441:, during Marcus' campaign, Quintus wrote on the various campaigning strategies that would help Marcus be elected. One of the most important tips Quintus emphasized was that Marcus should create friendships with men of higher status because these were the men that had the most influence. In addition to creating relationships with the wealthy, Quintus also advised Marcus to "remind everyone in your debt that they should repay you with their support." To have a chance to be elected, politicians needed to recall any favors owed to them because they needed all the support they could receive. Furthermore, in a similar fashion to modern politics, politicians in the Roman Republic needed to please everyone, whether that meant making promises they knew they could not keep or simply being very polite. In Marcus's response to his brother, he noted that "people would prefer you give them a gracious lie than an outright refusal."
19:
421:
mind. Still, the people's power could be limited, as there were a few instances in 201 BC and 169 BC when candidates suspiciously became elected just a day after they declared themselves a candidate, which would of course allow no real time for the people to be aware of, much less vote for, such last-minute choices. In the later century, however, more concrete rules were established regarding the behavior and canvassing of candidates. These laws kept people from declaring candidacy the day before an election, requiring the profession to be made before a certain set date.
632:
membership of the senate, so the senate was full of his supporters and candidacy was based on flattery and not merit. Augustus had extensive influence over the magistrates as well; he was given the power to grant commendation to candidates for office, which became a guarantee of winning the election. He later nullified the power of the elected tribunes by assuming the powers of a tribune without actually holding the office itself, allowing him to act as one without other tribunes challenging him. This included casting down any
569:. When it came to electing officials and magistrates higher up, though, that responsibility still lay with the Centuriate Assembly, which was for the most part controlled by patrician interests. Eventually, that too changed to include the votes of more than 35 countryside plebeian tribes. Once the lower class had greater political representation, there came a greater opportunity for them to finally ascend the political and social ladder, making the “rule by the people” a more attainable goal.
295:, selected from the seventy centuries of the first class; after it voted and its result was announced, the rest of the first class voted and their results announced. Following the first class, the equites and patricians voted, then the remaining classes in order. Voting ended when the requisite number of posts was filled. In the tribes, after 139 BC, the voting was likely simultaneous, but tallied in an order determined by lot, with results ending also when all posts were filled.
302:; while the assemblies met elsewhere also for legislative purposes, the larger space on the campus may have been needed to fit the higher number of voters. Through the republican period, voting occurred only in person: only when elections became irrelevant in the early Principate were provisions made for ballots from Italian towns to be transmitted under seal to Rome.
619:
voting for a single consul in 45 BC took five hours, with the equites and the first and second classes voting. From what we know of how the voting was structured historians have estimated that at most between 6,000 and 16,800 could have voted in that election. With an electorate of 910,000, even the most generous guesses put voter turnout below 10%.
445:
numerous attacks on the character or constituency of opponents running for office. Some clever candidates (or their supporters) apparently scrawled derisive messages implying that only unsavory characters such as "the sneak thieves... the whole company of late drinkers late risers" supported the opposing candidate.
168:. It is a how-to guide on running for consul, written by Quintus for his brother's campaign in 64 BC. Unfortunately, there are many doubts as to its authenticity, accepted by some as authentic to the period, others date it a century later to an author who would not have direct knowledge of election realities.
501:
began to transition from an aristocratic government to become more oligarchic in nature. Some sources assert that the money gained from bribes actually helped common voters afford the cost of voting. In fact, the biggest target of this corruption was these poorer citizens, revealing that these voters
453:
Roman elections were not like modern elections. The people's role was to choose the candidate with the finest qualities and highest merit. Magistrates were supposed to exercise their powers independently and impartially for the community as a whole, rather than for the benefit of factional interests.
598:
One unknown is how the Romans kept track of who was eligible to vote. Debates over the franchise were frequent, and differentiating voters from non-voters must have been done. One possibility is that as voters gathered as a tribe the members would be well known enough to each other that an outsider
484:
Since most voters saw elections as irrelevant to their own lives, many candidates resorted to bribery to convince the people to cast their votes. Bribery became such a commonplace practice in the later
Republic that it was seen as a normal part of the political process, and ranged anywhere from the
420:
was established, in which potential candidates started to “profess to the magistrate” their wish to be nominated for candidacy. This led to the nominated candidates publicly advertising their aspirations to office and even “ their own canvass,” clearly campaigning with the idea of voters’ choice in
631:
saw the final decline of democratic elections in Rome. Augustus undermined and lessened the significance of the election results, eventually eliminating elections entirely. He also diminished the importance of the offices themselves. He could nominate senators freely and essentially controlled all
395:
were not permitted in Roman elections. To attract voters candidates instead held banquets and gave away free tickets to the games. To pay for these either a candidate had to be wealthy, or rely on the sponsorship of wealthy friends. There are cases of people going ruinously into debt to fund their
618:
to hold the population while voting. The size of the structure, if completely filled with voters, could have held between 30,000 and 70,000 people. This is almost certainly a high estimate, as open spaces for conducting polling itself would have been required. Cicero mentions in one work that the
101:
Elections were a central element to the history and politics of Rome for some 500 years, and the major historians such as Livy and
Plutarch make frequent references to them. No comprehensive account exists on how elections worked. Historians have reconstructed details from scattered accounts from
305:
After the assembly voted, their decision had to be ratified by the presiding magistrate. If the magistrate did not so ratify, the election was invalid. Formally, the election of a new magistrate was done by the magistrate on advice from the people, with the succeeding magistrate "created" by the
544:
also ensured that votes of the lower classes were tied to an elite. While voting was more open, running for office was much more restricted. Being a candidate had more stringent property tests, and required ten years of military service. Throughout the entire history of the
Republic running and
444:
Thus, all that mattered was that the politician kept everyone happy, even if that meant lying to their supporters. In addition to flattery and favor-trading, politicians would even resort to ad hominem tactics; in particular, one can find inscribed on the toilets of public buildings in
Pompeii
513:
Corruption posed the greatest problem in the later
Republic when the lucrative benefits of high office led to more competitive elections. Candidates were frequently accused of breaking the laws restricting spending, and also of directly bribing voters. Electoral crimes were known as
208:
Roman citizens were divided into various assemblies which were distinguished by their form of block votes. The assemblies abstractly represented the whole Roman people, even if the blocks had little relation to population or participation. The citizens were divided into
318:
as consul because he was then a candidate only for the aedileship. For a magistrate to override the will of the people like this, however, required some degree of support; if candidates protested and support was not forthcoming, the president usually gave way.
306:
incumbent. In earlier times, elections may have merely been acclamatory votes to approve leaders already presented by the presiding magistrate. Presiding magistrates had the power to and did throw out votes: in 215 BC the presiding consul requested the
186:
vocabulary for elections and voting implies early voting was largely done by acclamation, where the purpose of elections was to affirm popular consent for elite leadership choices. At the beginning of the
Republic, the only elected positions were the two
65:
grew in use and extent, the pool of candidates was no longer limited to a select group with riches and high birth. Instead, many more ordinary citizens had a chance to run for office, allowing for more equal representation in key government decisions.
281:
After a magistrate constituted an assembly, usually in summer or early autumn, candidates would stand before the electorate. When voting started, the appropriate block would lodge votes before a magistrate. Prior to 139 BC and the passage of the
548:
The plebeian group, consisting mostly of rural farmers, gained greater political representation only slowly over time. By the middle of the 5th century BC, the plebeians had gained enough political power that an assembly of them called the
458:, these were not political parties and candidates did not stand to represent them. This division did not exist prior to the final century of the republic. Before then divisions were based primarily upon family factions, such as the
557:, or representatives, annually. The Concilium was notable in that it was the first to represent all plebeians, not just those in the city. It was also one of few assemblies of its time to employ group voting, in which each
109:, who created the influential description of Rome as having a "mixed" constitution with monarchial, artistocratic, and popular elements from the consuls, Senate, and popular assemblies. This approach, however, is largely
636:
proposed by the others, significantly decreasing the power of the tribunes. Because of this, even though elections still occurred, the results mattered far less than they had under the
Republic. Eventually, late in his
288:, a voter would queue on raised gangway and then state to a clerk his ballot. After the reforms of that year, he would instead write names in his own hand. The ballots would then be collected in an urn and counted.
45:, often trumped the concerns of the diverse and disunified lower class; while at times, the people already in power would pre-select candidates for office, further reducing the value of voters’ input. The
191:; over the course of the Republic new public offices were added, and by the end of the Republic, some forty-four public offices were elected. All were elected annually to one-year terms except the
131:. While his major works touch on elections, his daily life was immersed in late Republican politics, and his surviving letters and orations are the most valuable. Two important ones are
610:
Another debated issue is turnout. No contemporary source indicates how many cast ballots in an election. One clue to an approximate number is the size of the voting area. As consul,
540:
The Tribal
Council on its surface was equitable, for example, but actually worked in favor of elites who had the resources to travel to the city to participate in the election. The
429:
Politicians running for a position of power in the Roman
Republic followed campaigning strategies similar to those used by modern politicians. In a contemporary letter written to
377:
who had been trained to memorize the names of all the voters, so that the candidate could greet them all by name. The person running for office would wear an especially whitened
49:
themselves at first remained distant from voters and refrained from public presentations (in fact, formal speech-making was at one point forbidden in an effort to focus on the
396:
campaigns. There were no attempts to restrict who could donate or how much, but there were several laws passed attempting to limit candidate spending on banquets and games.
489:
noted the prohibition of bribery, but this proved to be useless as it continued to be prominent in elections and was very difficult to differentiate between bribery and the
595:
of 90 BC extending voting rights to citizens across Italy greatly expanded the franchise. By the final
Republican census of 70 BC, there were 910,000 possible electors.
454:
This meant that candidates did not campaign on the basis of policies or programmes. While some scholars believe that there was a division in the late republic between
363:. The candidate would walk to the forum surrounded by a group of supporters, to meet another cluster of allies in the Forum. At the forum, the candidate would
314:' election as praetor was thrown out because he had already been elected aedile; in 148 BC, the presiding magistrate refused to recognise the election of
273:, which were hereditary and geographic. The plebeian council was called with the plebs divided into tribes, making it almost identical to the tribal assembly.
412:
prepared a list of candidates, it was the magistrate that narrowed the list to the two candidates that could contend for the nomination. Later on in the
182:
The Roman people were theoretically sovereign, but all of its sovereign power had to be exercised through the magistrates which it elected. The
1383:
589:
and originally those living outside of Rome. In the early Republic, the electorate would have been small, but as Rome grew it expanded. The
177:
520:, and there was a long series of laws passed trying to eliminate it, seemingly to little effect. In the consular election of 59 BC, both
502:
still had considerable influence in the outcome of elections. However, the consequences of such corruption caused a lack of faith in the
389:. Some candidates may have extended their canvassing to the rural markets around Rome, once those outside the city were allowed to vote.
645:. Citizens were still allowed to elect municipal officers, but filling higher-level posts was left entirely to those already in power.
1607:
497:
without any consulates in his family grew as well. Political office, then, was no longer restricted to those of noble birth, and the
27:
237:
were represented by thirty lictors standing in for the entire Roman population. Actual selection of the higher magistrates (consul,
1261:
Cicero, Quintus Tullius; Carville, James (2012). "Campaign Tips From Cicero: The Art of Politics, From the Tiber to the Potomac".
311:
855:
was introduced in reforms in the third century which reduced the number of centuries in the first class from eighty to seventy.
1403:
1372:
1351:
1251:
884:
787:
326:– by the late republic, the thirty curiae were each represented by a single lictor, – was called to grant the new magistrate
528:
committed to large bribes. In the election of 54 BC two candidates promised the vast sum of the 10 million sesterces to the
1597:
139:, both legal speeches to defend candidates accused of bribery. He also wrote two dialogues on the republic and the laws (
485:
blatant promising of money to simply hosting games and entertaining the people. Sometime during the mid-second century,
1565:
1538:
1519:
1475:
1444:
660:
inscriptions lauding one candidate or another, indicating that contested elections were still underway there in AD 79.
346:
A campaign would begin when the election day was announced by the magistrate in charge of elections. In 98 BC the
291:
In the centuries, the results of each century's vote was announced as they became available. The first to vote was the
1498:
566:
599:
could be spotted, but as populations grew this would have been difficult. Historians have proposed that a central
562:
1602:
113:
and unsatisfactorily forces elements of the Roman constitution into Greek-inspired constitutional schema.
18:
1582:
195:, who was normally elected every five years. The only public offices which were not elected were that of
53:
rather than the charisma of the candidate), but they later more than made up for time lost with habitual
638:
369:
493:. Some evidence suggests that as the dominance of the practice grew, the number of men who gained the
541:
490:
156:
641:, Augustus eliminated direct election entirely, establishing designation by a group of senators and
1058:
82:
455:
374:
102:
different eras, but much is still uncertain and there is scholarly debate over several elements.
1531:
Elections and electioneering in Rome : a study in the political system of the late republic
438:
284:
165:
1428:
1395:
1420:
553:(a consolidation of a number of other disjointed plebeian assemblies) was able to elect ten
649:
604:
1083:
Henderson, M M (October 1968). "Tiberius Gracchus and the Failure of the Roman Republic".
205:, the dictator's deputy, who were appointed by the consul in extraordinary circumstances.
37:
were an essential part of its governance, with participation only being afforded to Roman
8:
1548:
Yakobson, Alexander (2012). "Elections, Roman". In Bagnall, Roger S; et al. (eds.).
408:
was originally a process that did not allow for a true choice from the people. After the
218:
1464:
1450:
1328:
1320:
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994:
503:
348:
62:
1561:
1557:
1534:
1515:
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1487:
1471:
1440:
1421:
1399:
1368:
1347:
1332:
1247:
1006:
986:
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392:
315:
38:
1553:
1432:
1391:
1312:
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872:
550:
507:
266:
214:
201:
1509:
1362:
1341:
876:
222:
982:
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with the eligible voters. Whispering into the ear of some candidates would be a
249:, and the centuries were organized into tiers by rank and property with cavalry
866:
615:
498:
463:
413:
299:
196:
70:
1454:
1419:
Roper, Brian S (2013). "Democracy Suppressed: The Roman Republic and Empire".
797:
430:
1591:
1489:
Roman voting assemblies from the Hannibalic War to the dictatorship of Caesar
990:
611:
578:
521:
141:
90:
74:
1511:
Roman elections in the age of Cicero : society, government, and voting
1436:
865:
Loewenstein, Karl (1973). "The Institutions of the Augustan Principate I".
494:
459:
409:
192:
154:
The most comprehensive surviving source on the elections themselves is the
120:
93:(r. 27 BC – AD 14). However, Roman elections continued at the local level.
633:
600:
360:
270:
1274:
998:
966:
41:. Upper-class interests, centered in the urban political environment of
1295:
467:
356:
246:
151:) which provide further schematic context for Roman political thought.
147:
1324:
338:
was considered necessary for a magistrate to hold provincial command.
213:, centuries, and tribes, which when organised created assemblies with
85:
for high office were largely undermined and then brought to an end by
591:
386:
364:
298:
Elections for both the tribes and centuries normally occurred in the
242:
46:
1493:(1st ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
1316:
1303:
Lintott, Andrew (1990). "Electoral Bribery in The Roman Republic".
657:
628:
486:
254:
106:
86:
78:
58:
23:
653:
642:
607:, but no sources or archaeological evidence survives for either.
554:
525:
516:
479:
262:
250:
238:
116:
54:
30:
in 63 BC, depicting a Roman citizen casting a ballot into an urn.
434:
258:
188:
128:
105:
One of the main schematic sources on the Roman constitution is
50:
1192:
1190:
934:
910:
710:
708:
586:
582:
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of plebeians agreed on a single vote to cast, similar to the
558:
183:
967:"Imperium, potestas, and the pomerium in the Roman republic"
782:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ch. 7.
1187:
1142:
1096:
1094:
946:
405:
378:
42:
922:
804:
705:
759:
738:
1423:
The history of democracy : a Marxist interpretation
1091:
717:
241:, and censor) was done before the centuries. This was a
1108:
1106:
898:
832:
830:
828:
253:
at the top and unarmed and unpropertied at the bottom.
871:. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 255–273.
245:
assembly descended from the organisation of the early
1282:
Best, Edward E. (1974). "Literacy and Roman Voting".
698:
696:
694:
1199:
1103:
1064:
825:
652:
for some time after outside of Rome. The remains of
385:. It is from this term that we get the modern word
61:, and empty promises. As the practice of electoral
1486:
1463:
691:
648:There is evidence that elections continued at the
603:was kept or that citizens were given some form of
506:and the political process, which led, in part, to
334:. Even in the late republic, having the requisite
1085:Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory
780:Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship
1589:
545:winning office was dominated by elite families.
535:
352:set the campaign length between 17 and 25 days.
1260:
1018:
1016:
614:began the construction of a structure on the
577:Voting for most offices was open to all full
1124:
1025:
178:Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic
1246:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
1013:
864:
233:– was largely ceremonial, where the thirty
127:The most important sources are writings by
1470:. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
1269:(3). Council on Foreign Relations: 18–28.
1215:
1213:
1211:
1360:
1284:Historia: Zeitschrift fĂĽr Alte Geschichte
1082:
1061:, 79 AD. See Davis 1912–13), pp. 260-265.
971:Historia: Zeitschrift fĂĽr Alte Geschichte
952:
940:
928:
916:
904:
848:
810:
765:
744:
723:
572:
448:
424:
330:or otherwise the auspices needed to have
265:and plebeian aediles were elected by the
1547:
1528:
1461:
1381:
1070:
836:
310:to reconsider its vote; in 184 BC,
17:
1507:
1396:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.7196
1302:
1208:
964:
1590:
1484:
1343:The crowd in Rome in the late republic
1339:
1241:
777:
399:
269:. These were divided into thirty-five
1418:
1049:Cicero & Carville 2012, pp. 18–28
1466:Greek and Roman voting and elections
1281:
1059:Inscriptions from houses in Pompeii
622:
81:almost all officeholders annually.
13:
1244:Roman political ideas and practice
542:Roman system clients and patronage
322:After elections, a meeting of the
14:
1619:
1576:
225:forms. By the late republic, the
162:Little Handbook on Electioneering
1608:Government of the Roman Republic
1558:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20053
1427:. London: Pluto Press. pp.
1361:Mouritsen, Henrik (2017-03-02).
1346:. University of Michigan Press.
1552:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
1550:Encyclopedia of Ancient History
1222:
1178:
1169:
1160:
1151:
1133:
1115:
1076:
1052:
1043:
1034:
958:
858:
842:
816:
771:
563:United States Electoral College
35:Elections in the Roman Republic
1367:. Cambridge University Press.
1364:Politics in the Roman republic
750:
729:
682:
669:
341:
261:were elected by tribes, while
1:
1508:Vishnia, Rachel Feig (2012).
1384:"elections and voting, Roman"
1234:
536:Representation and electorate
473:
355:A core campaign activity was
1529:Yakobson, Alexander (1999).
1166:Staveley 1972, pp. 122, 133.
877:10.1007/978-94-010-2400-6_12
171:
123:' campaign of 107 BC in the
119:gives a valuable account of
7:
1598:Elections by former country
1390:. Oxford University Press.
1388:Oxford Classical Dictionary
983:10.25162/historia-2007-0027
10:
1624:
1485:Taylor, Lily Ross (1990).
477:
276:
229:– the body which ratified
175:
96:
1583:Campaign Tips From Cicero
1382:Paterson, Jeremy (2016).
157:Commentariolum Petitionis
1305:Journal of Roman Studies
1175:Adcock 1964, pp. 32, 34.
965:Drogula, Fred K (2007).
677:Roman Republican Coinage
663:
581:, a group that excluded
1514:. New York: Routledge.
1340:Millar, Fergus (1998).
1112:Lintott 1990, pp. 1-16.
778:Wilson, Mark B (2021).
688:Adcock 1964, pp. 19-35.
456:optimates and populares
312:Quintus Fulvius Flaccus
28:Lucius Cassius Longinus
1533:. Stuttgart: Steiner.
1437:10.2307/j.ctt183p7kp.6
1228:Staveley 1972, p. 224.
1205:Staveley 1972, p. 159.
1121:Roper 2013, pp. 37-61.
868:The Governance of ROME
702:Staveley 1972, p. 148.
573:Electorate and turnout
565:and some processes of
449:Programmes and parties
425:Campaigning strategies
336:lex curiata de imperio
285:lex Gabinia tabellaria
166:Quintus Tullius Cicero
31:
1462:Staveley, ES (1972).
1242:Adcock, F.E. (1964).
853:centuria praerogativa
530:centuria praerogativa
308:centuria praerogativa
293:centuria praerogativa
21:
1196:Vishnia 2012, p. 125
1148:Vishnia 2012, p. 105
1130:Vishnia 2012, p. 139
1031:Vishnia 2012, p. 111
1022:Vishnia 2012, p. 112
756:Vishnia 2012, p. 108
735:Yakobson 1999, p. 20
714:Vishnia 2012, p. 106
605:voter identification
1603:Elections in Europe
1184:Adcock 1964, p. 31.
1157:Adcock 1964, p. 30.
1139:Yakobson 1999, p. 9
1040:Staveley 1972, 146.
943:, p. 20 n. 43.
919:, p. 19 n. 34.
400:Declaring candidacy
1219:Adcock 1964, p. 76
955:, pp. 19, 27.
851:, p. 45. The
567:English Parliament
416:a practice called
349:lex Caecilia Didia
32:
1405:978-0-19-938113-5
1374:978-1-107-03188-3
1353:978-0-472-08878-2
1253:978-0-472-06088-7
931:, pp. 19–20.
886:978-94-010-2400-6
822:Taylor 1966, p. 4
813:, pp. 26–27.
789:978-0-472-13266-9
768:, pp. 15–19.
747:, pp. 13–15.
404:Public voting in
393:Political rallies
316:Scipio Aemilianus
83:Popular elections
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1571:
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769:
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727:
726:, pp. 7–13.
721:
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686:
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673:
623:End of elections
491:patronage system
437:by his brother,
267:plebeian council
202:magister equitum
1623:
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1263:Foreign Affairs
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89:, the first
68:
34:
33:
15:
634:legislation
601:voters list
370:nomenclator
365:shake hands
342:Campaigning
137:Pro Plancio
69:During the
63:campaigning
1592:Categories
1411:2022-12-27
1235:References
977:(4): 438.
798:1197561102
675:Crawford,
639:principate
495:consulship
474:Corruption
433:candidate
357:canvassing
247:Roman Army
243:timocratic
219:centuriate
148:De Legibus
133:Pro Murena
47:candidates
26:minted by
1333:154970874
1007:159843089
991:0018-2311
679:, p. 440.
592:Lex Julia
551:Concilium
508:civil war
464:Semproina
418:professio
387:candidate
255:Quaestors
172:Structure
1311:: 1–16.
1275:23217963
999:25598407
658:graffiti
555:tribunes
499:Republic
487:Polybius
332:imperium
328:imperium
263:tribunes
231:imperium
197:dictator
111:a priori
107:Polybius
87:Augustus
75:citizens
59:coercion
51:policies
39:citizens
24:denarius
1296:4435413
654:Pompeii
643:equites
526:Bibulus
517:ambitus
480:Ambitus
460:Claudia
439:Quintus
359:in the
277:Process
259:aediles
251:equites
239:praetor
215:curiate
189:consuls
117:Sallust
97:Sources
55:bribery
1564:
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796:
786:
587:slaves
470:gens.
431:consul
410:Senate
271:tribes
235:curiae
223:tribal
221:, and
211:curiae
193:censor
129:Cicero
121:Marius
77:would
73:, the
43:cities
1451:JSTOR
1431:–61.
1329:S2CID
1321:JSTOR
1292:JSTOR
1271:JSTOR
1003:S2CID
995:JSTOR
895:, 46.
664:Notes
583:women
559:tribe
468:Mucia
375:slave
361:Forum
184:Latin
164:) by
79:elect
1562:ISBN
1535:ISBN
1516:ISBN
1495:ISBN
1472:ISBN
1441:ISBN
1400:ISBN
1369:ISBN
1348:ISBN
1248:ISBN
987:ISSN
893:Aug.
881:ISBN
794:OCLC
784:ISBN
466:and
406:Rome
379:toga
373:, a
199:and
145:and
135:and
1554:doi
1433:doi
1392:doi
1313:doi
979:doi
873:doi
1594::
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707:^
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160:(
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