131:
561:. Many species of rays and skates outside the family have electric organs in the tail; however, the electric ray has two large kidney-shaped electric organs on each side of its head, where current passes from the lower to the upper surface of the body. The nerves that signal the organ to discharge branch repeatedly, then attach to the lower side of each plaque in the batteries. These are composed of hexagonal columns, closely packed in a honeycomb formation. Each column consists of 500 to more than 1000 plaques of modified striated muscle, adapted from the
157:
533:
545:
109:
569:, these batteries are connected as a parallel circuit, whereas freshwater batteries are arranged in series. This allows freshwater rays to transmit discharges of higher voltage, as freshwater cannot conduct electricity as well as saltwater. With such a battery, an electric ray may electrocute larger prey with a voltage of between 8 volts in some narcinids to 220 volts in
583:
The 60 or so species of electric rays are grouped into 12 genera and two families. The
Narkinae are sometimes elevated to a family, the Narkidae. The torpedinids feed on large prey, which are stunned using their electric organs and swallowed whole, while the narcinids specialize on small prey on or
417:
Electric rays are found from shallow coastal waters down to at least 1,000 m (3,300 ft) deep. They are sluggish and slow-moving, propelling themselves with their tails, not by using their pectoral fins as other rays do. They feed on invertebrates and small fish. They lie in wait for prey
508:
The torpedo fish, or electric ray, appears continuously in premodern natural histories as a magical creature, and its ability to numb fishermen without seeming to touch them was a significant source of evidence for the belief in
431:
The electrogenic properties of electric rays have been known since antiquity, although their nature was not understood. The ancient Greeks used electric rays to numb the pain of
1280:
Electrolux addisoni, a new genus and species of electric ray from the east coast of South Africa (Rajiformes: Torpedinoidei: Narkidae), with a review of torpedinoid taxonomy
825:
1103:
Copenhaver, Brian P. (September 1991). "A tale of two fishes: Magical objects in natural history from antiquity through the scientific revolution".
1952:
1808:
728:
1847:
596:
584:
in the bottom substrate. Both groups use electricity for defense, but it is unclear whether the narcinids use electricity in feeding.
1019:
Alexander, Mauro (1969). "The role of the voltaic pile in the
Galvani-Volta controversy concerning animal vs. metallic electricity".
1947:
1782:
1495:
1056:"A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250 th An- niversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré"
1821:
1314:
406:
are at the base of the pectoral fins. The snout is broad, large in the
Narcinidae, but reduced in all other families. The mouth,
1199:
948:
1826:
1337:
1927:
1263:
1230:
1170:
910:
885:
860:
1899:
1852:
821:
1834:
382:
Electric rays have a rounded pectoral disc with two moderately large rounded-angular (not pointed or hooked)
233:
156:
1488:
789:
1730:
1717:
1307:
1342:
1891:
1735:
1708:
1452:
1904:
566:
1932:
1358:
403:
496:
proposed that electric rays use electricity; he built an artificial ray consisting of fish shaped
349:, depending on species, used to stun prey and for defense. There are 69 species in four families.
1481:
1878:
1942:
1670:
1300:
964:
477:
1873:
1366:
982:
938:
558:
481:
1865:
1813:
1247:
1756:
116:
8:
1255:
1055:
676:
652:
138:
130:
1722:
1120:
278:
151:
20:
513:
in nature during the ages before the discovery of electricity as an explanatory mode.
1860:
1743:
1593:
1259:
1226:
1195:
1166:
1128:
1036:
967:(1773). "On the Electric Property of the Torpedo: in a Letter to Benjamin Franklin".
944:
906:
881:
856:
571:
454:
449:
of "stunning" people with his puzzling questions, in a manner similar to the way the
936:
1473:
1462:
1435:
1423:
1112:
1028:
510:
489:
418:
below the sand or other substrate, using their electricity to stun and capture it.
374:, 'to be stiffened or paralyzed', from the effect on someone who touches the fish.
291:
1748:
1631:
1429:
760:
743:
493:
395:
357:
1839:
1248:
1583:
1563:
1546:
1505:
1077:
1032:
562:
450:
342:
208:
198:
937:
Theodore Holmes
Bullock; Carl D. Hopkins; Richard R. Fay (28 September 2006).
1937:
1921:
1536:
1395:
1323:
785:
765:
522:
485:
473:
66:
1279:
1081:
1693:
1588:
1568:
1457:
1401:
1389:
1371:
1132:
721:
668:
282:
259:
1040:
925:
532:
1795:
1702:
1645:
1598:
1578:
1150:. Sears Foundation for Marine Research, Yale University. pp. 80–104.
901:
Stevens, J.; Last, P. K. (1998). Paxton, J. R.; Eschmeyer, W. N. (eds.).
684:
660:
644:
603:
41:
472:
In the 1770s the electric organs of the torpedo ray were the subject of
1626:
1530:
1417:
1411:
1124:
735:
710:
702:
695:
611:
589:
497:
457:, a Roman physician, recorded the use of torpedo fish for treatment of
432:
391:
387:
383:
254:
249:
86:
51:
1800:
1769:
1573:
1187:
619:
544:
411:
168:
108:
91:
1664:
1116:
1787:
1774:
1687:
1653:
1608:
1524:
1518:
794:
636:
458:
446:
218:
188:
81:
76:
61:
56:
46:
1621:
627:
407:
362:
96:
71:
1292:
550:
Diagram of structure of electric organs and stacked electrocytes
399:
274:
178:
1190:. In Marc D. Binder; Nobutaka Hirokawa; Uwe Windhorst (eds.).
330:
19:
This article is about the fish. For a ray of electricity, see
1886:
1761:
1555:
442:
394:. The body is thick and flabby, with soft loose skin with no
366:
353:
1278:
Compagno, Leonard J.V. and
Heemstra, Phillip C. (May 2007) "
878:
Sharks, Skates, and Rays: The
Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes
324:
297:
1284:
Smithiana, Publications in
Aquatic Biodiversity, Bulletin 7
462:
437:
365:
undersea weapon is named after it. The name comes from the
346:
306:
1160:
849:
Collins Latin Gem
Dictionary: Latin-English, English-Latin
492:– the founders of electrophysiology and electrochemistry.
1006:
987:
969:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
318:
312:
1139:
1021:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1272:
333:
321:
315:
1503:
1194:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 1050–1056.
943:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6.
309:
303:
294:
1225:(Third ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 768.
390:), and a stout muscular tail with a well-developed
327:
300:
1163:A Living Bay: the Underwater World of Monterey Bay
985:(1773). "Anatomical Observations on the Torpedo".
484:. These appear to have influenced the thinking of
930:
1919:
1145:
352:Perhaps the best known members are those of the
1165:. University of California Press. p. 222.
500:to successfully mimic their behaviour in 1773.
1096:
1012:
1489:
1308:
1245:
1148:Fishes of the Western North Atlantic, Part 2
1047:
1179:
900:
369:
1496:
1482:
1315:
1301:
1161:Langstroth, L. & Newberry, T. (2000).
1102:
129:
107:
1632:Myliobatiformes (stingrays and relatives)
1146:Bigelow, H. B.; Schroeder, W. C. (1953).
1082:"Shock and Awe: The Story of Electricity"
1018:
905:. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 66.
421:
1254:(fourth ed.). John Wiley. pp.
1000:Hunter, John (1775). "An account of the
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
1953:Taxa named by Fernando de Buen y Lozano
1564:Hexanchiformes (frilled and cow sharks)
1286:: 15-49. Retrieved on October 22, 2008.
1053:
875:
824:. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
784:
1920:
1239:
1220:
1214:
1185:
1076:
999:
981:
869:
426:
341:. They are known for being capable of
1669:
1668:
1477:
1296:
963:
802:
1892:03A3DB49-C055-B83A-82E7-C10CFE1C7909
1627:Rajiformes (skates and guitarfishes)
846:
828:from the original on 15 October 2008
1584:Heterodontiformes (bullhead sharks)
1338:Electroreception and electrogenesis
1223:International Wildlife Encyclopedia
880:. Baltimore and London: JHU Press.
557:The electric rays have specialised
538:Position of the two electric organs
13:
1054:Edwards, Paul (10 November 2021).
894:
819:
14:
1964:
1594:Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks)
1322:
778:
516:
1589:Orectolobiformes (carpet sharks)
543:
531:
435:and operations. In his dialogue
290:
155:
39:
1948:Extant Eocene first appearances
1617:Torpediniformes (electric rays)
1154:
1105:Journal of the History of Ideas
1070:
993:
847:Kidd, D. A. (1973). "Torpedo".
343:producing an electric discharge
1574:Pristiophoriformes (sawsharks)
975:
957:
919:
840:
578:
503:
445:has the character Meno accuse
377:
1:
1599:Lamniformes (mackerel sharks)
1579:Squatiniformes (angel sharks)
1569:Squaliformes (dogfish sharks)
771:
16:Order of cartilaginous fishes
1192:Encyclopedia of Neuroscience
876:Hamlett, William C. (1999).
853:Collins Latin Gem Dictionary
7:
754:
10:
1969:
1654:Chimaeriformes (chimaeras)
1398:(S. American knifefishes)
1343:Jamming avoidance response
1188:"Electric Organ Discharge"
520:
18:
1677:
1644:
1607:
1554:
1545:
1513:
1453:History of bioelectricity
1445:
1382:
1351:
1330:
1058:. HAL open-access archive
414:are underneath the disc.
246:
241:
152:Scientific classification
150:
137:
128:
115:
106:
30:
1928:Electroreceptive animals
1622:Pristiformes (sawfishes)
1033:10.1093/jhmas/xxiv.2.140
798:. February 2011 version.
788:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
724:(torpedo electric rays)
575:, the Atlantic torpedo.
453:stuns with electricity.
345:, ranging from 8 to 220
790:"Order Torpediniformes"
1186:Kramer, Bernd (2008).
903:Encyclopedia of Fishes
422:Relationship to humans
370:
285:, composing the order
1874:Paleobiology Database
1367:Ampullae of Lorenzini
1246:Nelson, J.S. (2006).
565:(gill arch) muscles.
521:Further information:
467:Compositiones Medicae
398:or thorns. A pair of
1426:(electric catfishes)
410:, and five pairs of
117:Marbled electric ray
1392:(African knifefish)
1250:Fishes of the World
1221:Burton, R. (2002).
1002:Gymnotus electricus
855:. London: Collins.
427:History of research
139:Lesser electric ray
1506:cartilaginous fish
820:Martin, R. Aidan.
279:cartilaginous fish
144:Narcine bancroftii
21:Electric discharge
1915:
1914:
1861:Open Tree of Life
1671:Taxon identifiers
1662:
1661:
1640:
1639:
1556:Selachii (sharks)
1471:
1470:
1363:Electroreceptors
1201:978-3-540-23735-8
950:978-0-387-28275-6
572:Torpedo nobiliana
455:Scribonius Largus
386:(reduced in some
267:
266:
237:
122:Torpedo marmorata
1960:
1908:
1907:
1895:
1894:
1882:
1881:
1869:
1868:
1856:
1855:
1843:
1842:
1840:NBNSYS0000187908
1830:
1829:
1817:
1816:
1804:
1803:
1791:
1790:
1778:
1777:
1765:
1764:
1752:
1751:
1739:
1738:
1726:
1725:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1666:
1665:
1552:
1551:
1498:
1491:
1484:
1475:
1474:
1463:Magnetoreception
1414:(elephantfishes)
1317:
1310:
1303:
1294:
1293:
1287:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1253:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1016:
1010:
1009:
997:
991:
990:
979:
973:
972:
961:
955:
954:
940:Electroreception
934:
928:
923:
917:
916:
898:
892:
891:
873:
867:
866:
844:
838:
837:
835:
833:
817:
800:
799:
782:
547:
535:
511:occult qualities
490:Alessandro Volta
396:dermal denticles
373:
340:
339:
336:
335:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
232:
160:
159:
133:
111:
101:
38:
34:Temporal range:
28:
27:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1933:Torpediniformes
1918:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1903:
1898:
1890:
1885:
1877:
1872:
1864:
1859:
1851:
1846:
1838:
1833:
1825:
1820:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1794:
1786:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1760:
1755:
1747:
1742:
1734:
1729:
1723:Torpediniformes
1721:
1716:
1709:Torpediniformes
1707:
1706:
1701:
1692:
1691:
1686:
1679:Torpediniformes
1673:
1663:
1658:
1636:
1609:Batoidea (rays)
1603:
1541:
1509:
1502:
1472:
1467:
1441:
1432:(electric rays)
1430:Torpediniformes
1406:(electric eels)
1378:
1347:
1326:
1321:
1291:
1290:
1277:
1273:
1266:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1219:
1215:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1159:
1155:
1144:
1140:
1117:10.2307/2710043
1101:
1097:
1087:
1085:
1078:Al-Khalili, Jim
1075:
1071:
1061:
1059:
1052:
1048:
1017:
1013:
998:
994:
980:
976:
962:
958:
951:
935:
931:
926:Wikisource:Meno
924:
920:
913:
899:
895:
888:
874:
870:
863:
845:
841:
831:
829:
822:"Electric Rays"
818:
803:
783:
779:
774:
761:Endangered rays
757:
639:(sleeper rays)
581:
559:electric organs
555:
554:
553:
552:
551:
548:
540:
539:
536:
525:
519:
506:
494:Henry Cavendish
469:of 46 AD.
429:
424:
404:electric organs
380:
293:
289:
287:Torpediniformes
273:are a group of
231:
229:Torpediniformes
154:
141:
119:
102:
100:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
36:
35:
32:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1966:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1896:
1883:
1870:
1857:
1844:
1831:
1818:
1805:
1792:
1779:
1766:
1753:
1740:
1727:
1714:
1699:
1683:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1656:
1650:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1613:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1558:
1549:
1547:Elasmobranchii
1543:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1501:
1500:
1493:
1486:
1478:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1424:Malapteruridae
1421:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1393:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1361:
1359:Electric organ
1355:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1345:
1340:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1320:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1297:
1289:
1288:
1271:
1264:
1238:
1231:
1213:
1200:
1178:
1171:
1153:
1138:
1111:(3): 373–398.
1095:
1069:
1046:
1027:(2): 140–150.
1011:
1008:(65): 395–407.
992:
989:(63): 481–489.
974:
971:(64): 461–480.
956:
949:
929:
918:
911:
893:
886:
868:
861:
839:
801:
786:Froese, Rainer
776:
775:
773:
770:
769:
768:
763:
756:
753:
752:
751:
750:
749:
748:
747:
739:
718:
717:
716:
715:
714:
705:(coffin rays)
698:(coffin rays)
692:
691:
690:
689:
688:
680:
672:
664:
656:
648:
633:
632:
631:
623:
615:
607:
580:
577:
567:In marine fish
549:
542:
541:
537:
530:
529:
528:
527:
526:
518:
517:Bioelectricity
515:
505:
502:
428:
425:
423:
420:
379:
376:
281:with enlarged
265:
264:
263:
262:
257:
252:
244:
243:
239:
238:
226:
222:
221:
216:
212:
211:
209:Elasmobranchii
206:
202:
201:
199:Chondrichthyes
196:
192:
191:
186:
182:
181:
176:
172:
171:
166:
162:
161:
148:
147:
135:
134:
126:
125:
113:
112:
104:
103:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1965:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1943:Electric fish
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1537:Gnathostomata
1534:
1532:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1487:
1485:
1480:
1479:
1476:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1436:Uranoscopidae
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1403:Electrophorus
1400:
1399:
1397:
1396:Gymnotiformes
1394:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1329:
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1324:Electric fish
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1796:iNaturalist
1703:Wikispecies
1646:Holocephali
965:Walsh, John
685:Typhlonarke
661:Heteronarce
645:Crassinarke
604:Benthobatis
579:Systematics
504:In folklore
498:Leyden jars
482:John Hunter
384:dorsal fins
378:Description
1922:Categories
1531:Vertebrata
1529:Subphylum
1418:Rajiformes
1412:Mormyridae
1331:Physiology
1207:2012-03-25
832:12 October
772:References
736:Tetronarce
727:Subfamily
701:Subfamily
653:Electrolux
635:Subfamily
612:Diplobatis
597:Narcininae
595:Subfamily
590:Narcinidae
478:John Walsh
476:papers by
433:childbirth
412:gill slits
392:caudal fin
388:Narcinidae
250:Narcinidae
234:F. de Buen
205:Subclass:
620:Discopyge
563:branchial
459:headaches
242:Families
175:Kingdom:
169:Eukaryota
1688:Wikidata
1525:Chordata
1519:Animalia
1517:Kingdom
1420:(skates)
1133:11622951
826:Archived
795:FishBase
755:See also
703:Hypninae
696:Hypnidae
637:Narkinae
447:Socrates
408:nostrils
402:-shaped
255:Hypnidae
219:Batoidea
189:Chordata
185:Phylum:
179:Animalia
165:Domain:
1523:Phylum
1504:Extant
1446:Related
1352:Anatomy
1125:2710043
1041:4895861
744:Torpedo
720:Family
694:Family
628:Narcine
588:Family
465:in his
371:torpere
363:torpedo
358:Torpedo
225:Order:
195:Class:
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1866:356640
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617:Genus
609:Genus
601:Genus
480:, and
400:kidney
361:. The
236:, 1926
1905:10215
1900:WoRMS
1887:Plazi
1814:11530
1809:IRMNG
1801:51325
1258:–82.
1121:JSTOR
1084:. BBC
1062:6 May
669:Narke
443:Plato
367:Latin
354:genus
347:volts
1938:Rays
1848:NCBI
1822:ITIS
1783:GBIF
1770:EPPO
1762:8898
1731:BOLD
1260:ISBN
1227:ISBN
1196:ISBN
1167:ISBN
1129:PMID
1090:2022
1064:2022
1037:PMID
1025:XXIV
945:ISBN
907:ISBN
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857:ISBN
834:2008
488:and
463:gout
461:and
438:Meno
275:rays
269:The
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1835:NBN
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