939:
1144:"Rationalization" meant higher productivity and greater efficiency, promising science would bring prosperity. More generally it promised a new level of modernity and was applied to economic production and consumption as well as public administration. Various versions of rationalization were promoted by industrialists and Social Democrats, by engineers and architects, by educators and academics, by middle class feminists and social workers, by government officials and politicians of many parties. It was ridiculed by the extremists in the Communist movement. As ideology and practice, rationalization challenged and transformed not only machines, factories, and vast business enterprises but also the lives of middle-class and working-class Germans.
649:
835:
661:
815:
opinion. …This expenditure for the protection of fish and game is clearly a wise economy, tending to prevent the annihilation of birds and other animals valuable to mankind which might otherwise become extinct. It may be said that
Massachusetts and her sister States have suffered irreparable loss by carelessly allowing, for generations past, indiscriminate waste of animal life.
1037:(lean enterprise, lean production, or simply "lean") refers to a business idea that considered the expenditure of resources for anything other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. Today the Lean concept is broadening to include a greater range of strategic goals, not just cost-cutting and efficiency.
1085:, who had outgrown socialism and saw the utopia of a scientifically up-to-date society supervised by experts such as themselves. Churchill in 1908 formed an alliance with the Webbs, announcing the goal of a "National Minimum", covering hours, working conditions, and wages – it was a safety net below which the individual would not be allowed to fall.
1187:(1900–1993) brought the efficiency movement to Japan after World War II, teaching top management how to improve design (and thus service), product quality, testing and sales (the last through global markets), especially using statistical methods. Deming then brought his methods back to the U.S. in the form of quality control called
1164:'s support, was a veritable citadel of socialist Taylorism. Fascinated by Taylorism and Fordism, Gastev has led a popular movement for the “scientific organization of labor” (Nauchnaya Organizatsiya Truda, or NOT). Because of its emphasis on the cognitive components of labor, some scholars consider Gastev's NOT to represent a
1056:
movement supported by prominent figures across the political spectrum who disparaged sentimental humanitarianism and identified waste as a mistake that could no longer be tolerated. The movement took place in two waves; the first wave from 1899 to 1905 was made urgent by the inefficiencies and failures in the
929:
he argued, "Efficiency means greater production with less effort and at less cost, through the elimination of unnecessary waste, human and material. How else can we hope to attain our social ideals?" He also argued against an appeal to
Congress by the state-regulated railroad industry in 1910 seeking
858:
he founded, Muir tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. While Muir wanted nature preserved for the sake of pure beauty, Roosevelt subscribed to
Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on
814:
The only proper basis for the protection of game birds, wild fowl and, indeed, all animals is an economic one, and must be based upon carefully constructed and properly enforced laws for the conservation of all species for the benefit of future generations of our citizens, rather than based on local
1064:
magazine reported in 1902 there was "a universal outcry for efficiency in all departments of society, in all aspects of life". The two most important themes were technocratic efficiency and managerial efficiency. As White (1899) argued vigorously, the empire needed to be put on a business footing
765:
Many cities set up "efficiency bureaus" to identify waste and apply the best practices. For example, Chicago created an
Efficiency Division (1910–16) within the city government's Civil Service Commission, and private citizens organized the Chicago Bureau of Public Efficiency (1910–32). The former
1055:
was an attempt to discredit the old-fashioned habits, customs and institutions that put the
British at a handicap in competition with the world, especially with Germany, which was seen as the epitome of efficiency. In the early 20th century, "National Efficiency" became a powerful demand — a
732:
in the United States, where it flourished 1890–1932. Adherents argued that all aspects of the economy, society and government were riddled with waste and inefficiency. Everything would be better if experts identified the problems and fixed them. The result was strong support for building research
1065:
and administered to get better results. The looming threat of
Germany, which was widely seen as a much more efficient nation, added urgency after 1902. Politically National Efficiency brought together modernizing Conservatives and Unionists, Liberals who wanted to modernize their party, and
920:
justices, governors, and twenty national magazines. For his works, he was asked to speak before a congressional committee considering the price-fixing bill he drafted. Here, he stated that "big business is not more efficient than little business" and that "it is a mistake to suppose that the
789:
To help an inefficient, ill-located, unnecessary school is a waste ...it is highly probable that enough money has been squandered on unwise educational projects to have built up a national system of higher education adequate to our needs, if the money had been properly directed to that
894:(1856–1941) argued bigness conflicted with efficiency and added a new political dimension to the Efficiency Movement. For instance, while fighting against legalized price fixing, Brandeis launched an effort to influence congressional policymaking with the help of his friend
1029:
Postmodern opponents of nuclear energy in the 1970s broadened their attack to try to discredit movements that saw salvation for human society in technical expertise alone, or which held that scientists or engineers had any special expertise to offer in the political realm.
822:
was the nation's foremost conservationist, putting the issue high on the national agenda by emphasizing the need to eliminate wasteful uses of limited natural resources. He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter,
924:
As early as 1895 Brandeis had warned of the harm that giant corporations could do to competitors, customers, and their own workers. The growth of industrialization was creating mammoth companies which he felt threatened the well-being of millions of
Americans. In
756:
sought to improve governmental performance by training experts in public service comparable to those in
Germany, notably at the Universities of Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. Schools of business administration set up management programs oriented toward efficiency.
921:
department stores can do business cheaper than the little dealer." Brandeis ideas on which business is most efficient conflicted with Croly's positions, which favored efficiency driven by a kind of consolidation gained through large-scale economic operations.
930:
an increase in rates. Brandeis explained that instead of passing along increased costs to the consumer, the railroads should pursue efficiency by reducing their overhead and streamlining their operations, initiatives that were unprecedented during the time.
1137:, the leading rubber company in Germany, adopted the system and profited heavily from it, thus surviving the Great Depression relatively undamaged and improving its competitive capabilities. However most German businessmen preferred the home-grown
1049:(1724–1792). Called the "father of civil engineering", he studied water wheels and steam engines. In the late 19th century there was much talk about improving the efficiency of the administration and economic performance of the British Empire.
1114:
Much of the popular and elite support for
National Efficiency grew out of concern for Britain's military position, especially with respect to Germany. The Royal Navy underwent a dramatic modernization, most famously in the introduction of the
708:
was a major movement in the United States, Britain and other industrial nations in the early 20th century that sought to identify and eliminate waste in all areas of the economy and society, and to develop and implement
853:
promulgated a very different view of conservation, rejecting the efficiency motivation. Muir instead preached that nature was sacred and humans are intruders who should look but not develop. Working through the
733:
universities and schools of business and engineering, municipal research agencies, as well as reform of hospitals and medical schools, and the practice of farming. Perhaps the best known leaders were engineers
1568:
Michael R. Weatherburn, 'Scientific
Management at Work: the Bedaux System, Management Consulting, and Worker Efficiency in British Industry, 1914-48' (Imperial College PhD thesis, 2014).
1129:
In Germany the efficiency movement was called "rationalization" and it was a powerful social and economic force before 1933. In part it looked explicitly at American models, especially
1682:
2125:
846:
held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty".
1152:
Ideas of Science Management was very popular in the Soviet Union. One of the leading theorists and practitioners of the Scientific Management in Soviet Russia was
769:
State governments were active as well. For example, Massachusetts set up its "Commission on Economy and Efficiency" in 1912. It made hundreds of recommendations.
713:. The concept covered mechanical, economic, social, and personal improvement. The quest for efficiency promised effective, dynamic management rewarded by growth.
871:, a trained engineer who played down politics and believed dispassionate, nonpolitical experts could solve the nation's great problems, such as ending poverty.
2040:
938:
982:
From the 1920s to the 1950s there were about one thousand companies in 21 countries worldwide that were run on the Bedaux System, including giants such as
2050:
1579:
Development of the Labour Process in Capitalist Societies: a Comparative Study of the Transformation of Work Organization in Britain, Japan and the USA
1133:. The Bedaux system was widely adopted in the rubber and tire industry, despite strong resistance in the socialist labor movement to the Bedaux system.
200:
1910:
Jensen, Richard. "Democracy, Republicanism and Efficiency: The Values of American Politics, 1885–1930," in Byron Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds,
875:
691:
2130:
766:
pioneered the study of "personal efficiency," measuring employees' performance through new scientific merit systems and efficiency movement
1092:, which emphasized the role of experts in the schools system. Higher education was an important initiative, typified by the growth of the
785:
actively promoted the efficiency movement. In his many philanthropic pursuits, Rockefeller believed in supporting efficiency. He said,
239:
2135:
2120:
539:
1103:
There was a pause in the movement between 1904 and 1909, when interest resumed. The most prominent new leaders included Liberals
942:
Charles E. Bedaux: The Bedaux Unit Principle of Industrial Measurement, Journal of Applied Psychology, 1921. PDF, click to read.
1648:
Matthias Kipping, 'Consultancies, Institutions and the Diffusion of Taylorism in Britain, Germany and France, 1920s to 1950s',
626:
1964:
1316:
534:
684:
170:
123:
1534:
1483:
1452:
917:
559:
975:
The Bedaux System was influential in the United States in the 1920s and Europe in the 1930s and 1940s, especially in
810:
The Massachusetts Commission on Economy and Efficiency reflected the new concern with conservation. It said in 1912:
800:
441:
1854:
401:
819:
1859:
Bruce, Kyle, and Chris Nyland. "Scientific Management, Institutionalism, and Business Stabilization: 1903–1923,"
1613:
Steven Kreis, 'The Diffusion of Scientific Management: the Bedaux Company in America and Britain, 1926-1945' in
2115:
1188:
677:
827:. Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural resources, and is considered to be the nation's first
1599:
1549:
1003:
544:
1619:
416:
2110:
1595:
1157:
1900:
Hawley, Ellis W. "Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the vision of the 'Associative State'."
2004:
Nolan, Mary. "Housework Made Easy: the Taylorized Housewife in Weimar Germany's Rationalized Economy,"
1111:, whose influence brought a bundle of reform legislation that introduced the welfare state to Britain.
1093:
1797:
Mary Nolan, "Housework Made Easy: the Taylorized Housewife in Weimar Germany's Rationalized Economy,"
2105:
1985:
Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880–1920
738:
1018:
Later movements had echoes of the Efficiency Movement and were more directly inspired by Taylor and
803:
regarding national resources came to prominence during the Progressive Era. According to historian
954:
734:
431:
103:
1749:
G. R. Searle, "The Politics of National Efficiency and of War, 1900–1918" in Chris Wrigley, ed.,
341:
1764:
Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870–1920
1428:
From new era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the economists, and American economic policy, 1921–1933
958:
843:
549:
361:
283:
1475:
1469:
916:), which were also distributed by the lobbying group American Fair Trade League to legislators,
2013:
The quest for national efficiency: a study in British politics and political thought, 1899–1914
1834:
The Man Who Discovered Quality: How W. Edwards Deming Brought the Quality Revolution to America
1653:
577:
366:
261:
222:
185:
180:
23:
2020:
Creating the American State: The Moral Reformers and the Modern Administrative World They Made
1045:
In engineering, the concept of efficiency was developed in Britain in the mid-18th century by
947:
599:
446:
411:
273:
207:
195:
461:
1810:
Paul Erker, "Das Bedaux-System: Neue Aspekte der Historischen Rationalisierungsforschung,,
1023:
991:
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616:
582:
386:
371:
293:
288:
118:
75:
50:
1888:
Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement 1890–1920
1376:
Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement 1890–1920
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113:
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1722:
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1335:
1971:
Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement
1950:
Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise
1738:
The Quest for National Efficiency, 1899–1914: A Study in Politics and Political Thought
1277:
1108:
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1034:
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135:
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Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000
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Herbert Croly of the New Republic: The Life and Thought of an American Progressive
1141:
which focused on the standardization of working conditions, tools, and machinery.
501:
1941:
Knoll, Michael: From Kidd to Dewey: The Origin and Meaning of Social Efficiency.
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737:(1856–1915), who used a stopwatch to identify the smallest inefficiencies, and
710:
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466:
356:
336:
217:
55:
1895:
Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920
1222:
Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920
716:
As a result of the influence of an early proponent, it is more often known as
2099:
1679:
The World's Newest Profession: Management Consulting in the Twentieth Century
1273:
1153:
1078:
987:
745:
741:(1868–1924) who proclaimed there was always "one best way" to fix a problem.
436:
391:
351:
346:
251:
31:
1168:
variant of cybernetics. As with the concept of 'Organoprojection' (1919) by
1922:
Machine-Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911–1939
1733:
1046:
406:
326:
321:
1915:
1515:
edited by Osmond Kessler Fraenkel and Clarence Martin Lewis, (1965) p. 51
1359:
1309:
Bureaus of Efficiency: Reforming Local Government in the Progressive Era,
1117:
1082:
1074:
965:
855:
807:, the conservation movement was based on the "gospel of the efficiency".
633:
524:
331:
70:
1999:
Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernization of Germany
1957:
Bureaus of Efficiency: Reforming Local Government in the Progressive Era
1881:
1637:
Agents of Change: The Development and Practice of Management Consultancy
2023:
1929:
The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency
1864:
1281:
1257:
983:
611:
456:
45:
2067:
Scientific Management: Early Sociology of Management and Organizations
1160:(Tsentralnyi Institut Truda, or TsIT), founded by Gastev in 1921 with
1165:
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717:
648:
175:
85:
1905:
554:
471:
190:
1527:
The Efficient Society: Why Canada Is As Close To Utopia As It Gets
1262:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
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Its distinctive advancement beyond these earlier thinkers was the
1348:
Free to All: Carnegie Libraries & American Culture, 1890–1920
1130:
298:
65:
1871:
The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business
1294:
Stuart Morris, "The Wisconsin Idea and Business Progressivism,"
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producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."
838:
1908 US editorial cartoon on Theodore Roosevelt and conservation
1878:
Mastering Public Administration: From Max Weber to Dwight Waldo
1513:
The curse of bigness: miscellaneous papers of Louis D. Brandeis
995:
529:
1026:, for instance, and others flourished in the 1930s and 1940s.
1447:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 103–104.
1851:
The Mantra of Efficiency: From Waterwheel to Social Control,
1176:
and Gastev's approach, lay a powerful man-machine metaphor.
834:
1235:
The Mantra of Efficiency: From Waterwheel to Social Control
999:
16:
Movement intended to eliminate "waste" in all areas of life
904:. He coordinated the publication of a series of articles (
882:
on Hoover and helped to somewhat discredit the movement.
1978:
Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management
1332:
Annual report of the Commission on Economy and Efficiency
867:
In U.S. national politics, the most prominent figure was
1258:"The Efficiency Movement in Its Relation to Agriculture"
1209:
Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age
1121:, which in 1906 revolutionized naval warfare overnight.
1615:
A Mental Revolution: Scientific Management Since Taylor
2126:
History of science and technology in the United States
1934:
Knoedler; Janet T. "Veblen and Technical Efficiency,"
1474:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp.
728:
The efficiency movement played a central role in the
1719:The German Workman: a Study in National Efficiency
1389:President Theodore Roosevelt's Conservation Legacy
760:
2097:
2092:, influential study regarding the British Empire
946:The Bedaux system, developed by Franco-American
2045:Emerson, Harrington, "Efficiency Engineering"
1863:Vol. 35, No. 4 (Dec., 2001), pp. 955–978
1564:
1562:
1326:
1324:
1013:
685:
2079:Testimony Before the Special House Committee
1948:Lamoreaux, Naomi and Daniel M. G. Raft eds.
1666:The Rise of Management Consulting in Britain
1033:Coming into usage in 1990, the Western term
1559:
1321:
972:, a universal measure for all manual work.
692:
678:
1751:A Companion to Early 20th-Century Britain
1587:
914:How Europe deals with the one-price goods
1945:41 (June 2009), No. 3, pp. 361–391.
1255:
1088:Representative legislation included the
937:
833:
2075:The Principles of Scientific Management
1812:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Unternehmensgeschichte,
1671:
1609:
1607:
1571:
2098:
2035:Dewey, Melville. "Efficiency Society"
1914:(U of Kansas Press, 2001) pp 149–180;
1554:Productivity in Perspective, 1914-1974
1442:
1362:Random Reminiscences of Men and Events
1330:Commission on Economy and Efficiency,
2131:Economic history of the United States
1593:Steven Kreis, 'Charles E. Bedaux' in
1543:
1524:
1438:
1436:
2008:(1975) Volume: 16. Issue: 3. pp 549+
1654:PDF from Taylor & Francis online
1604:
1467:
910:Efficiency and the One-Price Article
862:
2057:Principles of Scientific Management
1959:(Marquette University Press, 2008)
1311:(Marquette University Press, 2008)
13:
2029:
1853:(2008), international perspective
1433:
14:
2147:
1952:University of Chicago Press, 1995
953:(1886–1944) built on the work of
842:In 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the
2136:20th century in economic history
2121:19th century in economic history
1556:(Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 2002).
1402:Wilderness and the American Mind
933:
777:Leading philanthropists such as
723:
659:
647:
1843:
1826:
1817:
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1298:April 1970, Vol. 4#1 pp. 39–60
1288:
1249:
1240:
1227:
1214:
1201:
1189:continuous improvement process
849:In contrast, environmentalist
761:Municipal and state efficiency
1:
1943:Journal of Curriculum Studies
1801:Volume: 16. Issue: 3. pp 549+
898:, who was then the editor of
1902:Journal of American History,
1550:Edward Francis Leopold Brech
1296:Journal of American Studies,
885:
7:
2065:Taylor, Frederick Winslow.
1596:American National Biography
1529:. Toronto: Penguin Canada.
1158:Central Institute of Labour
1014:Relation to other movements
10:
2152:
2055:Taylor, Frederick Winslow
1936:Journal of Economic Issues
1861:Journal of Economic Issues
1814:1996, Vol. 41#2 pp 139–158
1683:Cambridge University Press
1668:(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002)
1639:(London: Heinemann, 1982).
1581:(London: Heinemann, 1982)
1404:(3rd ed. 1982), pp. 122–40
1124:
1094:London School of Economics
1040:
1677:'Christopher D. McKenna,
1500:Louis D. Brandeis: a life
739:Frank Bunker Gilbreth Sr.
2018:Stillman II, Richard J.
1869:Chandler, Alfred D. Jr.
1681:(Cambridge: CUP, 2010).
1256:Spillman, W. J. (1915).
1194:
1179:
1096:, and the foundation of
735:Frederick Winslow Taylor
1855:excerpt and text search
1849:Alexander, Jennifer K.
1753:(Blackwell, 2003) p. 56
1443:McCraw, Thomas (2009).
1233:Jennifer K. Alexander,
844:Conference of Governors
284:Sustainable development
208:Progressive nationalism
2051:online vol 9 pp 714–20
2047:Encyclopedia Americana
2037:Encyclopedia Americana
1762:James T. Kloppenberg,
1693:Alexander (2008) ch. 1
1525:Heath, Joseph (2002).
1445:Prophets of Regulation
1346:Abigail A. Van Slyck,
943:
839:
817:
792:
578:Economic progressivism
262:Ecological engineering
223:Social justice warrior
186:Philosophy of progress
181:Philosophical progress
2116:History of technology
2086:Efficiency and empire
1705:Efficiency and empire
1583:entry on Google Books
1360:John D. Rockefeller,
1334:(Boston, 1913), p 76
948:management consultant
941:
837:
812:
801:conservation movement
787:
666:Philosophy portal
654:Liberalism portal
600:Libertarian socialism
274:Scientific management
196:Progressive education
1904:(1974) 61: 116–140.
1468:Levy, David (1985).
927:The Curse of Bigness
617:Classical radicalism
583:Democratic socialism
452:Roosevelt (Theodore)
447:Roosevelt (Franklin)
294:Techno-progressivism
289:Technological change
119:Economic development
76:New Culture Movement
51:Age of Enlightenment
1498:Melvin I. Urofsky,
1426:William J. Barber,
1415:Breaking New Ground
1207:Daniel T. Rodgers,
1071:George Bernard Shaw
1053:National Efficiency
959:Charles E. Knoeppel
820:President Roosevelt
783:John D. Rockefeller
750:Charles R. van Hise
706:efficiency movement
595:Left-libertarianism
402:Kirchner (Cristina)
247:Scientific progress
230:Social organization
166:Liberation theology
146:Freedom of movement
114:Cultural liberalism
2111:Industrial history
2041:online vol 9 p 720
1969:Merkle, Judith A.
1931:. (Penguin, 1997).
1664:Michael Ferguson,
1635:Patricia Tisdall,
1577:Craig R. Littler,
1109:David Lloyd George
1090:Education Act 1902
1035:lean manufacturing
944:
840:
744:Leaders including
607:Left-wing populism
442:RodrĂguez Zapatero
269:Self-determination
257:Sustainable design
136:Empirical evidence
2069:(2003), reprints
2006:Feminist Studies.
1992:America by Design
1965:978-0-87462-081-8
1927:Kanigel, Robert.
1799:Feminist Studies.
1777:Winston Churchill
1740:(Oxford UP, 1971)
1502:(2009) pp. 300–26
1413:Gifford Pinchot,
1317:978-0-87462-081-8
1185:W. Edwards Deming
1174:Nikolai Bernstein
1105:Winston Churchill
906:Competition Kills
863:National politics
702:
701:
622:Social liberalism
397:Kirchner (NĂ©stor)
279:Scientific method
240:List of countries
161:Industrialisation
151:Human enhancement
2143:
2106:Social movements
1990:Noble, David F.
1983:Nelson, Daniel.
1976:Nelson, Daniel.
1920:Jordan, John M.
1886:Hays, Samuel P.
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1650:Business History
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1511:Louis Brandeis,
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1008:General Electric
880:Great Depression
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680:
664:
663:
662:
652:
651:
627:In United States
588:Social democracy
304:Women's suffrage
201:In Latin America
156:Idea of Progress
141:Direct democracy
19:
18:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2096:
2095:
2084:White, Arnold.
2071:Shop Management
2032:
2030:Primary sources
2011:Searle, G. R.
1955:Lee, Mordecai.
1938:, Vol. 31, 1997
1893:Haber, Samuel.
1846:
1841:
1840:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1805:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1775:Henry Pelling,
1774:
1770:
1761:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1732:
1728:
1716:
1712:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1676:
1672:
1663:
1659:
1647:
1643:
1634:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1605:
1592:
1588:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1560:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1523:
1519:
1510:
1506:
1497:
1493:
1486:
1466:
1462:
1455:
1441:
1434:
1425:
1421:
1412:
1408:
1400:Roderick Nash,
1399:
1395:
1386:
1382:
1373:
1369:
1358:
1354:
1345:
1341:
1329:
1322:
1306:
1302:
1293:
1289:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1215:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1182:
1170:Pavel Florensky
1150:
1127:
1058:Second Boer War
1043:
1016:
936:
901:Harper's Weekly
888:
865:
825:Gifford Pinchot
797:
779:Andrew Carnegie
775:
763:
730:Progressive Era
726:
698:
660:
658:
646:
639:
638:
573:
565:
564:
520:
512:
511:
317:
309:
308:
235:Social progress
213:Reform movement
129:Economic growth
109:Civil liberties
99:
91:
90:
81:Progressive Era
61:Information Age
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2149:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2094:
2093:
2090:online edition
2082:
2063:
2061:online edition
2053:
2043:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2024:online edition
2016:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1988:
1987:2d ed. (1995).
1981:
1974:
1967:
1953:
1946:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1918:
1916:online version
1908:
1898:
1891:
1884:
1882:online edition
1876:Fry, Brian R.
1874:
1867:
1857:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1832:Andrea Gabor,
1825:
1816:
1803:
1790:
1781:
1768:
1755:
1742:
1726:
1710:
1702:Arnold White,
1695:
1686:
1670:
1657:
1641:
1628:
1603:
1586:
1570:
1558:
1542:
1536:978-0140292480
1535:
1517:
1504:
1491:
1485:978-0691047256
1484:
1460:
1454:978-0674716087
1453:
1432:
1419:
1406:
1393:
1380:
1367:
1352:
1339:
1320:
1307:Mordecai Lee,
1300:
1287:
1248:
1239:
1226:
1220:Samuel Haber,
1213:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1181:
1178:
1162:Vladimir Lenin
1149:
1146:
1135:Continental AG
1126:
1123:
1060:(1899–1902).
1042:
1039:
1015:
1012:
951:Charles Bedaux
935:
932:
896:Norman Hapgood
892:Louis Brandeis
890:Boston lawyer
887:
884:
869:Herbert Hoover
864:
861:
805:Samuel P. Hays
796:
793:
774:
771:
762:
759:
725:
722:
711:best practices
700:
699:
697:
696:
689:
682:
674:
671:
670:
669:
668:
656:
641:
640:
637:
636:
631:
630:
629:
624:
619:
609:
604:
603:
602:
592:
591:
590:
585:
574:
571:
570:
567:
566:
563:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
521:
518:
517:
514:
513:
510:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
327:Abbott (Grace)
324:
322:Abbott (Edith)
318:
315:
314:
311:
310:
307:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
265:
264:
254:
249:
244:
243:
242:
232:
227:
226:
225:
218:Social justice
215:
210:
205:
204:
203:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
171:Linear history
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
132:
131:
126:
124:Broad measures
116:
111:
106:
100:
97:
96:
93:
92:
89:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
56:Industrial Age
53:
48:
42:
39:
38:
35:
34:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2148:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1997:Nolan, Mary.
1996:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1872:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1847:
1835:
1829:
1820:
1813:
1807:
1800:
1794:
1788:Searle (1971)
1785:
1779:(1989) p. 104
1778:
1772:
1765:
1759:
1752:
1746:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1724:
1720:
1717:W.H. Dawson,
1714:
1707:
1706:
1699:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1667:
1661:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1638:
1632:
1621:
1616:
1610:
1608:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1590:
1584:
1580:
1574:
1565:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1538:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1514:
1508:
1501:
1495:
1487:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1464:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1437:
1429:
1423:
1417:(1947) p. 32.
1416:
1410:
1403:
1397:
1390:
1384:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1363:
1356:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1325:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1304:
1297:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1243:
1236:
1230:
1223:
1217:
1210:
1204:
1200:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1177:
1175:
1172:, underlying
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1154:Alexei Gastev
1145:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1077:, along with
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1048:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
992:B.F. Goodrich
989:
988:Eastman Kodak
985:
980:
978:
973:
971:
967:
962:
960:
956:
952:
949:
940:
934:Bedaux system
931:
928:
922:
919:
918:Supreme Court
915:
911:
907:
903:
902:
897:
893:
883:
881:
877:
872:
870:
860:
857:
852:
847:
845:
836:
832:
830:
826:
821:
816:
811:
808:
806:
802:
791:
786:
784:
780:
770:
767:
758:
755:
751:
747:
746:Herbert Croly
742:
740:
736:
731:
724:United States
721:
719:
714:
712:
707:
695:
690:
688:
683:
681:
676:
675:
673:
672:
667:
657:
655:
650:
645:
644:
643:
642:
635:
632:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
613:
610:
608:
605:
601:
598:
597:
596:
593:
589:
586:
584:
581:
580:
579:
576:
575:
569:
568:
561:
560:United States
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
522:
516:
515:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
432:Ocasio-Cortez
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
319:
313:
312:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
263:
260:
259:
258:
255:
253:
252:Social change
250:
248:
245:
241:
238:
237:
236:
233:
231:
228:
224:
221:
220:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
202:
199:
198:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
130:
127:
125:
122:
121:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
101:
95:
94:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
57:
54:
52:
49:
47:
44:
43:
37:
36:
33:
32:Progressivism
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2085:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2046:
2036:
2019:
2012:
2005:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1970:
1956:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1928:
1921:
1911:
1901:
1894:
1887:
1877:
1870:
1860:
1850:
1844:Bibliography
1833:
1828:
1823:Nolan (1975)
1819:
1811:
1806:
1798:
1793:
1784:
1776:
1771:
1766:(1988) p 475
1763:
1758:
1750:
1745:
1737:
1734:G. R. Searle
1729:
1718:
1713:
1703:
1698:
1689:
1678:
1673:
1665:
1660:
1649:
1644:
1636:
1631:
1614:
1594:
1589:
1578:
1573:
1553:
1545:
1526:
1520:
1512:
1507:
1499:
1494:
1470:
1463:
1444:
1427:
1422:
1414:
1409:
1401:
1396:
1388:
1383:
1375:
1370:
1361:
1355:
1347:
1342:
1331:
1308:
1303:
1295:
1290:
1265:
1261:
1251:
1246:Haber (1964)
1242:
1234:
1229:
1221:
1216:
1208:
1203:
1183:
1151:
1148:Soviet Union
1143:
1138:
1128:
1116:
1113:
1102:
1087:
1061:
1052:
1051:
1047:John Smeaton
1044:
1032:
1028:
1017:
981:
974:
969:
963:
955:F. W. Taylor
945:
926:
923:
913:
909:
905:
899:
889:
874:After 1929,
873:
866:
848:
841:
829:conservation
818:
813:
809:
798:
795:Conservation
788:
776:
773:Philanthropy
768:
764:
743:
727:
715:
705:
703:
540:Muslim world
372:de Condorcet
362:Breckinridge
104:Christianity
2077:(1911) and
1430:(1989) p. 5
1350:(1998) p. 1
1139:REFA system
1118:Dreadnought
1083:Sidney Webb
1075:H. G. Wells
1024:Technocracy
966:Bedaux Unit
878:blamed the
856:Sierra Club
831:President.
754:Richard Ely
634:Technocracy
545:South Korea
412:La Follette
71:Machine Age
2100:Categories
612:Liberalism
46:Atomic Age
1274:0002-7162
1268:: 65–76.
1062:Spectator
1020:Taylorism
886:Antitrust
876:Democrats
851:John Muir
718:Taylorism
525:Argentina
519:By region
507:Yavlinsky
176:Modernity
86:Space Age
2073:(1903),
2059:(1913)
1906:in JSTOR
1865:in JSTOR
1079:Beatrice
1069:such as
502:Yamamoto
462:Sampedro
357:Brandeis
191:Progress
24:a series
22:Part of
2088:(1901)
2081:(1912).
2049:(1918)
2022:(1998)
1994:(1979).
1980:(1980).
1924:(1994).
1890:(1959).
1880:(1989)
1836:(1992).
1721:(1906)
1708:(1901).
1652:(1997)
1617:(1992)
1476:157–158
1378:(1959).
1282:1012894
1166:Marxian
1131:Fordism
1125:Germany
1067:Fabians
1041:Britain
984:Swift's
977:Britain
572:Related
482:Wallace
477:Trudeau
467:Sanders
407:Krugman
377:Douglas
342:AtatĂĽrk
299:Welfare
66:Jet Age
40:History
2039:(1918)
2015:(1971)
2001:(1995)
1973:(1980)
1963:
1897:(1964)
1873:(1977)
1723:online
1620:"Link"
1600:online
1533:
1482:
1451:
1391:(2003)
1364:(1933)
1336:online
1315:
1280:
1272:
1237:(2008)
1224:(1964)
1211:(2000)
1156:. The
996:DuPont
912:, and
752:, and
555:Turkey
550:Taiwan
530:Brazil
497:Wilson
492:Weaver
487:Warren
387:Hughes
382:Hessel
337:Ardern
332:Addams
316:People
1623:(PDF)
1278:JSTOR
1195:Notes
1180:Japan
535:Japan
472:Smith
457:Rawls
437:Petro
427:Nehru
367:Bryan
352:Boric
98:Ideas
1961:ISBN
1531:ISBN
1480:ISBN
1449:ISBN
1313:ISBN
1270:ISSN
1107:and
1081:and
1073:and
1006:and
1000:Fiat
957:and
799:The
790:end.
781:and
704:The
422:Mill
417:Lula
392:Kant
347:Boff
1022:.
1004:ICI
968:or
2102::
1736:,
1606:^
1561:^
1552:,
1478:.
1435:^
1323:^
1276:.
1266:59
1264:.
1260:.
1191:.
1100:.
1010:.
1002:,
998:,
994:,
990:,
986:,
979:.
961:.
908:,
748:,
720:.
26:on
1625:.
1539:.
1488:.
1457:.
1284:.
970:B
693:e
686:t
679:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.