 460: 448: 408:through its 403: 394: 380: 371: 359:Soviet Union 339:pure science 319: 315: 301: 282: 256:, there are 251: 240: 236: 216: 212: 196: 187: 183: 178:VSO Mongolia 175: 163: 146:free markets 120: 119: 104: 95: 85: 78: 71: 64: 52: 40:Please help 35:verification 32: 15: 2115:Agriculture 2015:Government 1900:Gobi Desert 1856:Ulaanbaatar 1636:Asia portal 1537:States with 1457:Philippines 1397:South Korea 1392:North Korea 1287:Afghanistan 598:Tatar-Tonga 539:Manchu Qing 499:monasteries 440:fairy tales 343:mathematics 331:engineering 232:Ulaanbaatar 203:Ulaanbaatar 136:alphabet. 98:August 2011 2324:(festival) 2302:Literature 2137:(currency) 2022:Judiciary 1758:Four Oirat 1517:Uzbekistan 1492:Tajikistan 1407:Kyrgyzstan 1387:Kazakhstan 1307:Bangladesh 1297:Azerbaijan 628:References 406:government 68:newspapers 2274:Biyelgee 2211:Education 2125:Companies 2043:Elections 2017:(cabinet) 2005:President 1927:Mountains 1905:Grassland 1834:Geography 1768:Qing rule 1603:Hong Kong 1557:Palestine 1482:Sri Lanka 1477:Singapore 1357:Indonesia 1050:21 August 977:21 August 442:to teach 355:philology 351:economics 249:centers. 142:democracy 2393:Category 2378:Category 2330:Religion 2221:Language 2077:Military 1980:Politics 1915:Khövsgöl 1698:Timeline 1682:articles 1678:Mongolia 1626:Category 1547:Abkhazia 1497:Thailand 1452:Pakistan 1432:Mongolia 1427:Maldives 1422:Malaysia 1322:Cambodia 893:Archived 871:Archived 789:Archived 730:Archived 571:Literacy 561:Cyrillic 516:literacy 512:medicine 444:literacy 138:Literacy 134:Cyrillic 2362:Outline 2322:Naadam 2287:Cuisine 2276:(dance) 2261:Culture 2194:Buryats 2189:Khalkha 2184:Mongols 2167:Society 2148:Tourism 2135:Tögrög 2120:Banking 2103:Economy 1959:Selenga 1942:Khentii 1937:Khangai 1888:Mammals 1868:Climate 1846:Borders 1718:Xianbei 1713:Xiongnu 1690:History 1522:Vietnam 1437:Myanmar 1417:Lebanon 1347:Georgia 1302:Bahrain 1292:Armenia 756:27 June 701:19 July 596:scribe 547:Russian 543:Siberia 525:at the 507:Tibetan 488:History 431:cooking 391:Science 384:library 367:Britain 274:English 270:Turkish 266:Chinese 262:Russian 254:Erdenet 222:Schools 82:scholar 2282:Cinema 2216:Health 2199:Oirats 1964:Orkhon 1954:Rivers 1851:Cities 1680: 1567:Taiwan 1502:Turkey 1467:Russia 1402:Kuwait 1382:Jordan 1372:Israel 1332:Cyprus 1317:Brunei 1312:Bhutan 672: 641:. 611:Issues 594:Uyghur 578:Khalka 451:aimags 365:, and 363:France 353:, and 335:mining 278:German 276:, and 126:Soviet 84: 77: 70: 63: 55: 2369:Index 2343:Sport 2317:Music 2307:Media 2246:Women 1932:Altai 1910:Lakes 1895:Flora 1883:Birds 1878:Fauna 1608:Macau 1527:Yemen 1487:Syria 1462:Qatar 1442:Nepal 1377:Japan 1352:India 1342:Egypt 1327:China 1092:2008. 1044:(PDF) 1037:(PDF) 818:1-41. 503:monks 293:IGCSE 247:aimag 89:JSTOR 75:books 2065:LGBT 1447:Oman 1412:Laos 1367:Iraq 1362:Iran 1052:2011 979:2011 758:2014 703:2008 670:ISBN 414:NGOs 404:The 341:and 333:and 155:NGOs 144:and 61:news 1920:Uvs 1579:and 668:, ( 433:to 429:to 199:sum 44:by 2395:: 648:. 505:. 349:, 345:, 295:, 280:. 272:, 268:, 264:, 161:. 1670:e 1663:t 1656:v 1265:e 1258:t 1251:v 1054:. 981:. 760:. 705:. 652:. 111:) 105:( 100:) 96:( 86:· 79:· 72:· 65:· 38:.

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