675:
1733:
578:
1010:
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53:
1098:
Within his constraints, a serf had some freedom. Though the common wisdom is that a serf owned “only his belly” – even his clothes were the property, in law, of his lord – a serf might still accumulate personal property and wealth, and some serfs became wealthier than their free neighbors, although this was rather an exception to the general rule. A well-to-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.
1107:
161:
1149:
fed during his service; it was a lord without foresight who did not provide a substantial meal for his serfs during the harvest and planting times. In exchange for this work on the lord's demesne, the serfs had certain privileges and rights, including for example the right to gather deadwood – an essential source of fuel – from their lord's forests.
930:, the lord of the manor, they were expected to spend some of their time working on the lord's fields. The rest of their time was spent farming their own land for their own profit. Villeins were tied to their lord's land and could not leave it without his permission. Their lord also often decided whom they could marry.
926:) represented the most common type of serf in the Middle Ages. Villeins had more rights and higher status than the lowest serf, but existed under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from freemen. Villeins generally rented small homes, with a patch of land. As part of the contract with the
1213:
The amount of labour required varied. In Poland, for example, it was commonly a few days per year per household in the 13th century, one day per week per household in the 14th century, four days per week per household in the 17th century, and six days per week per household in the 18th century. Early
1156:
and fees. Taxes were based on the assessed value of his lands and holdings. Fees were usually paid in the form of agricultural produce rather than cash. The best ration of wheat from the serf's harvest often went to the landlord. Generally hunting and trapping of wild game by the serfs on the lord's
941:
A variety of kinds of villeinage existed in Europe in the Middle Ages. Half-villeins received only half as many strips of land for their own use and owed a full complement of labour to the lord, often forcing them to rent out their services to other serfs to make up for this hardship. Villeinage was
786:
might leave a person unable to make his own way. In such a case, he could strike a bargain with a lord of a manor. In exchange for gaining protection, his service was required: in labour, produce, or cash, or a combination of all. These bargains became formalised in a ceremony known as "bondage", in
387:
who owned that land. In return, they were entitled to protection, justice, and the right to cultivate certain fields within the manor to maintain their own subsistence. Serfs were often required not only to work on the lord's fields, but also in his mines and forests and to labour to maintain roads.
1223:"Per household" means that every dwelling had to give a worker for the required number of days. For example, in the 18th century, six people: a peasant, his wife, three children and a hired worker might be required to work for their lord one day a week, which would be counted as six days of labour.
1186:
Within his constraints, a serf had some freedoms. Though the common wisdom is that a serf owned "only his belly" – even his clothes were the property, in law, of his lord – a serf might still accumulate personal property and wealth, and some serfs became wealthier than
933:
Like other types of serfs, villeins had to provide other services, possibly in addition to paying rent of money or produce. Villeins could not move away without their lord's consent and the acceptance of the lord to whose manor they proposed to migrate to. Villeins were generally able to hold their
1148:
A major difficulty of a serf's life was that his work for his lord coincided with, and took precedence over, the work he had to perform on his own lands: when the lord's crops were ready to be harvested, so were his own. On the other hand, the serf of a benign lord could look forward to being well
814:
be true and faithful, and love all which he loves and shun all which he shuns, according to the laws of God and the order of the world. Nor will I ever with will or action, through word or deed, do anything which is unpleasing to him, on condition that he will hold to me as I shall deserve it, and
1097:
Serfdom was significantly more common than slavery throughout the feudal period. The villein was the most common type of serf in the Middle Ages. Villeins had more rights and status than those held as slaves, but were under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from the freeman.
1089:
The last type of serf was the slave. Slaves had the fewest rights and benefits from the manor. They owned no tenancy in land, worked for the lord exclusively and survived on donations from the landlord. It was always in the interest of the lord to prove that a servile arrangement existed, as this
757:
A lord of the manor could not sell his serfs as a Roman might sell his slaves. On the other hand, if he chose to dispose of a parcel of land, the serfs associated with that land stayed with it to serve their new lord; simply speaking, they were implicitly sold in mass and as a part of a lot. This
1169:
Often there were arbitrary tests to judge the worthiness of their tax payments. A chicken, for example, might be required to be able to jump over a fence of a given height to be considered old enough or well enough to be valued for tax purposes. The restraints of serfdom on personal and economic
946:
and survival, and being a villein guaranteed access to land, and crops secure from theft by marauding robbers. Landlords, even were legally entitled to do so, rarely evicted villeins because of the value of their labour. Villeinage was much preferable to being a vagabond, a slave, or an unlanded
892:
and were essentially rent-paying tenant farmers who owed little or no service to the lord, and had a good degree of security of tenure and independence. In parts of 11th-century
England freemen made up only 10% of the peasant population, and in most of the rest of Europe their numbers were also
1308:
and Marche. However, although formal serfdom no longer existed in most of France, the feudal seigneurial laws still granted noble landlords many of the rights previously exercised over serfs, and the peasants of
Auvergne, Nivernais and Champagne, though formally not serfs, could still not move
1177:
It was also a matter of discussion whether serfs could be required by law in times of war or conflict to fight for their lord's land and property. In the case of their lord's defeat, their own fate might be uncertain, so the serf certainly had an interest in supporting his lord.
1234:
by generous owners, or flee to towns or to newly settled land where few questions were asked. Laws varied from country to country: in
England a serf who made his way to a chartered town (i.e. a borough) and evaded recapture for a year and a day obtained his freedom and became a
753:
One rationale held that serfs and freemen "worked for all" while a knight or baron "fought for all" and a churchman "prayed for all"; thus everyone had a place. The serf was the worst fed and rewarded however, although unlike slaves had certain rights in land and property.
3522:
Croatian encyclopedia, 1780 queen Maria
Theresa introduced the regulations in Royal Croatia. 1785. King Joseph II introduced the Patent of freedom of movement of Serfs which gave them the right of movement, education and property, also ended their dependence to feudal
1413:) on a portion of the latter's land; his services to the lord are always undefined. Although his condition is servile, he retains the right to abandon his holding on giving due notice to the lord and surrendering to him two thirds of the products of his husbandry."
819:
To become a serf was a commitment that encompassed all aspects of the serf's life. The children born to serfs inherited their status, and were considered born into serfdom. By taking on the duties of serfdom, people bound themselves and their progeny.
958:
and living there for more than a year; but this action involved the loss of land rights and agricultural livelihood, a prohibitive price unless the landlord was especially tyrannical or conditions in the village were unusually difficult.
661:
even as it spread through eastern Europe. Serfdom reached
Eastern Europe centuries later than Western Europe – it became dominant around the 15th century. In many of these countries serfdom was abolished during the
1165:
to enable the heir to keep the right to till what land he had. Any young woman who wished to marry a serf outside of her manor was forced to pay a fee for the right to leave her lord, and in compensation for her lost labour.
1488:'s peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters.
643:. Serfdom, indeed, was an institution that reflected a fairly common practice whereby great landlords were assured that others worked to feed them and were held down, legally and economically, while doing so.
1197:
The landlord could not dispossess his serfs without legal cause and was supposed to protect them from the depredations of robbers or other lords, and he was expected to support them by charity in times of
758:
unified system preserved for the lord long-acquired knowledge of practices suited to the land. Further, a serf could not abandon his lands without permission, nor did he possess a saleable title in them.
1048:(1604 onwards) removed the cottars' right to any land: "before the Enclosures Act the cottager was a farm labourer with land and after the Enclosures Act the cottager was a farm labourer without land".
3206:
2154:
2511:
560:
1051:
The bordars and cottars did not own their draught oxen or horses. The
Domesday Book showed that England comprised 12% freeholders, 35% serfs or villeins, 30% cotters and bordars, and 9% slaves.
376:
in Russia, could, by contrast, be traded like regular slaves, could be abused with no rights over their own bodies, could not leave the land they were bound to, and could marry only with their
726:, the term changed meaning into the modern concept of "serf". The word "serf" is first recorded in English in the late 15th century, and came to its current definition in the 17th century.
1161:
the peasant family perhaps might owe an extra dozen eggs, and at
Christmas, a goose was perhaps required, too. When a family member died, extra taxes were paid to the lord as a form of
1033:, garden and just enough land to feed a family. In England, at the time of the Domesday Survey, this would have comprised between about 1 and 5 acres (0.4 and 2.0 hectares). Under an
1476:
in the 17th century. Serfdom only existed in central and southern areas of the
Russian Empire. It was never established in the North, in the Urals, and in Siberia. According to the
934:
own property, unlike slaves. Villeinage, as opposed to other forms of serfdom, was most common in
Continental European feudalism, where land ownership had developed from roots in
628:
assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census.
2568:
2566:
2406:
832:
can be differentiated into smaller categories. These distinctions were often less clear than suggested by their different names. Most often, there were two types of peasants:
2563:
2578:
1312:
Serfdom was formally abolished in France on 4 August 1789, and the remaining feudal rights that gave landlords control rights over peasants were abolished in 1789-93.
3602:
544:
as having had serfdom until 1959, but whether or not the
Tibetan form of peasant tenancy that qualified as serfdom was widespread is contested by other scholars.
5096:
1137:. The remainder of the serf's time was spent tending his own fields, crops and animals in order to provide for his family. Most manorial work was segregated by
2851:
3198:
4143:
2229:
1427:
Serfdom in Poland became the dominant form of relationship between peasants and nobility in the 17th century, and was a major feature of the economy of the
1090:
provided him with greater rights to fees and taxes. The status of a man was a primary issue in determining a person's rights and obligations in many of the
450:. In Finland, Norway, and Sweden, feudalism was never fully established, and serfdom did not exist; in Denmark, serfdom-like institutions did exist in both
372:, serfs could not be bought, sold, or traded individually, though they could, depending on the area, be sold together with land. Actual slaves, such as the
2507:
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1454:. Over the course of the 19th century, it was gradually abolished on Polish and Lithuanian territories under foreign control, as the region began to
611:
faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour.
418:
In Eastern Europe, the institution persisted until the mid-19th century. In Russia, serfdom gradually evolved from the usual European form to become
2812:
2246:
Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1986). "Re-examining Choice, Dependency and Command in the Tibetan Social System-'Tax Appendages' and Other Landless Serfs".
678:
Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel from original documents in European libraries
2377:
1521:: neyfs (serfs) disappeared by the late 14th century, except in the salt and coal mining industries, where a form of serfdom survived until the
799:. These oaths bound the lord and his new serf in a feudal contract and defined the terms of their agreement. Often these bargains were severe.
1210:
Forms of serfdom varied greatly through time and regions. In some places, serfdom was merged with or exchanged for various forms of taxation.
3365:
392:, and to a certain extent the serfs, were bound legally: by taxation in the case of the former, and economically and socially in the latter.
2575:"The Pictorial History of England: Being a History of the People, as Well as ... – George Lillie Craik, Charles MacFarlane –Google Książki"
2152:
Edikt den erleichterten Besitz und den freien Gebrauch des Grundeigentums so wie die persönlichen Verhältnisse der Land-Bewohner betreffend
4871:
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2604:
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A serf could grow what crop he saw fit on his lands, although a serf's taxes often had to be paid in wheat. The surplus he would sell at
3755:
2194:
Lee, James; Campbell, Cameron (1998). "Headship succession and household division in three Chinese banner serf populations, 1789–1909".
2099:
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were the lowest class of serfs in the medieval and early modern Russia. They had status similar to slaves, and could be freely traded.
511:
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in the form of seasonally appropriate labour. Usually, a portion of the week was devoted to ploughing his lord's fields held in
4843:
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2399:"Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery"
4881:
1546:
5029:
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1428:
403:, which reached Europe in 1347 and caused massive fatalities, disrupting society. Conversely, serfdom grew stronger in
3773:
2485:
1361:("old dwelling-house") were low-ranked semi-free servile tenants similar to serfs. According to Laurence Ginnell, the
674:
117:
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4719:
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2635:
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136:
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more common from that point onward, and by the 18th-century, serfdom had become relatively rare in most of France.
89:
4741:
3647:
1492:
Russia's over 23 million (about 38% of the total population) privately held serfs were freed from their lords by
2289:
Barnett, Robert (2008) "What were the conditions regarding human rights in Tibet before democratic reform?" in:
942:
not a purely uni-directional exploitative relationship. In the Middle Ages, land within a lord's manor provided
856:, generally comprising the younger sons of villeins; vagabonds; and slaves, made up the lower class of workers.
4731:
3160:
2440:
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their free neighbours, although this happened rarely. A well-to-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.
96:
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5024:
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4791:
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that he will perform everything as it was in our agreement when I submitted myself to him and chose his will.
3550:
2456:
2056:
1044:, the cottage had to be built with at least 4 acres (0.02 km; 0.01 sq mi) of land. The later
770:
became a serf usually through force or necessity. Sometimes the greater physical and legal force of a local
5019:
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1982:
1830:
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choice were enforced through various forms of manorial customary law and the manorial administration and
530:
were kinship estates, quite distinct from feudalism. James Lee and Cameron Campbell describe the Chinese
435:
310:
103:
2796:
1598:(Netherlands): constitution of 12 June 1798 (in theory; in practice with the introduction of the French
4953:
4292:
3813:
3490:
2003:
1435:
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1373:"were not free to leave the territory except with permission, and in practice they usually served the
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rights, could neither sue nor appear as witnesses, and were not free in the matter of entering into
85:
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of 1789, between 140,000 and 1,500,000 serfs remained in France, most of them on clerical lands in
507:
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70:
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were hereditary unfree knights tied to their lord, that formed the lowest rung of nobility in the
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held similarities to serfdom. Even at its height, slaves only ever made up 2% of the population.
499:
63:
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or other person to whom they belonged, or whom they served, or by obtaining from an aire of the
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1977:
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Serfs served on occasion as soldiers in the event of conflict and could earn freedom or even
739:
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4158:
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3705:
Wunder, Heide. "Serfdom in later medieval and early modern Germany" in T. H. Aston et al.,
3532:
2601:"The Edinburgh Review, Or Critical Journal: ... To Be Continued Quarterly – Google Książki"
708:
and most of the Middle Ages, what are now called serfs were usually designated in Latin as
495:
350:
3228:
746:: in return for protection, a serf would reside upon and work a parcel of land within the
8:
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of the early 19th century, though in some it persisted until mid- or late- 19th century.
2698:
On Architectural Jurisprudence; in which the Constitutions, Canons, Laws and Customs etc
584:
in 1846 was a revolt against serfdom, directed against manorial property and oppression.
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system of the late Roman Empire can be considered the predecessor of Western European
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1422:
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905:
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The manor formed the basic unit of feudal society, and the lord of the manor and the
384:
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193:
110:
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Forms of Servitude in Northern and Central Europe. Decline, Resistance and Expansion
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From Savage to Citizen: The Invention of the Peasant in the French Enlightenment
3026:
From Savage to Citizen: The Invention of the Peasant in the French Enlightenment
2049:
1133:, harvesting crops, digging ditches, repairing fences, and often working in the
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Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...
3011:
Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...
2981:
Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...
2967:
The French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Republic: Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite
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358:
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2207:
2171:
Wu, Ta-k'un (February 1952). "An Interpretation of Chinese Economic History".
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by 1959, but he believes that less than or about 10% of poor peasants were in
5085:
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4023:
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Change in the land use system in Bhutan: Ecology, History, Culture, and Power
1992:
1957:
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901:
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577:
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220:
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Serf, Seigneur, and Sovereign: Agrarian Reform in Eighteenth-century Bohemia
950:
In many medieval countries, a villein could gain freedom by escaping from a
624:, saw their condition steadily erode. Because the tax system implemented by
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4225:
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2477:
1402:
608:
531:
515:
482:, the concept of feudalism can also be applied to the societies of ancient
346:
1472:
Serfdom became the dominant form of relation between Russian peasants and
1009:
787:
which a serf placed his head in the lord's hands, akin to the ceremony of
411:, where it had previously been less common (this phenomenon was known as "
4774:
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This arrangement provided most of the agricultural labour throughout the
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39:
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Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor, 1842–1927
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The Decline of Serfdom in Late Medieval England: From Bondage to Freedom
1967:
561:
United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
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2350:
1878:
1807:
1501:
1500:
in 1861. The owners were compensated through taxes on the freed serfs.
1380:
1296:
abolished serfdom in all Crown lands in France. On the outbreak of the
1202:. Many such rights were enforceable by the serf in the manorial court.
943:
783:
775:
625:
600:
467:
399:
has sometimes been attributed to the widespread plague epidemic of the
246:
205:
186:
31:
3625:
Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfdom: Eastern Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed,
1094:-cases of the period. Also, runaway slaves could be beaten if caught.
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Serfdom and social control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a village in Tambov
2013:
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owners into dependency. Often a few years of crop failure, a war, or
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in 1792 and finally abolished it in October 1807, in the wake of the
338:
216:
201:
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3422:
Richard Oram, 'Rural society: 1. medieval', in Michael Lynch (ed.),
2342:
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encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural
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52:
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4647:
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Kahan, Arcadius. "Notes on Serfdom in Western and Eastern Europe,"
3620:
The World of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England
3487:Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne
2329:(1982). "Tibet as a Stateless Society and Some Islamic Parallels".
2268:
Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1988). "On the Nature of Tibetan Peasantry".
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in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.
267:
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1997:
1392:
1387:. They could appear in a court of justice only in the name of the
1106:
465:, from 1733 to 1788) and its vassal Iceland (the more restrictive
160:
4671:
4652:
4414:
4364:
4356:
4346:
4250:
4238:
4097:
3993:
3987:
3677:
Vadey, Liana. "Serfdom: Western Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed,
1962:
1941:
1899:
1894:
1650:
1558:
1434:
The first steps towards abolition of serfdom were enacted in the
1330:
1236:
1142:
1130:
1037:
1030:
955:
917:
842:
829:
771:
657:
In the later Middle Ages, serfdom began to disappear west of the
651:
607:
resembled that of the medieval serfs. By the 3rd century AD, the
439:
389:
354:
334:
278:
235:
212:
989:
983:
383:
Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work for the
4643:
4456:
4389:
4329:
4324:
4131:
3798:
2085:
A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective
2034:
2029:
1946:
1936:
1873:
1868:
1852:
1715:
1583:
1431:, although its origins can be traced back to the 12th century.
1375:
1214:
serfdom in Poland was mostly limited to the royal territories (
1199:
1138:
1078:
873:
853:
849:
792:
750:. Thus, the manorial system exhibited a degree of reciprocity.
743:
604:
593:
545:
373:
282:
231:
3748:
2630:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 58.
548:
is described by Tashi Wangchuk, a Bhutanese civil servant, as
4451:
4379:
3930:
2018:
2008:
1920:
1822:
1672:
1564:
1333:
from the prehistoric period (500 BC or earlier) up until the
1230:
for valour in combat. Serfs could purchase their freedom, be
1153:
1059:
1014:
696:
658:
541:
369:
3707:
Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H. Hilton
1450:
had abolished serfdom in the territories he gained from the
4461:
4003:
2293:
pp. 81–83. Eds. Anne-Marie Blondeau and Katia Buffetrille.
1152:
In addition to service, a serf was required to pay certain
1026:
796:
714:. As slavery gradually disappeared and the legal status of
422:
slavery, though it continued to be called serfdom. In the
377:
35:
3789:(1970), "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis",
3686:
Re-Thinking Kinship and Feudalism in Early Medieval Europe
3129:
3099:
1121:
The usual serf (not including slaves or cottars) paid his
810:
By the Lord before whom this sanctuary is holy, I will to
654:
persisted right through the Middle Ages, but it was rare.
3453:"Act of Parliament 1799 relating to Colliers in Scotland"
2403:
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commission
1833:. There are differences depending on the region and sect.
1730:: First steps in 1780 and 1785. Final step on 8 May 1848.
1675:: 18 March 1812 (first step; second step: 26 August 1837)
1395:
to which they belonged permission to sue in his name." A
1126:
1122:
563:
also prohibits serfdom as a practice similar to slavery.
3386:
3199:"An interesting life through the eyes of a slave driver"
3679:
Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352–2000
3627:
Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352–2000
2291:
Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions,
2795:
Hollister, Charles Warren; Bennett, Judith M. (2002).
2710:
1442:. However, these reforms were partly nullified by the
888:, held their land by one of a variety of contracts of
635:
around the 10th century. During this period, powerful
631:
Medieval serfdom really began with the breakup of the
2435:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298.
962:
In medieval England, two types of villeins existed –
738:
Serfs had a specific place in feudal society, as did
588:
Social institutions similar to serfdom were known in
2628:
The Agrarian History of England and Wales: 1042–1350
2534:
Feudal Society: The Growth of the Ties of Dependence
1663:
where serfdom had not existed in centuries, if ever)
1145:, the whole family was expected to work the fields.
1002:
deriving from the native Anglo-Saxon tongue whereas
2625:
836:freemen, workers whose tenure within the manor was
534:(1644–1912) as also maintaining a form of serfdom.
77:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3658:Unfree labor: American slavery and Russian serfdom
2626:Hallam, H.E.; Finberg; Thirsk, Joan, eds. (1988).
1242:
733:
3596:From Slavery to Feudalism in South-Western Europe
3347:
2370:
2368:
2263:
2261:
2241:
2239:
2228:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1561:: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848)
1555:: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848)
1141:during the regular times of the year. During the
1025:Status-wise, the bordar or cottar ranked below a
5083:
2794:
2057:"Villeins in the Middle Ages | Middle Ages"
1573:: 22 August 1785 (first step; second step: 1848)
1507:
1281:Serfdom in France started to diminish after the
3438:J. A. Cannon, 'Serfdom', in John Cannon (ed.),
3086:Democratic Crisis and Global Constitutional Law
451:
5097:3rd-century establishments in the Roman Empire
3783:The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis
2722:. London: Longman Green & Co. p. 100.
2433:Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History
2365:
2321:
2319:
2285:
2283:
2258:
2236:
2088:. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21.
1881:– Spanish serfdom transplanted to the Americas
1029:in the social hierarchy of a manor, holding a
3814:
3618:Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds.
2678:
2676:
2546:Studies of field systems in the British Isles
2081:
345:, and similar systems. It was a condition of
311:
4718:
4498:
3665:The abolition of serfdom in Russia 1762–1907
2426:
2424:
1329:, a political and social system existing in
3743:
2316:
2280:
2193:
1659:in 1812 (as the area was incorporated into
1438:, and it was essentially eliminated by the
1396:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
970:that could be traded separately from land.
865:
721:
715:
709:
699:
434:continued to exist until 1848. Serfdom was
3821:
3807:
3480:
3478:
2673:
444:General State Laws for the Prussian States
353:with similarities to and differences from
318:
304:
30:"Serf" redirects here. For the saint, see
3611:Freedman, Paul, and Monique Bourin, eds.
3442:(Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 852.
3426:(Oxford: University Press, 2005), p. 549.
3411:Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762–1907
3229:"Bothachs and Sen-Cleithes – Brehon Laws"
2421:
2267:
2245:
137:Learn how and when to remove this message
4706:
3582:The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe
3424:The Oxford Companion to Scottish History
3158:
2840:. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 63.
2763:
2732:
2689:
2558:An Economic History of the British Isles
2548:, by Alan R. H. Baker, Robin Alan Butlin
1731:
1641:: 9 October 1807 (effectively 1811–1823)
1273:were the Byzantine equivalent of serfs.
1105:
1008:
973:
673:
576:
526:. Wu Ta-k'un argued that the Shang-Zhou
512:Islamic-ruled Northern and Central India
3484:
3475:
3440:The Oxford Companion to British History
2926:
1543:: August 6, 1749 (land reforms in 1864)
1537:: August 5, 1746 (land reforms in 1864)
1017:. Whipping was a common punishment for
720:became nearly identical to that of the
14:
5084:
3354:. Oxford University Press. p. 3.
2933:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 425.
2833:
2700:. London: W.Benning. pp. 178–179.
2488:from the original on 12 September 2017
2430:
2325:
2164:
1062:were a type of serfs above kholops in
795:placed his hands between those of his
4705:
4062:
3802:
3785:, discussion and full online text of
3434:
3432:
3209:from the original on 21 February 2019
2908:from the original on 13 November 2021
2776:from the original on 17 February 2020
2764:McIntosh, Matthew (4 December 2018).
2745:from the original on 17 February 2020
2733:McIntosh, Matthew (4 December 2018).
2695:
2572:
2388:Nature Conservation Section. DoF, MoA
442:declared serfdom unacceptable in its
3463:from the original on 20 October 2017
3351:Encyclopedia of Human Rights: Vol. 1
3329:from the original on 6 February 2021
3299:from the original on 31 January 2021
3269:from the original on 7 February 2021
3140:from the original on 7 February 2021
2063:from the original on 5 November 2018
1819:Bhutan: officially abolished by 1959
1512:
848:Lower classes of peasants, known as
75:adding citations to reliable sources
46:
34:. For the type of magnetometer, see
3591:. Princeton University Press, 1956.
2514:from the original on 13 August 2021
2132:from the original on 7 January 2010
1285:, when the lack of work force made
1264:
550:having officially abolished serfdom
24:
4064:
4063:
3566:
3429:
3130:"eDIL – Irish Language Dictionary"
3100:"eDIL – Irish Language Dictionary"
2947:from the original on 14 April 2017
2854:from the original on 23 March 2021
2815:from the original on 19 March 2022
2170:
27:Status of peasants under feudalism
25:
5148:
5102:1894 disestablishments in Iceland
3714:
3693:Russia's age of serfdom 1649–1861
3598:Cambridge University Press, 1991
3387:Donald Mackenzie Wallace (1905).
2684:Medieval History and Civilization
2607:from the original on 7 April 2022
2409:from the original on 12 June 2018
2102:from the original on 1 April 2019
1829:, but use of "serf" for Tibet is
1647:: October 1807 (effectively 1820)
1320:
5066:
5065:
3828:
3688:(2nd ed. Ashgate Variorum, 2000)
3681:(2001) volume 2 pp. 369–378
3629:(2001) volume 2 pp. 379–388
3368:from the original on 13 May 2016
3239:from the original on 16 May 2021
3179:from the original on 12 May 2022
3110:from the original on 12 May 2022
2893:
2798:Medieval Europe: A Short History
2581:from the original on 12 May 2022
1531:: obsolete by 15th–16th century.
1484:In 1649 up to three-quarters of
896:
159:
51:
3691:Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling.
3544:
3526:
3507:
3445:
3416:
3403:
3380:
3348:David P. Forsythe, ed. (2009).
3341:
3311:
3281:
3251:
3221:
3191:
3152:
3122:
3092:
3077:
3062:
3047:
3032:
3017:
3002:
2987:
2972:
2959:
2920:
2887:
2866:
2827:
2788:
2757:
2726:
2704:
2644:
2619:
2551:
2539:
2526:
2500:
2470:
2449:
2391:
2082:Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003).
1576:Denmark: 20 June 1788 (part of
1252:
1243:Serfdom by country and location
823:
734:Dependency and the lower orders
426:, serfdom was abolished by the
62:needs additional citations for
4707:
3577:Oxford University Press, 2003.
3071:A History of French Public Law
2996:A History of French Public Law
2720:The Village Labourer 1760–1832
2295:University of California Press
2187:
2144:
2114:
2075:
1825:, People's Republic of China:
1429:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
13:
1:
3795:30:1 (March), pp. 18–32.
3709:(Cambridge UP, 1983), 249–272
3702:(U of Minnesota Press, 1966).
3575:The Worlds of Medieval Europe
2896:"Everyday Life of the Aztecs"
2573:Craik, George Lillie (1846).
2210:(inactive 9 September 2024).
2124:A Dictionary of World History
2042:
1508:Emancipation dates by country
1205:
1042:Erection of Cottages Act 1588
761:
3622:. Glasgow: Cruithne P, 1994.
2927:Gregory, Timothy E. (2010).
2801:. McGraw-Hill. p. 171.
2431:Mackay, Christopher (2004).
1983:Serfdom in Tibet controversy
1813:Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1918
1619:: 19 December 1804 (part of
1523:Colliers (Scotland) Act 1799
1478:Encyclopedia of Human Rights
1157:property was prohibited. On
998:) as interchangeable terms,
669:
7:
3641:Journal of Economic History
3389:"Chapter XXVIII. The Serfs"
3162:The Story of the Irish Race
2560:, by Arthur Birnie. p. 218
1845:
1779:Emancipation reform of 1861
1379:. They had no political or
1247:
966:that were tied to land and
911:
341:, specifically relating to
10:
5153:
3913:Weberian (three-component)
3491:Humanitas publishing house
2874:Białogłowa w dawnej Polsce
2653:Imperial Russia, 1801–1905
1740:abolishing serfdom in the
1736:The proclamation by count
1504:were emancipated in 1866.
1465:
1436:Constitution of 3 May 1791
1420:
1315:
1073:
915:
879:
570:
566:
395:The decline of serfdom in
29:
5061:
5002:
4894:
4862:
4829:
4755:
4727:
4714:
4701:
4619:
4576:
4536:
4518:
4437:
4355:
4315:
4224:
4217:
4172:
4075:
4071:
4058:
3921:
3875:
3871:
3842:
3774:An excerpt from the book
3672:The Peasantries of Europe
3551:Emancipation of the Serfs
3187:– via Google Books.
3159:MacManus, Seumas (2005).
2208:10.1017/s0268416098003063
1461:
1452:first partition of Poland
1416:
1276:
1257:In the Aztec Empire, the
1181:
1101:
1084:
1006:derived from the French.
859:
806:"Oath of Fealty" states:
695:and was derived from the
471:, from 1490 until 1894).
18:Emancipation of the serfs
5035:Pre-industrial East Asia
3764:Peasantry (social class)
3556:7 September 2006 at the
2457:"Ways of ending slavery"
2331:Journal of Asian Studies
1409:,' settled by the lord (
1292:In 1779, the reforms of
1054:
828:The social class of the
448:Prussian Reform Movement
153:Feudal titles and status
4083:Administrative detainee
3792:Economic History Review
3768:Encyclopædia Britannica
3756:Encyclopædia Britannica
3726:Encyclopædia Britannica
3600:excerpt and text search
3587:Coulborn, Rushton, ed.
3485:Djuvara, Neagu (2009).
3083:Christopher Thornhill,
2482:Encyclopedia Britannica
1692:Governorate of Courland
1337:(12th century AD), the
990:
984:
691:
522:) and Japan during the
333:was the status of many
4499:
3233:www.libraryireland.com
2930:A History of Byzantium
2766:"A History of Serfdom"
2735:"A History of Serfdom"
1988:Serfs Emancipation Day
1865:– early medieval serfs
1744:
1704:Governorate of Livonia
1682:Governorate of Estonia
1661:Grand Duchy of Finland
1635:(Poland): 22 July 1807
1490:
1397:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1118:
1022:
866:
817:
722:
716:
710:
700:
679:
618:, eventually known as
585:
452:
357:. It developed during
5040:Pre-industrial Europe
3573:Backman, Clifford R.
2834:Bailey, Mark (2014).
2696:Elmes, James (1827).
2650:Chapman, Tim (2001).
2196:Continuity and Change
2037:– English freeholders
1923:– ancient Greek serfs
1735:
1482:
1283:Black Death in France
1109:
1012:
974:Bordars and cottagers
808:
677:
580:
5122:Indentured servitude
4897: or countries
4708:By country or region
3946:Class discrimination
3643:March 1973 33:86–99
3605:2 April 2016 at the
3589:Feudalism in History
3584:(Princeton UP, 1978)
2663:. Routledge. p. 83.
2380:27 June 2008 at the
2375:BhutanStudies.org.bt
1775:: 19 February 1861 (
730:was coined in 1850.
686:originated from the
664:Napoleonic invasions
592:. The status of the
351:indentured servitude
71:improve this article
38:. For the film, see
4429:Vanniar (Chieftain)
3698:Wright, William E.
3650:12 May 2022 at the
3594:Bonnassie, Pierre.
3538:29 October 2004 at
3457:www.hoodfamily.info
3205:. 5 February 2017.
2682:Daniel D. McGarry,
2658:13 May 2016 at the
2508:"Serfdom in Europe"
2157:12 May 2022 at the
1448:Frederick the Great
1444:partition of Poland
1349:(perhaps linked to
436:abolished in Russia
428:1781 Serfdom Patent
155:
5107:Agricultural labor
5010:18th-century Spain
4864:Standard of living
4568:Upper middle class
4563:Lower middle class
4154:Political prisoner
3936:Chattering classes
3908:Spoon class theory
3729:(on-line edition).
3684:White, Stephen D.
3518:3 May 2016 at the
2181:10.1093/past/1.1.1
2173:Past & Present
2000:– Japanese serfdom
1927:Indentured servant
1797:Georgia: 1864–1871
1751:: 7 September 1848
1745:
1742:Kingdom of Croatia
1700:: 18 November 1817
1669:: 1 September 1812
1617:Schleswig-Holstein
1549:: 19 December 1771
1440:Połaniec Manifesto
1119:
1023:
1013:Punishment with a
964:villeins regardant
890:feudal land-tenure
680:
633:Carolingian Empire
586:
582:Galician slaughter
573:History of serfdom
151:
5079:
5078:
5057:
5056:
5053:
5052:
4890:
4889:
4697:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4689:
4688:
4591:Lumpenproletariat
4093:illegal immigrant
4054:
4053:
3966:Classless society
3745:Vinogradoff, Paul
3500:978-973-50-2490-1
3053:Amy S. Wyngaard,
3023:Amy S. Wyngaard,
2940:978-1-4051-8471-7
2847:978-1-84383-890-6
2808:978-0-07-112109-5
2311:978-0-520-24928-8
2303:978-0-520-24464-1
2025:Taxation as theft
1910:Fugitive peasants
1842:
1841:
1816:Afghanistan: 1923
1627:Swedish Pomerania
1596:Batavian Republic
1590:Helvetic Republic
1547:Piedmont-Sardinia
1529:England and Wales
1468:Serfdom in Russia
1423:Serfdom in Poland
1343:("hut-dweller"),
1298:French Revolution
968:villeins in gross
906:Holy Roman Empire
748:manor of his lord
480:Joseph R. Strayer
385:lord of the manor
363:Early Middle Ages
328:
327:
194:Lord of the manor
147:
146:
139:
121:
16:(Redirected from
5144:
5069:
5068:
4896:
4797:Mexican-American
4725:
4724:
4716:
4715:
4703:
4702:
4504:
4447:Business magnate
4337:Knowledge worker
4222:
4221:
4110:dual or multiple
4073:
4072:
4060:
4059:
4014:Social exclusion
4009:Social cleansing
3923:
3873:
3872:
3862:Economic classes
3823:
3816:
3809:
3800:
3799:
3760:
3759:(11th ed.).
3752:
3733:The Hull Project
3670:Scott, Tom, ed.
3656:Kolchin, Peter.
3632:Hoch, Steven L.
3560:
3548:
3542:
3530:
3524:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3482:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3449:
3443:
3436:
3427:
3420:
3414:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3395:. Archived from
3384:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3334:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3293:Oxford Reference
3285:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3263:Oxford Reference
3255:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3096:
3090:
3081:
3075:
3066:
3060:
3051:
3045:
3038:L.C.A. Knowles:
3036:
3030:
3021:
3015:
3008:L.C.A. Knowles:
3006:
3000:
2991:
2985:
2978:L.C.A. Knowles:
2976:
2970:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2907:
2900:
2891:
2885:
2876:, Warsaw, 1998,
2870:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2693:
2687:
2680:
2671:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2570:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2530:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2510:. Khan Academy.
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2395:
2389:
2372:
2363:
2362:
2327:Samuel, Geoffrey
2323:
2314:
2287:
2278:
2277:
2265:
2256:
2255:
2243:
2234:
2233:
2227:
2219:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2168:
2162:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2053:
1917:– Spanish manors
1694:: 25 August 1817
1653:: 31 August 1808
1586:: August 4, 1789
1513:
1400:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1265:Byzantine Empire
993:
987:
982:, of 1086, uses
978:In England, the
871:
725:
719:
713:
703:
694:
538:Melvyn Goldstein
455:
320:
313:
306:
261:Domestic servant
173:Territorial lord
163:
156:
150:
142:
135:
131:
128:
122:
120:
79:
55:
47:
21:
5152:
5151:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5137:Slavery by type
5082:
5081:
5080:
5075:
5049:
4998:
4886:
4858:
4825:
4809:Underprivileged
4751:
4710:
4709:
4685:
4615:
4572:
4532:
4514:
4433:
4351:
4311:
4213:
4168:
4067:
4066:
4050:
4029:Social position
4019:Social mobility
3917:
3867:
3838:
3837:
3827:
3750:"Serfdom"
3738:Hull University
3717:
3712:
3667:(Longman, 2001)
3652:Wayback Machine
3607:Wayback Machine
3569:
3567:Further reading
3564:
3563:
3558:Wayback Machine
3549:
3545:
3533:Kfunigraz.ac.at
3531:
3527:
3520:Wayback Machine
3512:
3508:
3501:
3493:. p. 276.
3483:
3476:
3466:
3464:
3451:
3450:
3446:
3437:
3430:
3421:
3417:
3408:
3404:
3399:on 5 July 2009.
3385:
3381:
3371:
3369:
3362:
3346:
3342:
3332:
3330:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3302:
3300:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3272:
3270:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3242:
3240:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3212:
3210:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3173:
3165:. Cosimo, Inc.
3157:
3153:
3143:
3141:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3113:
3111:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3082:
3078:
3068:Jean Brissaud:
3067:
3063:
3052:
3048:
3037:
3033:
3022:
3018:
3007:
3003:
2993:Jean Brissaud:
2992:
2988:
2977:
2973:
2964:
2960:
2950:
2948:
2941:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2894:Bray, Warwick.
2892:
2888:
2872:Maria Bogucka,
2871:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2848:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2816:
2809:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2777:
2762:
2758:
2748:
2746:
2731:
2727:
2716:Barbara Hammond
2709:
2705:
2694:
2690:
2681:
2674:
2660:Wayback Machine
2649:
2645:
2638:
2624:
2620:
2610:
2608:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2571:
2564:
2556:
2552:
2544:
2540:
2531:
2527:
2517:
2515:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2489:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2461:
2459:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2429:
2422:
2412:
2410:
2397:
2396:
2392:
2382:Wayback Machine
2373:
2366:
2343:10.2307/2054940
2324:
2317:
2288:
2281:
2266:
2259:
2244:
2237:
2221:
2220:
2192:
2188:
2169:
2165:
2159:Wayback Machine
2149:
2145:
2135:
2133:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2103:
2096:
2080:
2076:
2066:
2064:
2059:. 31 May 2012.
2055:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2040:
1973:Russian serfdom
1848:
1843:
1806:Iceland: 1894 (
1792:Congress Poland
1749:Austrian Empire
1724:: 11 April 1848
1718:: 17 March 1832
1706:: 26 March 1819
1684:: 23 March 1816
1678:Argentina: 1813
1633:Duchy of Warsaw
1510:
1470:
1464:
1425:
1419:
1401:was defined by
1335:Norman conquest
1323:
1318:
1279:
1267:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1208:
1184:
1104:
1087:
1076:
1064:Medieval Poland
1057:
1046:Enclosures Acts
976:
920:
914:
899:
882:
862:
826:
764:
736:
672:
575:
569:
508:Twelfth dynasty
424:Austrian Empire
380:'s permission.
324:
180:Tenant-in-chief
143:
132:
126:
123:
80:
78:
68:
56:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5150:
5140:
5139:
5134:
5132:Social classes
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5073:
5062:
5059:
5058:
5055:
5054:
5051:
5050:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5030:Ottoman Empire
5027:
5022:
5017:
5015:Ancient Greece
5012:
5006:
5004:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4989:United Kingdom
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4900:
4898:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4887:
4885:
4884:
4882:Home-ownership
4879:
4874:
4868:
4866:
4860:
4859:
4857:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4835:
4833:
4827:
4826:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4821:
4816:
4806:
4805:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4761:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4750:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4737:American Dream
4734:
4728:
4722:
4712:
4711:
4699:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4650:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4625:
4623:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4582:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4571:
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4565:
4560:
4555:
4554:
4553:
4542:
4540:
4534:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4524:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4512:
4505:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4474:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4443:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4432:
4431:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4361:
4359:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4321:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4303:
4302:
4297:
4296:
4295:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4230:
4228:
4219:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4180:
4178:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4149:Migrant worker
4146:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4102:
4101:
4100:
4095:
4085:
4079:
4077:
4069:
4068:
4065:By demographic
4056:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4045:Status Anxiety
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3999:Ranked society
3996:
3991:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3941:Class conflict
3938:
3933:
3927:
3925:
3924: topics
3919:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3898:Mudsill theory
3895:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3877:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3865:
3858:
3851:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3818:
3811:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3780:
3771:
3761:
3741:
3730:
3716:
3715:External links
3713:
3711:
3710:
3703:
3696:
3689:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3654:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3616:
3615:Brepols, 2005.
3609:
3592:
3585:
3580:Blum, Jerome.
3578:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3543:
3525:
3506:
3499:
3474:
3444:
3428:
3415:
3402:
3379:
3360:
3340:
3310:
3280:
3250:
3220:
3190:
3171:
3151:
3121:
3091:
3076:
3061:
3046:
3031:
3016:
3001:
2986:
2971:
2958:
2939:
2919:
2886:
2865:
2846:
2826:
2807:
2787:
2756:
2725:
2703:
2688:
2672:
2643:
2636:
2618:
2592:
2562:
2550:
2538:
2525:
2499:
2469:
2448:
2441:
2420:
2390:
2364:
2337:(2): 215–229.
2315:
2279:
2257:
2235:
2202:(1): 117–141.
2186:
2163:
2143:
2113:
2094:
2074:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1978:Serfdom Patent
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1949:– Welsh manors
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1804:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1773:Russian Empire
1770:
1763:Ottoman Empire
1752:
1746:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1664:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1621:Denmark–Norway
1614:
1605:Serbia: 1804 (
1603:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1578:Denmark–Norway
1574:
1568:
1567:: 23 July 1783
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1466:Main article:
1463:
1460:
1421:Main article:
1418:
1415:
1407:tenant at will
1355:, "soil") and
1327:Gaelic Ireland
1322:
1321:Gaelic Ireland
1319:
1317:
1314:
1294:Jacques Necker
1278:
1275:
1266:
1263:
1259:Tlacotin class
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1217:królewszczyzny
1207:
1204:
1183:
1180:
1115:feudal England
1103:
1100:
1092:manorial court
1086:
1083:
1075:
1072:
1056:
1053:
975:
972:
922:A villein (or
913:
910:
898:
895:
881:
878:
861:
858:
846:
845:
840:
825:
822:
802:A 7th-century
763:
760:
735:
732:
706:Late Antiquity
704:("slave"). In
671:
668:
616:tenant farmers
571:Main article:
568:
565:
500:Middle Kingdom
494:from the late
413:second serfdom
409:Eastern Europe
397:Western Europe
359:late antiquity
326:
325:
323:
322:
315:
308:
300:
297:
296:
290:
289:
271:
270:
264:
263:
257:
256:
250:
249:
243:
242:
224:
223:
209:
208:
190:
189:
183:
182:
176:
175:
169:Lord paramount
165:
164:
145:
144:
59:
57:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5149:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5072:
5064:
5063:
5060:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5007:
5005:
5001:
4995:
4994:United States
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4895:Other regions
4893:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4836:
4834:
4832:
4828:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4811:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4767:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4720:United States
4717:
4713:
4704:
4700:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4618:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4579:
4575:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4547:
4544:
4543:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4529:
4526:
4525:
4523:
4521:
4517:
4511:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4430:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4305:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4227:
4223:
4220:
4216:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4159:Socioeconomic
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4133:
4130:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4107:
4106:
4103:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4057:
4047:
4046:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4034:Social stigma
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4024:Social orphan
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3983:
3982:Nouveau riche
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3956:Class traitor
3954:
3952:
3951:Class society
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3920:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3888:Gilbert model
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3852:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3844:
3841:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3824:
3819:
3817:
3812:
3810:
3805:
3804:
3801:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3762:
3758:
3757:
3751:
3746:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3708:
3704:
3701:
3697:
3694:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3663:Moon, David.
3662:
3659:
3655:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3635:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3572:
3571:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3547:
3541:
3540:archive.today
3537:
3534:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3510:
3502:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3479:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3448:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3425:
3419:
3412:
3406:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3367:
3363:
3361:9780195334029
3357:
3353:
3352:
3344:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3284:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3254:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3178:
3174:
3172:9781596050631
3168:
3164:
3163:
3155:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3088:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3042:
3035:
3028:
3027:
3020:
3013:
3012:
3005:
2998:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2982:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2962:
2946:
2942:
2936:
2932:
2931:
2923:
2904:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2882:83-85660-78-X
2879:
2875:
2869:
2853:
2849:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2830:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2791:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2699:
2692:
2686:(1976) p. 242
2685:
2679:
2677:
2670:
2669:0-415-23110-8
2666:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2637:0-521-20073-3
2633:
2629:
2622:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2567:
2559:
2554:
2547:
2542:
2535:
2529:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2458:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2425:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2387:
2384:, T Wangchuk
2383:
2379:
2376:
2371:
2369:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2275:
2271:
2270:Tibet Journal
2264:
2262:
2253:
2249:
2248:Tibet Journal
2242:
2240:
2231:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2147:
2131:
2127:
2125:
2117:
2101:
2097:
2095:0-8263-2871-7
2091:
2087:
2086:
2078:
2062:
2058:
2052:
2048:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:– Welsh serfs
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1993:Sharecropping
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1958:Ministerialis
1956:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1838:
1832:
1831:controversial
1828:
1827:29 March 1959
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1738:Josip Jelačić
1734:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1629:: 4 July 1806
1628:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1600:Code Napoléon
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1456:industrialize
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1430:
1424:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1359:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1303:
1302:Franche-Comté
1299:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1274:
1272:
1262:
1260:
1240:
1239:of the town.
1238:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1218:
1211:
1203:
1201:
1195:
1193:
1188:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1167:
1164:
1163:feudal relief
1160:
1159:Easter Sunday
1155:
1150:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1113:and serfs in
1112:
1108:
1099:
1095:
1093:
1082:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1019:Russian serfs
1016:
1011:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
992:
988:(bordar) and
986:
981:
980:Domesday Book
971:
969:
965:
960:
957:
954:to a city or
953:
948:
945:
939:
937:
931:
929:
925:
919:
909:
907:
903:
902:Ministeriales
897:Ministeriales
894:
891:
887:
877:
875:
870:
869:
857:
855:
851:
844:
841:
839:
835:
834:
833:
831:
821:
816:
813:
807:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
759:
755:
751:
749:
745:
741:
731:
729:
724:
718:
712:
707:
702:
698:
693:
689:
688:Middle French
685:
676:
667:
665:
660:
655:
653:
649:
644:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
622:
617:
612:
610:
606:
602:
599:
598:ancient Greek
595:
591:
590:ancient times
583:
579:
574:
564:
562:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
474:According to
472:
470:
469:
464:
463:
458:
454:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
386:
381:
379:
375:
371:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
321:
316:
314:
309:
307:
302:
301:
299:
298:
295:
292:
291:
288:
284:
280:
276:
273:
272:
269:
266:
265:
262:
259:
258:
255:
252:
251:
248:
245:
244:
241:
237:
233:
229:
226:
225:
222:
221:Landed gentry
218:
214:
211:
210:
207:
203:
199:
195:
192:
191:
188:
185:
184:
181:
178:
177:
174:
170:
167:
166:
162:
158:
157:
154:
149:
141:
138:
130:
119:
116:
112:
109:
105:
102:
98:
95:
91:
88: –
87:
83:
82:Find sources:
76:
72:
66:
65:
60:This article
58:
54:
49:
48:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5112:Debt bondage
5045:Soviet Union
5020:Ancient Rome
4877:Homelessness
4802:Upper Middle
4674: /
4656:
4655: /
4646: /
4611:Working poor
4507:
4494:Robber baron
4317:Intellectual
4307:Royal family
4271:Ancient Rome
4125:second-class
4043:
3986:
3985: /
3980:
3976:High society
3883:Elite theory
3860:
3853:
3846:
3833:Social class
3790:
3775:
3767:
3754:
3736:
3724:
3706:
3699:
3692:
3685:
3678:
3671:
3664:
3657:
3640:
3633:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3595:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3546:
3528:
3509:
3486:
3465:. Retrieved
3456:
3447:
3439:
3423:
3418:
3410:
3409:David Moon,
3405:
3397:the original
3392:
3382:
3370:. Retrieved
3350:
3343:
3333:26 September
3331:. Retrieved
3322:
3313:
3303:26 September
3301:. Retrieved
3292:
3283:
3271:. Retrieved
3262:
3253:
3241:. Retrieved
3232:
3223:
3211:. Retrieved
3202:
3193:
3181:. Retrieved
3161:
3154:
3142:. Retrieved
3133:
3124:
3112:. Retrieved
3103:
3094:
3084:
3079:
3069:
3064:
3054:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3024:
3019:
3009:
3004:
2994:
2989:
2979:
2974:
2965:
2961:
2949:. Retrieved
2929:
2922:
2910:. Retrieved
2889:
2873:
2868:
2856:. Retrieved
2836:
2829:
2817:. Retrieved
2797:
2790:
2778:. Retrieved
2769:
2759:
2747:. Retrieved
2738:
2728:
2719:
2712:Hammond, J L
2706:
2697:
2691:
2683:
2651:
2646:
2627:
2621:
2609:. Retrieved
2595:
2583:. Retrieved
2557:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2533:
2532:Marc Bloch,
2528:
2516:. Retrieved
2502:
2490:. Retrieved
2481:
2472:
2460:. Retrieved
2451:
2432:
2411:. Retrieved
2402:
2393:
2385:
2334:
2330:
2290:
2273:
2269:
2254:(4): 79–112.
2251:
2247:
2224:cite journal
2199:
2195:
2189:
2172:
2166:
2150:
2146:
2134:. Retrieved
2123:
2116:
2104:. Retrieved
2084:
2077:
2065:. Retrieved
2051:
1836:
1788:Hawaii: 1835
1776:
1766:
1758:
1610:
1606:
1592:: 4 May 1798
1498:Alexander II
1491:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1433:
1426:
1410:
1403:D. A. Binchy
1388:
1374:
1324:
1311:
1291:
1280:
1268:
1256:
1253:Aztec Empire
1225:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1196:
1189:
1185:
1176:
1168:
1151:
1147:
1120:
1096:
1088:
1077:
1058:
1050:
1024:
1003:
999:
977:
967:
963:
961:
949:
940:
932:
923:
921:
900:
886:free tenants
884:Freemen, or
883:
863:
847:
827:
824:Class system
818:
811:
809:
801:
774:intimidated
765:
756:
752:
737:
727:
683:
681:
656:
645:
637:feudal lords
630:
620:
613:
609:Roman Empire
587:
558:
556:situations.
536:
532:Qing dynasty
516:Zhou dynasty
498:through the
473:
466:
460:
456:
419:
417:
394:
382:
367:
347:debt bondage
330:
329:
274:
148:
133:
124:
114:
107:
100:
93:
81:
69:Please help
64:verification
61:
44:
4964:New Zealand
4681:Untouchable
4606:Proletariat
4596:Pea-pickers
4546:Bourgeoisie
4234:Aristocracy
4120:naturalized
4115:native-born
3787:Evsey Domar
3203:Independent
2951:12 November
2780:17 February
2749:17 February
2462:21 February
2413:23 February
2276:(1): 61–65.
2175:(1): 1–12.
2136:12 February
1953:Manorialism
1932:Josephinism
1785:Tonga: 1862
1698:Württemberg
1657:Old Finland
1645:Mecklenburg
1502:State serfs
1287:manumission
1228:ennoblement
1172:court baron
1135:manor house
1068:Kievan Rus'
1035:Elizabethan
804:Anglo Saxon
776:freeholders
648:Middle Ages
520:Han dynasty
518:and end of
496:Old Kingdom
488:Mesopotamia
476:medievalist
401:Black Death
343:manorialism
254:Free tenant
40:Serf (film)
5086:Categories
4954:Luxembourg
4844:Inequality
4509:Superclass
4300:Hereditary
4276:Post-Roman
4267:Patrician
4137:adolescent
3961:Classicide
3467:7 February
3134:www.dil.ie
3104:www.dil.ie
2770:Brewminate
2739:Brewminate
2442:0521809185
2067:5 November
2043:References
1905:Freeholder
1879:Encomienda
1808:Vistarband
1364:sencléithe
1358:sencléithe
1232:manumitted
1206:Variations
947:labourer.
944:sustenance
916:See also:
784:brigandage
762:Initiation
626:Diocletian
601:city-state
540:described
486:, ancient
478:historian
468:vistarband
462:stavnsbånd
247:Husbandman
206:Liege lord
187:Mesne lord
97:newspapers
32:Saint Serf
5117:Feudalism
4979:Sri Lanka
4872:Education
4839:Household
4732:Affluence
4667:Rat tribe
4629:Ant tribe
4601:Precariat
4586:Lazzaroni
4528:Bohemians
4489:Overclass
4484:Old money
4420:Spartiate
4395:Kshatriya
4385:Hashashin
4342:Professor
4283:Political
4256:Oligarchy
4246:Hanseaten
4164:Stateless
4144:Convicted
4076:By status
4039:Subaltern
3971:Euthenics
3903:New class
3323:téarma.ie
3259:"bothach"
3183:3 October
2912:12 August
2858:3 October
2819:3 October
2611:3 October
2585:3 October
2478:"Serfdom"
2359:163321743
2305:(cloth);
2216:144755944
2014:Subjugate
1890:Feudalism
1535:Wallachia
1385:contracts
1309:freely.
1304:, Berry,
1117:, c. 1310
936:Roman law
876:serfdom.
830:peasantry
682:The word
670:Etymology
524:Shogunate
514:, China (
438:in 1861.
339:feudalism
217:Gentleman
127:July 2020
86:"Serfdom"
5127:Peasants
5071:Category
5003:Historic
4924:Colombia
4914:Cambodia
4849:Personal
4747:Mobility
4676:Freedman
4662:Plebeian
4648:Prisoner
4634:Commoner
4520:Creative
4501:Seigneur
4467:Nobility
4425:Vanniyar
4410:Pendekar
4370:Cossacks
4004:Snobbery
3876:Theories
3747:(1911).
3648:Archived
3645:in JSTOR
3603:Archived
3554:Archived
3536:Archived
3516:Archived
3461:Archived
3366:Archived
3327:Archived
3319:"fuidir"
3297:Archived
3289:"fuidir"
3273:3 August
3267:Archived
3243:3 August
3237:Archived
3213:3 August
3207:Archived
3177:Archived
3144:3 August
3138:Archived
3114:3 August
3108:Archived
3074:, p. 327
3059:, p. 159
3029:, s. 159
2999:, s. 327
2945:Archived
2903:Archived
2852:Archived
2813:Archived
2774:Archived
2743:Archived
2718:(1912).
2656:Archived
2605:Archived
2603:. 1842.
2579:Archived
2512:Archived
2486:Archived
2407:Archived
2378:Archived
2155:Archived
2130:Archived
2100:Archived
2061:Archived
1968:Ritsuryō
1915:Hacienda
1885:Fengjian
1858:Birkarls
1846:See also
1801:Kalmykia
1769:in 1878)
1767:de facto
1757:: 1858 (
1755:Bulgaria
1613:in 1830)
1607:de facto
1602:in 1811)
1541:Moldavia
1519:Scotland
1494:an edict
1474:nobility
1306:Burgundy
1271:paroikoi
1248:Americas
991:cottarii
985:bordarii
928:landlord
912:Villeins
838:freehold
797:overlord
791:where a
780:allodial
554:copyhold
528:fengjian
420:de facto
390:villeins
361:and the
335:peasants
268:Vagabond
240:Vavasour
228:Franklin
198:Overlord
5092:Serfdom
4974:Romania
4969:Nigeria
4854:Poverty
4757:Classes
4742:History
4653:Peasant
4639:Outcast
4578:Working
4558:Burgher
4415:Samurai
4405:Ocēlōtl
4365:Chhetri
4357:Warrior
4347:Scholar
4261:Russian
4251:Magnate
4239:Aristoi
4218:By type
4105:Citizen
4098:refugee
3994:Poverty
3988:Parvenu
3922:Related
3893:Marxian
3855:Stratum
3721:Serfdom
3089:, p. 93
3044:, s. 47
3014:, s. 47
2984:, s. 47
2884:, p. 72
2351:2054940
2313:(paper)
2122:"Serf.
2004:Slavery
1963:Peonage
1942:Kolkhoz
1900:Folwark
1895:Fiefdom
1863:Colonus
1759:de jure
1728:Croatia
1722:Hungary
1710:Hanover
1651:Bavaria
1639:Prussia
1611:de jure
1571:Hungary
1559:Bohemia
1553:Austria
1486:Muscovy
1405:as "a '
1370:bothach
1340:bothach
1331:Ireland
1316:Ireland
1237:burgher
1143:harvest
1131:demesne
1079:Kholops
1074:Kholops
1038:statute
1031:cottage
956:borough
924:villain
918:Villein
893:small.
880:Freemen
868:colonus
854:bordars
850:cottars
843:villein
772:magnate
768:freeman
744:knights
728:Serfdom
652:Slavery
596:in the
567:History
440:Prussia
432:corvées
405:Central
374:kholops
368:Unlike
355:slavery
331:Serfdom
279:Villein
236:Retinue
213:Esquire
111:scholar
4929:France
4909:Belize
4904:Africa
4831:Income
4787:Middle
4780:Gentry
4644:Outlaw
4551:Petite
4538:Middle
4472:Landed
4457:Gentry
4390:Knight
4330:Priest
4325:Clergy
4288:Family
4226:Ruling
4175:collar
4132:Clique
3848:Status
3695:(2008)
3674:(1998)
3660:(2009)
3636:(1989)
3523:lords.
3497:
3413:(2002)
3393:Russia
3372:1 July
3358:
3169:
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1398:fuidir
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1376:flaith
1346:fuidir
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