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galaxies, microscopes to study bacteria or using cloud chambers to study positrons. So the question is whether distant galaxies, bacteria or positrons should be regarded as observable or merely theoretical objects. Some even hold that any measurement process of an entity should be considered an observation of this entity. In this sense, the interior of the Sun is observable since neutrinos originating there can be detected. The difficulty with this debate is that there is a continuity of cases going from looking at something with the naked eye, through a window, through a pair of glasses, through a microscope, etc. Because of this continuity, drawing the line between any two adjacent cases seems to be arbitrary. One way to avoid these difficulties is to hold that it is a mistake to identify the empirical with what is observable or sensible. Instead, it has been suggested that empirical evidence can include unobservable entities as long as they are detectable through suitable measurements. A problem with this approach is that it is rather far from the original meaning of "empirical", which contains the reference to experience.
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knowledge a priori, which is denied by empiricism in this strict form. One difficulty for empiricists is to account for the justification of knowledge pertaining to fields like mathematics and logic, for example, that 3 is a prime number or that modus ponens is a valid form of deduction. The difficulty is due to the fact that there seems to be no good candidate of empirical evidence that could justify these beliefs. Such cases have prompted empiricists to allow for certain forms of knowledge a priori, for example, concerning tautologies or relations between our concepts. These concessions preserve the spirit of empiricism insofar as the restriction to experience still applies to knowledge about the external world. In some fields, like
488:. The idea behind this distinction is that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed. For example, inserting viral DNA into a bacterium is a form of experimentation while studying planetary orbits through a telescope belongs to mere observation. In these cases, the mutated DNA was actively produced by the biologist while the planetary orbits are independent of the astronomer observing them. Applied to the history of science, it is sometimes held that ancient science is mainly observational while the emphasis on experimentation is only present in modern science and responsible for the
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example, experience is necessary to entertain the proposition "if something is red all over then it is not green all over" because the terms "red" and "green" have to be acquired this way. But the sense of dependence most relevant to empirical evidence concerns the status of justification of a belief. So experience may be needed to acquire the relevant concepts in the example above, but once these concepts are possessed, no further experience providing empirical evidence is needed to know that the proposition is true, which is why it is considered to be justified
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492:. This is sometimes phrased through the expression that modern science actively "puts questions to nature". This distinction also underlies the categorization of sciences into experimental sciences, like physics, and observational sciences, like astronomy. While the distinction is relatively intuitive in paradigmatic cases, it has proven difficult to give a general definition of "intervention" applying to all cases, which is why it is sometimes outright rejected.
247:. The problem of underdetermination concerns the fact that the available evidence often provides equal support to either theory and therefore cannot arbitrate between them. Theory-ladenness refers to the idea that evidence already includes theoretical assumptions. These assumptions can hinder it from acting as neutral arbiter. It can also lead to a lack of shared evidence if different scientists do not share these assumptions.
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only attitudes towards true propositions constitute evidence. In this view, there is no misleading evidence. The olfactory experience of smoke would count as evidence if it was produced by a fire but not if it was produced by a smoke generator. This position has problems in explaining why it is still rational for the subject to believe that there is a fire even though the olfactory experience cannot be considered evidence.
2122:... empirical information is not weighed in a theoretical vacuum: every piece of evidence must be judged in the light of the theory employed in the design and implementation of the technique used to gather that information. Just as no factual theory stands by itself, so no datum constitutes an evidence for or against a theory unless it is gathered and interpreted with the help of some scientific theory.
209:. For example, the olfactory experience of smelling smoke justifies or makes it rational to hold the belief that something is burning. It is usually held that for justification to work, the evidence has to be possessed by the believer. The most straightforward way to account for this type of evidence possession is to hold that evidence consists of the private mental states possessed by the believer.
427:, the choice between empiricism and rationalism makes a difference not just for how a given claim is justified but for whether it is justified at all. This is best exemplified in metaphysics, where empiricists tend to take a skeptical position, thereby denying the existence of metaphysical knowledge, while rationalists seek justification for metaphysical claims in metaphysical intuitions.
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all kinds of mental states, including stored but currently unconscious beliefs, can act as evidence. Various of the roles played by evidence in reasoning, for example, in explanatory, probabilistic and deductive reasoning, suggest that evidence has to be propositional in nature, i.e. that it is correctly expressed by
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view, which holds that some knowledge is independent of experience, either because it is innate or because it is justified by reason or rational reflection alone. Expressed through the distinction between knowledge a priori and a posteriori from the previous section, rationalism affirms that there is
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used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles, are normally excluded from it. There are different senses in which knowledge may be said to depend on experience. In order to know a proposition, the subject has to be able to entertain this proposition, i.e. possess the relevant concepts. For
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from a friend about how to treat a certain disease constitutes empirical evidence that this treatment works but would not be considered scientific evidence. Others have argued that the traditional empiricist definition of empirical evidence as perceptual evidence is too narrow for much of scientific
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or merely theoretical objects. There is general consensus that everyday objects like books or houses are observable since they are accessible via unaided perception, but disagreement starts for objects that are only accessible through aided perception. This includes using telescopes to study distant
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Some philosophers restrict evidence even further, for example, to only conscious, propositional or factive mental states. Restricting evidence to conscious mental states has the implausible consequence that many simple everyday beliefs would be unjustified. This is why it is more common to hold that
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is closely related to empirical evidence. Some theorists, like Carlos
Santana, have argued that there is a sense in which not all empirical evidence constitutes scientific evidence. One reason for this is that the standards or criteria that scientists apply to evidence exclude certain evidence that
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verbs like "believe" together with a that-clause, like "that something is burning". But it runs counter to the common practice of treating non-propositional sense-experiences, like bodily pains, as evidence. Its defenders sometimes combine it with the view that evidence has to be factive, i.e. that
290:
The traditional view proposes that evidence is empirical if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. This involves experiences arising from the stimulation of the sense organs, like visual or auditory experiences, but the term is often used in a wider sense including memories and
109:, i.e. 'experience'. In this context, it is usually understood as what is observable, in contrast to unobservable or theoretical objects. It is generally accepted that unaided perception constitutes observation, but it is disputed to what extent objects accessible only to aided perception, like
238:
between Newton's and
Einstein's theory of gravitation by confirming Einstein's theory. For scientific consensus, it is central that evidence is public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states. This way it can act as a shared ground for
461:. But people rely on various forms of empirical evidence in their everyday lives that have not been obtained this way and therefore do not qualify as scientific evidence. One problem with non-scientific evidence is that it is less reliable, for example, due to cognitive biases like the
523:. This requires rigorous communication of hypothesis (usually expressed in mathematics), experimental constraints and controls (expressed in terms of standard experimental apparatus), and a common understanding of measurement. In the scientific context, the term
279:. Different fields, like epistemology, the sciences or legal systems, often associate different concepts with these terms. An important distinction among theories of evidence is whether they identify evidence with private
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and arbitrates between competing theories. For this role, evidence must be public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states, so that evidence may foster
75:. This is only possible if the evidence is possessed by the person, which has prompted various epistemologists to conceive evidence as private mental states like experiences or other beliefs. In
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consists in sensory experience, but other mental phenomena, like memory or introspection, are also usually included in it. But purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or
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introspection. It is usually seen as excluding purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or intuitions used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles. The terms
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Churchland, Paul M. (1985). "The
Ontological Status of Observables: In Praise of the Superempirical Virtues". In Churchland, Paul M.; Hooker, Clifford A. (eds.).
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since its truth only depends on the meanings of the words used in the expression. The proposition "some bachelors are happy", on the other hand, is only knowable
362:, which stands for what is independent of experience (what comes before experience). For example, the proposition that "all bachelors are unmarried" is knowable
172:, the difference being that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed.
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is the view that all knowledge is based on experience or that all epistemic justification arises from empirical evidence. This stands in contrast to the
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Two central questions for this distinction concern the relevant sense of "experience" and of "dependence". The paradigmatic justification of knowledge
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287:, there is a dispute about where to draw the line between observable or empirical objects in contrast to unobservable or merely theoretical objects.
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knowledge, on the other hand, is seen either as innate or as justified by rational intuition and therefore as not dependent on empirical evidence.
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465:, in which information obtained earlier is given more weight, although science done poorly is also subject to such biases, as in the example of
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and arbitrates between competing theories. Measurements of
Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for example, constitute evidence that plays the role of
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if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. There are various competing theories about the exact definition of the terms
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There is an active debate in contemporary philosophy of science as to what should be regarded as observable or empirical in contrast to
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or accepted only in a restricted way as knowledge of relations between our concepts but not as pertaining to the external world.
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is an important advocate of the position that theory-ladenness concerning scientific paradigms plays a central role in science.
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are to be defined. Often different fields work with quite different conceptions. In epistemology, evidence is what
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is closely related to empirical evidence but not all forms of empirical evidence meet the standards dictated by
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if it epistemically supports this proposition or indicates that the supported proposition is true. Evidence is
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seen through a microscope or positrons detected in a cloud chamber, should be regarded as observable.
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In the philosophy of science, it is sometimes held that there are two sources of empirical evidence:
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2227:"Observation Versus Experiment: An Adequate Framework for Analysing Scientific Experimentation?"
1417:"Observation Versus Experiment: An Adequate Framework for Analysing Scientific Experimentation?"
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Objectivity and
Subjectivity in Epistemology: A Defense of the Phenomenal Conception of Evidence
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or postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical
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but plays different roles in these two fields. In epistemology, evidence is what
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is tantamount to the distinction between empirical and non-empirical knowledge.
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practice, which uses evidence from various kinds of non-perceptual equipment.
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proponents of competing theories. Two issues threatening this role are the
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Central to scientific evidence is that it was arrived at by following
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1900:10.1016/j.shpsa.2003.12.002
1415:Malik, Saira (2017-03-01).
1198:"A Priori and A Posteriori"
902:10.1093/019925656X.001.0001
896:. Oxford University Press.
812:. Oxford University Press.
560:
10:
3458:
1979:Browning, Heather (2017).
1677:10.1163/18756735-068001001
1300:van Fraassen, Bas (1980).
603:Phenomenology (philosophy)
537:methods, which are purely
499:to gain acceptance in the
434:
406:Empiricism and rationalism
354:refers to what depends on
328:
179:
21:Empirical (disambiguation)
18:
3389:
3221:
3123:
3053:
2996:Semantic view of theories
2915:Epistemological anarchism
2867:
2852:dependent and independent
2589:
2244:10.1007/s10838-016-9335-y
1494:Boyd, Nora Mills (2018).
1434:10.1007/s10838-016-9335-y
1315:Schickore, Jutta (1999).
855:10.1007/s11098-008-9233-1
507:of forming a hypothesis,
331:A priori and a posteriori
2738:Intertheoretic reduction
2727:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
2704:Functional contextualism
2387:Bird, Alexander (2013).
2038:; Woody, Andrea (eds.).
1929:Santana, Carlos (2018).
1811:Teixeira, CĂ©lia (2018).
1365:Shapere, Dudley (1982).
997:Crupi, Vincenzo (2021).
966:Huemer, Michael (2019).
837:Piazza, Tommaso (2009).
809:Epistemology: New Essays
410:In its strictest sense,
3223:Philosophers of science
3001:Scientific essentialism
2950:Model-dependent realism
2885:Constructive empiricism
2778:Evidence-based practice
2044:Oxford University Press
1998:10.51291/2377-7478.1246
1762:(1998). "Rationalism".
1549:Russell, Bruce (2020).
1333:10.1023/A:1008374032737
1162:Encyclopedia Britannica
1064:Encyclopedia Britannica
1028:Stanford, Kyle (2017).
941:Encyclopedia Britannica
555:computational chemistry
517:reproduction of results
457:in the context of some
3306:Alfred North Whitehead
3296:Charles Sanders Peirce
2096:Transaction Publishers
1768:. Taylor and Francis.
1719:. Taylor and Francis.
1628:Markie, Peter (2017).
677:Kelly, Thomas (2016).
593:Experiential knowledge
583:Empirical relationship
551:semi-empirical methods
215:propositional attitude
3405:Philosophy portal
3156:Hard and soft science
3151:Faith and rationality
3020:Scientific skepticism
2800:Scientific Revolution
2583:Philosophy of science
2350:10.1093/analys/anr014
2225:Malik, Saira (2017).
1659:Siebel, Mark (2005).
1583:Introduction to Logic
1500:Philosophy of Science
1371:Philosophy of Science
843:Philosophical Studies
490:scientific revolution
232:scientific hypotheses
192:philosophy of science
90:scientific hypotheses
77:philosophy of science
3131:Criticism of science
3006:Scientific formalism
2890:Constructive realism
2795:Scientific pluralism
2768:Problem of induction
2046:. pp. 779â795.
1302:The Scientific Image
501:scientific community
95:scientific consensus
3198:Rhetoric of science
3136:Descriptive science
2880:Confirmation holism
2773:Scientific evidence
2733:Inductive reasoning
2662:Demarcation problem
2332:Okasha, S. (2011).
2152:1974Sci...185.1124T
2146:(4157): 1124â1131.
2032:Chakravartty, Anjan
1496:"Evidence Enriched"
521:journal publication
509:experimental design
442:Scientific evidence
437:Scientific evidence
431:Scientific evidence
158:Scientific evidence
124:empirical knowledge
3417:Science portal
3346:Carl Gustav Hempel
3301:Wilhelm Windelband
3188:Questionable cause
3011:Scientific realism
2832:Underdetermination
2667:Empirical evidence
2657:Creative synthesis
2036:Morrison, Margaret
1947:10.1017/epi.2017.3
739:Mittag, Daniel M.
588:Empirical research
447:anecdotal evidence
374:as its justifier.
162:scientific methods
27:Empirical evidence
3424:
3423:
3266:
3265:
3178:Normative science
3035:Uniformitarianism
2790:Scientific method
2684:Explanatory power
2495:978-0-547-04101-8
2282:978-84-9745-530-5
1857:978-0-521-84015-6
1593:978-1-136-99452-4
1469:978-0-19-180764-0
1110:978-1-4419-9863-7
911:978-0-19-159867-8
578:Empirical measure
573:Empirical formula
505:scientific method
459:scientific theory
455:scientific method
203:doxastic attitude
33:obtained through
3449:
3415:
3414:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3376:Bas van Fraassen
3331:Hans Reichenbach
3311:Bertrand Russell
3228:
3227:
3054:Philosophy of...
2837:Unity of science
2630:Commensurability
2576:
2569:
2562:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2527:
2513:
2499:
2486:Houghton Mifflin
2484:(5th ed.).
2474:
2462:
2448:
2427:
2406:
2404:
2402:
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2020:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1985:Animal Sentience
1976:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1966:
1926:
1915:
1914:
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1911:
1879:
1873:
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1870:
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1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1823:(140): 365â384.
1808:
1799:
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1760:Markie, Peter J.
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1196:Baehr, Jason S.
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648:
631:DiFate, Victor.
628:
553:can be found in
543:first principles
463:anchoring effect
313:Related concepts
245:theory-ladenness
3457:
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3397:
3385:
3366:Paul Feyerabend
3326:Michael Polanyi
3262:
3248:Galileo Galilei
3217:
3203:Science studies
3119:
3049:
3040:Verificationism
2945:Instrumentalism
2930:Foundationalism
2905:Conventionalism
2863:
2699:Feminist method
2585:
2580:
2537:
2506:
2496:
2471:
2453:Kuhn, Thomas S.
2445:
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2028:Humphreys, Paul
2021:
2017:
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771:
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754:
752:
741:"Evidentialism"
737:
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486:experimentation
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236:neutral arbiter
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170:experimentation
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3351:W. V. O. Quine
3348:
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3308:
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3298:
3293:
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3286:Rudolf Steiner
3283:
3278:
3276:Henri Poincaré
3273:
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3146:Exact sciences
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3124:Related topics
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3083:Social science
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3076:Space and time
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2785:Scientific law
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2745:
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2696:
2694:Falsifiability
2691:
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2642:
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2623:Mill's Methods
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2504:External links
2502:
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2470:978-0226458045
2469:
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2444:978-0521637220
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2423:978-0415324953
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2061:978-0199368815
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2015:
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1941:(2): 209â227.
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1894:(1): 173â184.
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1783:978-0415250696
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1506:(3): 403â421.
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1383:10.1086/289075
1377:(4): 485â525.
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1239:(4): 748â757.
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999:"Confirmation"
989:
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710:"Epistemology"
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2534:at Wiktionary
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2416:. Routledge.
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2396:
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2389:"Thomas Kuhn"
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376:Immanuel Kant
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3316:Otto Neurath
3291:Karl Pearson
3281:Pierre Duhem
3253:Isaac Newton
3183:Protoscience
3141:Epistemology
3015:Anti-realism
3013: /
2994: /
2985: /
2971: /
2969:Reductionism
2967: /
2940:Inductionism
2920:Evolutionism
2725:
2666:
2612:a posteriori
2611:
2607:
2542:
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2392:
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2341:
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2301:
2291:
2275:. Netbiblo.
2271:
2264:
2253:. Retrieved
2237:(1): 71â95.
2234:
2230:
2208:Pickett 2011
2203:
2192:. Retrieved
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2121:
2089:
2084:Bunge, Mario
2078:
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2024:Bogen, James
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1963:. Retrieved
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1908:. Retrieved
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1701:Feldman 2001
1696:
1685:. Retrieved
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1161:
1158:"Empiricism"
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380:a posteriori
379:
368:a posteriori
367:
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352:A posteriori
351:
348:a posteriori
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320:a posteriori
319:
306:unobservable
303:
296:
292:
289:
284:
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260:
258:
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228:
222:
220:
211:
188:epistemology
185:
156:
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119:a posteriori
117:
115:
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80:
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55:
47:epistemology
39:experimental
26:
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3371:Ian Hacking
3356:Thomas Kuhn
3341:Karl Popper
3321:C. D. Broad
3238:Roger Bacon
3166:Non-science
3108:Linguistics
3088:Archaeology
2983:Rationalism
2973:Determinism
2960:Physicalism
2925:Fallibilism
2875:Coherentism
2805:Testability
2758:Observation
2753:Objectivity
2714:alternative
2645:Correlation
2635:Consilience
2210:, Empirical
1671:(1): 1â22.
1609:, p. 1
513:peer review
482:observation
421:metaphysics
416:rationalist
265:proposition
259:A thing is
249:Thomas Kuhn
229:disconfirms
166:observation
144:Rationalism
101:comes from
97:. The term
87:disconfirms
3442:Empiricism
3431:Categories
3258:David Hume
3231:Precursors
3113:Psychology
3093:Economicsâ
2987:Empiricism
2978:Pragmatism
2965:Positivism
2955:Naturalism
2825:scientific
2709:Hypothesis
2672:Experiment
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2381:References
2370:2021-06-21
2255:2021-06-21
2194:2022-06-30
2098:. p.
2009:2021-06-21
1991:(16): 13.
1965:2021-06-21
1910:2021-06-21
1868:2021-06-21
1794:2021-06-21
1745:2021-06-21
1687:2021-06-21
1607:Craig 2005
1530:2021-06-21
1480:2021-06-21
1401:2021-06-21
1351:2021-06-21
1271:2021-06-21
1121:2021-06-21
922:2021-06-21
873:2021-06-21
820:2021-06-21
787:2021-06-21
679:"Evidence"
633:"Evidence"
497:hypothesis
412:empiricism
395:intuitions
356:experience
318:Knowledge
298:observable
255:Definition
176:Background
152:empiricism
3098:Geography
3066:Chemistry
3025:Scientism
2820:ladenness
2640:Construct
2618:Causality
2517:empirical
2455:(1970) .
2184:143452957
2168:0036-8075
2086:(1998) .
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1955:152066892
1520:224833831
1443:1572-8587
1391:224832408
1341:119357187
1253:0003-1224
1146:Bird 2013
1135:Kuhn 1970
610:Footnotes
547:ab initio
539:deductive
534:ab initio
336:Knowledge
293:empirical
285:empirical
277:empirical
269:empirical
196:justifies
128:knowledge
105:áŒÎŒÏΔÎčÏία
99:empirical
66:justifies
62:empirical
3437:Evidence
3393:Category
3045:Vitalism
2868:Theories
2842:Variable
2763:Paradigm
2650:function
2608:A priori
2597:Analysis
2590:Concepts
2531:evidence
2364:Archived
2338:Analysis
2306:Archived
2249:Archived
2188:Archived
2176:17835457
2118:37156799
2003:Archived
1959:Archived
1935:Episteme
1904:Archived
1862:Archived
1788:Archived
1739:Archived
1681:Archived
1638:Archived
1559:Archived
1524:Archived
1474:Archived
1395:Archived
1345:Archived
1265:Archived
1206:Archived
1166:Archived
1115:Archived
1068:Archived
1038:Archived
1007:Archived
976:Archived
945:Archived
916:Archived
893:Evidence
867:Archived
863:56299607
814:Archived
781:Archived
749:Archived
718:Archived
687:Archived
641:Archived
561:See also
470:-hacking
400:a priori
384:a priori
364:a priori
360:a priori
324:a priori
273:evidence
261:evidence
224:confirms
207:rational
182:Evidence
148:a priori
140:A priori
111:bacteria
107:empeirĂa
82:confirms
73:rational
58:evidence
43:sciences
31:evidence
3103:History
3071:Physics
3061:Biology
2859:more...
2847:control
2743:Inquiry
2312:21 June
2148:Bibcode
2140:Science
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1565:20 June
1261:2093949
1212:18 June
1172:17 June
1074:15 June
1044:15 June
1013:13 June
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951:2 April
755:15 June
724:15 June
693:11 June
647:11 June
338:or the
199:beliefs
190:and in
69:beliefs
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2748:Nature
2677:design
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529:axioms
425:ethics
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263:for a
130:whose
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1951:S2CID
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1387:S2CID
1337:S2CID
1257:JSTOR
859:S2CID
372:world
342:of a
103:Greek
35:sense
2719:null
2689:Fact
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2490:ISBN
2465:ISBN
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2403:2012
2314:2021
2277:ISBN
2172:PMID
2164:ISSN
2114:OCLC
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