Catherine the Great

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general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs. However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission's problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state's control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the "proper and effectual education of the female sex"; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes. This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a 'new kind of people' raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment. The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.

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be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to convey their message. However, usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the empress, they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned empress and misinterpreting her decrees. However, they were already suspicious of Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church. Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were confused as to the circumstances of her accession to the throne.

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large territories of the Russian protectorate of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania and left its territories to Prussia and Austria. The Commonwealth had become the Russian protectorate since the reign of Peter I, but he did not intervene into the problem of political freedoms of dissidents advocating for their religious freedoms only. Catherine did turn Russia into a global great power, not only a European one, but with quite a different reputation from what she initially had planned as an honest policy. The global trade of Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia. Her dynasty lost power because of this and of a war with Austria and Germany, impossible without her foreign policy.

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to his serfs was to kill them. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters), they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during Catherine's reign, but she signed legislation prohibiting it. Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, she took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.

630: 2359: 2248: 977: 2264:, increasing the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statute of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing "little by little". 8275: 56: 1972: 1184: 795:, though she survived and recovered. In her memoirs, she wrote that she made the decision then to do whatever was necessary and to profess to believe whatever was required of her to become qualified to wear the crown. Although she was able to learn Russian, she spoke with a heavy accent, and made grammatical mistakes. Her writing also contained numerous spelling errors. In most circumstances Catherine II spoke French in her court. In fact the use of French as the main language of the Russian imperial court continued until 1812, when it became politically incorrect to speak French in court due to the 2065: 8396: 423: 2450:

established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical methods. Yet by the end of Catherine's reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.

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because she did not want to be bothered by the peasantry, but did not want to give them reason to revolt. In this act, she gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status they had lacked before. Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs. Some serfs did apply for freedom and were successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles, but this was by no means universal.

414: 2612:, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practice their faith openly without interference. While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Old Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764, she deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith. In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia. 2394: 2459: 2034: 2977:: "The empress's body lay in state for six weeks in a large and magnificently decorated room in the castle, which was kept lit day and night. Catherine was stretched on a ceremonial bed surrounded by the coats of arms of all the towns in Russia. Her face was left uncovered, and her fair hand rested on the bed. All the ladies, some of whom took turn to watch by the body, would go and kiss this hand, or at least appear to." A description of the empress's funeral is written in Madame Vigée Le Brun's memoirs. 2605:. Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the original intended amount. She closed 569 of 954 monasteries, of which only 161 received government money. Only 400,000 roubles of church wealth were paid back. While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat. Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine's reign. 1594: 2153: 2383: 1241: 2344: 3715: 1677: 697:, "I see nothing of interest in it". Although Sophie was born a princess, her family had little money; her rise to power was supported by her mother Joanna's wealthy relatives, who were both nobles and royal relations. The more than 300 sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire, many of them small and powerless, made for a highly competitive political system in which the various princely families fought for advantages over one another, often by way of political marriages. 2532: 1924: 2318:

her white hair up, framing it perfectly. Her genius seemed to rest on her forehead, which was both high and wide. Her eyes were soft and sensitive, her nose quite Greek, her colour high and her features expressive. She addressed me immediately in a voice full of sweetness, if a little throaty: "I am delighted to welcome you here, Madame, your reputation runs before you. I am very fond of the arts, especially painting. I am no connoisseur, but I am a great art lover."

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incentives. Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy. However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.

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the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute's philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.

3084:. Elizabeth served as godmother; she held Anna above the baptismal font and brought Catherine, who did not witness any of the celebrations, and Peter a gift of 60,000 rubles. Elizabeth took Anna and raised the baby herself, as she had done with Paul. In her memoirs, Catherine makes no mention of Anna's death on 8 March 1759, though she was inconsolable and entered a state of shock. Anna's funeral took place on 15 March, at 3703: 2327:

been Queen of the World; she wore the sashes of three orders, and her costume was both simple and regal; it consisted of a muslin tunic embroidered with gold fastened by a diamond belt, and the full sleeves were folded back in the Asiatic style. Over this tunic she wore a red velvet dolman with very short sleeves. The bonnet which held her white hair was not decorated with ribbons, but with the most beautiful diamonds.

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take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the

1579:, poised to attack mainland Iran. In this month, Catherine died, and her son and successor Paul I, who detested that the Zubovs had other plans for the army, ordered the troops to retreat to Russia. This reversal aroused the frustration and enmity of the powerful Zubovs and other officers who took part in the campaign; many of them would be among the conspirators who arranged Paul's murder five years later. 2767: 803: 2053:, which now occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine's personal collection. The empress was a great lover of art and books, and ordered the construction of the Hermitage in 1770 to house her expanding collection of paintings, sculpture, and books. By 1790, the Hermitage was home to 38,000 books, 10,000 gems and 10,000 drawings. Two wings were devoted to her collections of "curiosities". 2589: 3157:

Viatka and Bulgaria and others; Lady and Grand Duchess of Novgorod in the Netherland of Chernigov, Resan, Rostov, Yaroslav, Beloosrial, Udoria, Obdoria, Condinia, and Ruler of the entire North region and Lady of the Yurish, of the Cartalinian and Grusinian tsars and the Cabardinian land, of the Cherkessian and Gorsian princes and the lady of the manor and sovereign of many others.

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mind, Catherine did rule for 10 years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as Pugachev's. The rebellion ultimately failed and in fact backfired as Catherine was pushed away from the idea of serf liberation following the violent uprising. Under Catherine's rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontented.

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accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine's control. News of Catherine's plan spread, and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her. She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov's child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then.

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people who wandered through southern Russia. In 1786, she assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system under government regulation. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.

1727:(1791) might lead to a resurgence in the power of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to refrain from her planned intervention into France and to intervene in Poland instead. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the 2181:. Catherine expressed some frustration with the economists she read for what she regarded as their impractical theories, writing in the margin of one of Necker's books that if it was possible to solve all of the state's economic problems in one day, she would have done so a long time ago. For information about particular nations that interested her, she read 826:. Her mother's opposition to this practice brought her the Empress's disfavour. When Sophie's situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran pastor. Awaking from her delirium, however, Sophie said, "I don't want any Lutheran; I want my Orthodox father ". This increased her popularity with the Empress and her court as a whole. 2018: 2861:, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg. Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists. 2335:, commonly known as The Bolshoi Ballet Academy, was founded during Catherine's reign on 23 December 1773. It entered into a contract with the Italian teacher-choreographer Filippo Becari, who must was "the most capable of dancing" children to learn "to dance with all possible precision and to show themselves publicly in all pantomime ballets". 2563:. She levied additional taxes on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Orthodox faith, that additional tax was lifted. Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule. 1940:

support in times of hardship. In addition, they received land to till, but were taxed a certain percentage of their crops to give to their landowners. These were the privileges a serf was entitled to and that nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine's reign, and this is the system she inherited.

952:, the sister of her husband's official mistress. In Dashkova's opinion, Dashkova introduced Catherine to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband; however, Catherine had been involved in military schemes against Elizabeth with the likely goal of subsequently getting rid of Peter III since at least 1749. 2896:, visited her in September 1796, the empress's intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept that Alexandra would not convert to 2625:

1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs from 1762 to 1772, 202,000 from 1773 to 1793, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795. Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. In 1767, Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants automatically would be promoted regardless of office or merit.

1044:, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the Ismailovsky Regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne and began her reign as Empress of Russia as Catherine II. 1851:, farmers from Germany who settled mostly in the Volga River Valley region. They indeed helped modernise the sector that totally dominated the Russian economy. They introduced numerous innovations regarding wheat production and flour milling, tobacco culture, sheep raising, and small-scale manufacturing. 872:

opposed her husband. Unhappy with her husband, Catherine became an avid reader of books, mostly in French. She disparaged her husband for his devotion to reading on the one hand "Lutheran prayer-books, the other the history of and trial of some highway robbers who had been hanged or broken on the wheel".

2789:(25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter's pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine's husband, Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 6733:

Noble Feelings of Dissent: Russian Emotional Culture and the Decembrist Revolt of 1825 A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Stanislav

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Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates. The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10% in 1767 to 11% in 1781 to 14% in

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Religious education was reviewed strictly. At first, she attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786, Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education. By separating the

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in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well. The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in

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the sight of this famous woman so impressed me that I found it impossible to think of anything: I could only stare at her. Firstly I was very surprised at her small stature; I had imagined her to be very tall, as great as her fame. She was also very fat, but her face was still beautiful, and she wore

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Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real emperor should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause. With all this discontent in

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Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals. The only thing a noble could not do

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was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation roubles circulated on equal footing with the silver rouble; a market

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that caused what she called a "revolution" in her teenage mind as Tacitus was the first intellectual she read who understood power politics as they are, not as they should be. She was especially impressed with his argument that people do not act for their professed idealistic reasons, and instead she

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Her Majesty has a masculine force of mind, obstinacy in adhering to a plan, and intrepidity in the execution of it; but she wants the more manly virtues of deliberation, forbearance in prosperity and accuracy of judgment, while she possesses in a high degree the weaknesses vulgarly attributed to her

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and Nicholas Alexander Suk). Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 roubles, a pension of 5,000 roubles, and 4,000 peasants in Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777. The

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on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called

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Catherine read three sorts of books, namely those for pleasure, those for information, and those to provide her with a philosophy. In the first category, she read romances and comedies that were popular at the time, many of which were regarded as "inconsequential" by the critics both then and since.

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Catherine paid a great deal of attention to financial reform, and relied heavily on the advice of Prince A. A. Viazemski. She found that piecemeal reform worked poorly because there was no overall view of a comprehensive state budget. Money was needed for wars and necessitated the junking of the old

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Catherine's undated will, discovered in early 1792 among her papers by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky, gave specific instructions should she die: "Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn

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died in 1763, so Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king. She sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as king. Poniatowski

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The double doors opened and the Empress appeared. I have said that she was quite small, and yet on the days when she made her public appearances, with her head held high, her eagle-like stare and a countenance accustomed to command, all this gave her such an air of majesty that to me she might have

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at Tsarskoye Selo in May 1770. In a letter to Voltaire in 1772, she wrote: "Right now I adore English gardens, curves, gentle slopes, ponds in the form of lakes, archipelagos on dry land, and I have a profound scorn for straight lines, symmetric avenues. I hate fountains that torture water in order

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The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one. However, if the empress' policies were too extreme or too disliked, she was not considered the true empress. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this "fake" empress with the "true" empress, whoever she may

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was given the task of issuing the first government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded

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which was committed by the Qing Empire had led many Dzungars to seek sanctuary in the Russian Empire, and it was also one of the reasons for the abrogation of the Treaty of Kyakhta. Catherine perceived that the Qianlong Emperor was an unpleasant and arrogant neighbour, once saying: "I shall not die

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from the age of six months and was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup against Catherine. Like Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. The woman later

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In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while Catherine lived in another palace nearby. On the night of 8 July 1762 (OS: 27 June 1762), Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been

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to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin's advice on military strategy. Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became the de facto

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While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school as well as employ them at businesses that paid wages. This happened more often during Catherine's reign because of the new schools she established. Only in

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by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as to accumulate wealth. To become serfs, people conceded their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and

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and lying-in hospital. In 1763, she opened Paul's Hospital, also known as Pavlovskaya Hospital. She had the government collect and publish vital statistics. In 1762, she called on the army to upgrade its medical services. She established a centralised medical administration charged with initiating

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The crown contains 75 pearls and 4,936 Indian diamonds forming laurel and oak leaves, the symbols of power and strength, and is surmounted by a 398.62-carat ruby spinel that previously belonged to the Empress Elizabeth, and a diamond cross. The crown was produced in a record two months and weighed

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In 1759, Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna, who only lived to 14 months. Due to various rumours of Catherine's promiscuity, Peter was led to believe he was not the child's biological father and is known to have proclaimed, "Go to the devil!" when Catherine angrily dismissed his

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Apart from providing that experience, the marriage was unsuccessful; it was not consummated for years due to Peter III's mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups that

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For smaller German princely families, an advantageous marriage was one of the best means of advancing their interests. To improve the position of her house, Sophie was groomed throughout her childhood to become the wife of a powerful ruler. In addition to her native German, Sophie became fluent in

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We, Catherine the second, by the Grace of God, Empress and Autocrat of all the Russians at Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsarina of Kasan, Tsarina of Astrachan, Tsarina of Siberia, Lady of Pleskow and Grand Duchess of Smolensko, Duchess of Estonia and Livland, Carelial, Tver, Yugoria, Permia,

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Grigory Potemkin was involved in the palace coup of 1762. In 1772, Catherine's close friends informed her of Orlov's affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773, the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine's son Paul had started gaining support; both of these

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In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia's economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782. Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres,

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Catherine's apparent embrace of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion. She nationalised all of the church lands to help pay for her wars, largely emptied the monasteries, and forced most of the remaining clergymen to survive as farmers or

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From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system. However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to

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and Dr John Brown. In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a

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Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775, the empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the provinces of the Russian Empire. The statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country

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Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She refused the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, which had ports on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and refrained from having a Russian army in Germany. Instead, she pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the

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In 1785, Catherine approved the subsidising of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic

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capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the "Guide to

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Nicholas I, her grandson, evaluated the foreign policy of Catherine the Great as a dishonest one. Catherine failed to reach any of the initial goals she had put forward. Her foreign policy lacked a long-term strategy and from the very start was characterised by a series of mistakes. She lost the

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public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.

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Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a Jew is because the term meant many things during her reign.

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of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland. For example, although Catholic parishes were allowed to retain their property and worship, Papal oversight of parishes was restricted to only theology. In its

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Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program. Two years after the implementation of Catherine's program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions

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as her advisor on educational matters. Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British pedagogical

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Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia. She believed a 'new kind of person' could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could

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Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom. If a noble did not live up to his side of the deal, the serfs could file complaints against him by following the proper channels of law. Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this

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At the time of Catherine's reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land their parents had. Even before the rule of Catherine, serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly

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and, at the time of his daughter's birth, he held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. However, because her second cousin Peter III converted to Orthodox Christianity, her mother's brother became the heir to the Swedish throne and two of her first

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Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. She avoided force and tried persuasion (and money) to integrate Muslim areas into her empire. Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary

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Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire and stated: "My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger". By 1800, approximately 2 million

2218:. For philosophy, she liked books promoting what has been called "enlightened despotism", which she embraced as her ideal of an autocratic but reformist government that operated according to the rule of law, not the whims of the ruler, hence her interest in Blackstone's legal commentaries. 2355:

change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.

1704:. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in its execution in the 1790s. In 1768, she formally became the protector of the political rights of dissidents and peasants of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an 2600:

In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started. The church's lands were expropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the

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in 1790, shortly after the start of the French Revolution. He warned of uprisings in Russia because of the deplorable social conditions of the serfs. Catherine decided it promoted the dangerous poison of the French Revolution. She had the book burned and the author exiled to Siberia.

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financial institutions. A key principle was responsibilities defined by function. It was instituted by the Fundamental Law of 7 November 1775. Vaizemski's Office of State Revenue took centralised control and by 1781, the government possessed its first approximation of a state budget.

2441:. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created. The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in 1313: 2798:

Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts, but Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in Saint Petersburg when Catherine became empress.

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into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts were created, government officials numbering more than double this were appointed, and spending on local government increased sixfold. In 1785, Catherine conferred on the nobility the

2467:

from fees for baptisms and other services. Very few members of the nobility entered the church, which became even less important than it had been. She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.

2255:

As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisors, she refrained from immediately putting them into practice. After holding more than 200 sittings, the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.

1841:

had neither a free peasantry, nor a significant middle class, nor legal norms hospitable to private enterprise. Still, there was a start of industry, mainly textiles around Moscow and ironworks in the Ural Mountains, with a labour force mainly of serfs, bound to the

1999:

of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true empress because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time they followed a pretender under Catherine's reign.

1846:

Catherine imposed a comprehensive system of state regulation of merchants' activities. It was a failure because it narrowed and stifled entrepreneurship and did not reward economic development. She had more success when she strongly encouraged the migration of the

2703:. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, well before encountering the Orlov brothers. They had a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with 2941:

circulated regarding the cause and manner of her death. The most famous of these rumors is that she died after having sex with her horse. This rumor was widely circulated by satirical British and French publications at the time of her death. In his 1647 book

2900:, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. The frustration affected Catherine's health. She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony which would establish her favourite grandson 1000:

in Saint Petersburg. The Emperor's eccentricities and policies, including his great admiration for the Prussian King Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated as allies. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the

1712:(1768–1772), supported by France. After the rebels, their French and European volunteers, and their allied Ottoman Empire had been defeated, she established in the Commonwealth a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a 1516:

and established rule in 1795, expelling the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. The ultimate goal for the Russian government, however, was to topple the anti-Russian shah (king), and to replace him with his pro-Russian half-brother

1161:

2.3 kg (5.1 lbs). From 1762, the Great Imperial Crown was the coronation crown of all Romanov emperors until the monarchy's abolition in 1917. It is one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and is now on display in the Moscow Kremlin

3020:

This second lost pregnancy was also attributed to Saltykov; this time she was very ill for 13 days. Catherine later wrote in her memoirs: "...They suspect that part of the afterbirth has not come away ... on the 13th day it came out by itself".

912:, in which she explained why Paul had been Peter's son. Saltykov was used to make Peter jealous, and she did not desire to have a child with him; Catherine wanted to become empress herself, and did not want another heir to the throne; however, 790:

and with the Russian people at large. She zealously applied herself to learning the Russian language, rising late at night to repeat her lessons in her bedroom. Staying up late at night in the harsh Russian cold caused her to fall ill with

2477:

stead, Catherine appointed a Catholic bishop (later raising the position to archbishop) of Mohylev to administer all Catholic churches in her territory. Nevertheless, Catherine's Russia provided an asylum and a base for regrouping to the

1751:

of China was committed to an expansionist policy in Central Asia and saw the Russian Empire as a potential rival, making for difficult and unfriendly relations between Beijing and Saint Petersburg. In 1762, he unilaterally abrogated the

2527:

to help regulate Muslim-populated regions as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government as a way of regulating religious affairs.

2726:) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 52,000 km (20,000 sq mi) among them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less, 2665:

sex—love of flattery, and its inseparable companion, vanity; an inattention to unpleasant but salutary advice; and a propensity to voluptuousness which leads to excesses that would debase a female character in any sphere of life.

2574:. Catherine's decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians. 964:

to hide away from Peter's abrasive personality. In the first version of her memoirs, edited and published by Alexander Hertzen, Catherine strongly implied that the real father of her son Paul was not Peter, but rather Saltykov.

2429:

By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries. One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician,

2090:

to build the Chinese Village at Tsarskoye Selo. Catherine had at first attempted to hire a Chinese architect to build the Chinese Village, and on finding that was impossible, settled on Cameron, who likewise specialised in the

955:

Peter III's temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants, who later joined Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.

1995:. The nobles were imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767. Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during 1422:

leader, to head the Crimean state and maintain friendly relations with Russia. His period of rule proved disappointing after repeated effort to prop up his regime through military force and monetary aid. Finally, Catherine

3040:

Born at the Winter Palace, officially he was a son of Peter III but in her memoirs, Catherine implies very strongly that Saltykov was the biological father of the child, though she later retracted this. He married firstly

1952:

this way—apart from conscription to the army—could a serf leave the farm for which he was responsible, but this was used for selling serfs to people who could not own them legally because of absence of nobility abroad.

916:

blackmailed Peter and Catherine to produce this heir. Peter and Catherine had both been involved in a 1749 Russian military plot to crown Peter (together with Catherine) in Elizabeth's stead. As a result of this plot,

1058:(younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of 907:

while living at Oranienbaum, as her marriage to Peter had not yet been consummated, as Catherine later claimed. Nonetheless, Catherine would eventually leave the final version of her memoirs to her son, the future

2915:, that she had slept better than she had in a long time. Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured. The court physician diagnosed a 2145:, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Although she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the 686:. In accordance with the prevailing custom among the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. According to her memoirs, Sophie was considered a 2197:

for information about the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean khanate; the books of Frederick the Great praising himself to learn about Frederick just as much as to learn about Prussia; and pamphlets written by

1637:

instigated by Catherine's cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to overrun the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottomans and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia's

2628:

After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigory Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as

1434: 2514:

Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry became too disruptive. After the "Toleration of All Faiths" Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build

1804:, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Daikokuya an audience at 276: 2137:

Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her "The Star of the North" and the "

921:

likely wanted to deny both Catherine and Peter any rights to the Russian throne. Elizabeth, therefore, allowed Catherine to have sexual lovers only after a new legal heir, Catherine and Peter's son

972:

I used to say to myself that happiness and misery depend on ourselves. If you feel unhappy, raise yourself above unhappiness, and so act that your happiness may be independent of all eventualities.

1772:

until I have ejected the Turks from Europe, suppressed the pride of China and established trade with India". In a 1790 letter to Baron de Grimm written in French, she called the Qianlong Emperor "

1662:. Russia was to stop any involvement in the internal affairs of Sweden. Large sums were paid to Gustav III and peace ensued for 20 years even in spite of the assassination of Gustav III in 1792. 716:. She later wrote that she immediately found Peter detestable and that she stayed at one end of the castle and Peter at the other. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol. 605:, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. The construction of many mansions of the nobility in the 2499: 9999: 2802:

Orlov died in 1783. Their son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762–1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeyeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798–1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince

2691:, the British ambassador to Russia, offered Stanisław Poniatowski a place in the embassy in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother's side, came from the 2426:—a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor—on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates. 2570:

In 1785, Catherine declared Jews to be officially foreigners, with foreigners' rights. This re-established the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish

849:, the mother of Elizabeth and the grandmother of Peter III. The following year, on 21 August 1745, the long-planned dynastic marriage between Catherine and Peter finally took place in 10069: 1363:

The Russian victories procured access to the Black Sea and allowed Catherine's government to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of

1935:

slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom. The understanding of law in

1287:

in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of friendship with Britain, Catherine was wary of Britain's increased power following

771:

as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Her hunger for fame centered on her daughter's prospects of becoming Empress of Russia, but Joanna also infuriated

3137:'s daughter, and never acknowledged by Catherine, it has been suggested that Temkina was the illegitimate child of Catherine and Potemkin, but this is now regarded as unlikely. 2966:

dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery's chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by

2409:

Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of

9704: 9351: 2864:

Catherine was worried that Potemkin's poor health would delay his important work in colonising and developing the south as he had planned. He died at the age of 52 in 1791.

783:

in 1727, before the wedding could take place. Despite Joanna's interference, Elizabeth took a strong liking to Sophie, and Sophie and Peter were eventually married in 1745.

2098:

She made a special effort to bring leading intellectuals and scientists to Russia, and she wrote her own comedies, works of fiction, and memoirs. She worked with Voltaire,

10074: 1717: 1955: 864:, which remained the residence of the "young court" for many years. From there, they governed the duchy (which occupied less than a third of the current German state of 2559:, the large new Jewish element was treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. Catherine separated the Jews from Orthodox society, restricting them to the 2232:, and peasants) and of various nationalities. The commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The empress prepared the 3076:

Possibly the offspring of Catherine and Stanislaus Poniatowski, Anna was born at the Winter Palace between 10 and 11 o'clock; she was named by Empress Elizabeth after

2470:

However, in accord with her anti-Ottoman policy, Catherine promoted the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule. She placed strictures on Catholics (

2434:. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels. 2313:

at her Tsarskoye Selo residence in St Petersburg, by whom she was painted shortly before her death. Madame Vigée Le Brun vividly describes the empress in her memoirs:

705:

of European elites in the 18th century. The young Sophie received the standard education for an 18th-century German princess, concentrating on etiquette, French, and

4389:

Ruth P. Dawson, "Perilous News and Hasty Biography : Representations of Catherine II Immediately after her Seizure of the Throne." Biography 27 (2004), 517–534.

3113:; his father was Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov. He married Baroness Anna Dorothea von Ungern-Sternberg and had issue. Created Count Bobrinsky in 1796, he died in 1813. 1040:

arrested by her estranged husband and that the coup they had been planning would have to take place at once. The next day, she left the palace and departed for the

10004: 3161:

Another of her titles was "Mother of the Fatherland". She was often simply called "Mother"; even "Mommy" was used by the court nobles instead of "Your Majesty".

2911:

5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady's maid,

1260:(in office 1763–1781), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of Catherine's reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of 1125: 590:, and the increasing demands of the state and of private landowners intensified the exploitation of serf labour. This was a chief cause of rebellions, including 3952: 775:, who eventually banned her from the country for allegedly spying for King Frederick. Elizabeth knew the family well and had intended to marry Joanna's brother 6761:"Herzog Friedrich Eugen (1732–1797) – Briefwechsel des Herzogs mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland, 1768–1795 – 1. Briefwechsel mit der Kaiserin Katharina" 3491: 10044: 4880:

Munro Social Science Journal, George E. (1976). "The Empress and the Merchants: Response in St. Petersburg to the Regulation of Commerce under Catherine II".

4414:. Русская старина, 1893. – Т. 80. – № 12. – С. 487–496. – В ст.: Труворов А. Коронация императрицы Екатерины Второй – Сетевая версия – М. Вознесенский. 2006. 2061:

to make it take a course contrary to its nature: Statues are relegated to galleries, vestibules etc.; in a word, Anglomania is the master of my plantomania".

10099: 10064: 2958:

with horses. This was repeated in anti-Russian literature throughout the 17th and 18th centuries to illustrate the claimed barbarous Asian nature of Russia.

776: 121: 10039: 9863: 2758:. Later uprisings in Poland led to the third partition in 1795. Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation until its post-World War I reconstitution. 1431:

passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1787, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.

1008:

Peter supported Frederick II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the

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for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better." In the end, the empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver

786:

When Sophie arrived in Russia in 1744 at age 15, she spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with Elizabeth, but also with Elizabeth's husband

2695:, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland; Poniatowski and Catherine were eighth cousins, twice removed, by their mutual ancestor King 2072:

Catherine shared in the general European craze for all things Chinese, and made a point of collecting Chinese art and buying porcelain in the popular

9900: 9697: 2904:

as her heir, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.

184: 10109: 8246: 6209: 4054: 9727: 10084: 7431: 1349: 4064: 2206:

to understand the reasons behind the American Revolution. In the third category fell the work of Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm,

1050:

On 17 July 1762—eight days after the coup that amazed the outside world and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at

8731: 8469: 8842: 1829: 586:, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the economy continued to depend on 10104: 9690: 7877: 1837:

Russian economic development was well below the standards in western Europe. Historian François Cruzet writes that Russia under Catherine:

1739:(1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795). 507:, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, Russian Empire annexed the 9791: 8422: 2221:

Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French

3929: 3170: 2446:

Teachers". This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.

1915:

According to a census taken from 1754 to 1762, Catherine owned 500,000 serfs. A further 2.8 million belonged to the Russian state.

10029: 9883: 6782: 1424: 1272:

League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour with Catherine and she had him replaced with

4735:

Jerzy Lojek, "Catherine II's Armed Intervention in Poland: Origins of the Political Decisions at the Russian Court in 1791 and 1792."

4440: 4329: 2656:

The acceptance of a woman ruler was more of an issue among elites in Western Europe than in Russia. The British ambassador to Russia,

748:

of Prussia took an active part. The objective was to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of

10114: 10059: 3177:) written between 1768 and 1795, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany. 2892:

Catherine's life and reign included many personal successes, but they ended in two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed), King

2237: 2082:

style of architecture and gardening. The Chinese Palace was designed by the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi who specialised in the

1901:

inoculations (almost 6% of the population) were administered in the Russian Empire. Historians consider her efforts to be a success.

1614:

19th and early 20th centuries as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the

1047:

She had her husband arrested and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne.

1025: 658: 368: 4227: 9858: 9853: 9786: 9484: 2849:

In 1772, Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General

1288: 949: 3255: 2228:

together at Moscow a Grand Commission—almost a consultative parliament—composed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles,

1411:, granted Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and made Crimea a protectorate of Russia. 10034: 8504: 7727: 4496: 4466: 3487: 2719: 2674: 6261: 3227: 2938: 1991:

The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including crop failure, and epidemics, especially a major

860:(located in the north-west of present-day Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of 10014: 9984: 9781: 8922: 8594: 8417: 4415: 2182: 2178: 3872:"Catherine II signed the Manifesto on permit for foreigners to settle in Russia and free return of Russian people fled abroad" 1601:

of an attempted mediation between Catherine the Great (on the right, supported by Austria and France) and the Ottoman Empire.

9848: 7450: 7385: 7364: 7343: 7282: 7261: 7240: 7209: 7187: 7066: 6899: 6862: 6748: 6675: 6650: 6613: 6588: 6554: 6369: 6186: 5141: 4864: 4669: 4642: 4309: 4204: 4089: 3923: 3465: 3077: 2704: 2301: 841:

received Sophie as a member. It was then that she took the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial)

646: 548: 7288: 6868: 4412:"Coronation of the Empress Catherine II [Описание коронации, миропомазания и причащения императрицы Екатерины II-й]" 10094: 10089: 10054: 9994: 9979: 9878: 9843: 9817: 8437: 8432: 8239: 3234: 3208: 2657: 2332: 1897:. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Her son Pavel later was inoculated as well. 1174: 1141:

in Moscow on 22 September 1762. Her coronation marks the creation of one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty, the

887:. As she learned Russian, she became increasingly interested in the literature of her adopted country. Finally, it was the 768: 761: 654: 629: 378: 31: 17: 9796: 7325:

Documents of Catherine the Great. The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768

5561: 9812: 8667: 8427: 7477: 2815: 2482: 694: 475:

In her accession to power and her rule of the empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Count

8962: 5825: 3322: 1552:

in his famous ode; he later commented bitterly on Zubov's inglorious return from the expedition in another famous poem.

728:

Portrait of the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna (the future Catherine the Great) around the time of her wedding, by

457:, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, 8462: 7736: 7089: 6684: 6271: 6125: 4374: 2682: 2524: 1588: 1439: 1234: 536: 9713: 9489: 7695: 7680: 7672: 7654: 7646: 7567: 7552: 7537: 7529: 7511: 7503: 7313: 7164: 6983: 5856: 4116: 3274: 3241: 1634: 1467: 1337: 1308: 1304: 1178: 618: 520: 413: 348: 91: 2872: 9868: 9018: 7870: 7486: 7460: 4609: 3573: 1619: 1353: 1041: 724: 670: 7482:. Saint Petersburg: Printing office of the Department of inheritance, 1873. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats 7128: 1380: 10079: 9562: 8887: 8232: 6336: 3662: 3548: 3528: 3448: 3354: 929: 9320: 6606:

Lists of holders of the Imperial Russian Orders of St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Alexander Nevsky and St. Anne

3223: 2678: 2275:

During Catherine's reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the

1697: 540: 10019: 9822: 9435: 8677: 8255: 7996: 3957: 3847: 3647: 3212: 2639: 2362: 1732: 1615: 1414:

In 1770, Russia's State Council announced a policy in favour of eventual Crimean independence. Catherine named

1329: 484: 461:

and theatres. At that time Russia became the new homeland for hundreds of thousands of European (particularly,

8867: 4550: 653:, as Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica (Sophie Auguste Friederike) von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg. Her mother was 10119: 10049: 9916: 9873: 9670: 9099: 8746: 8455: 4921:

Duran, James A. (1970). "The Reform of Financial Administration in Russia during the Reign of Catherine II".

2908: 2858: 2549: 1153:

design, the crown was constructed of two half spheres, one gold and one silver, representing the Eastern and

1130: 989: 167: 146: 38: 9008: 2795:

against her husband, but she preferred to remain the dowager empress of Russia rather than marrying anyone.

1448: 9964: 9537: 9494: 3042: 2974: 1033: 6206: 2358: 2166: 1893:

vigorous health policies. Catherine decided to have herself inoculated against smallpox by English doctor

1264:

to setting up a "Northern Accord" between Russia, Prussia, Poland, and Sweden to counter the power of the

9064: 8912: 8329: 7863: 6580: 3370: 3080:, against Catherine's wishes. On 17 December 1757, Anna was baptised and received the Great Cross of the 2967: 2402: 2247: 2241: 2170: 2087: 1138: 609:

style endorsed by the empress changed the face of the country. She is often included in the ranks of the

2846:

trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for help—mostly military—and he became devoted to her.

976: 9499: 9109: 9034: 8972: 8837: 7946: 7713: 7395:

Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1998). "Legal Identity and the Possession of Serfs in Imperial Russia".

3669: 2707:, the daughter of Peter I's second marriage), although she was legally regarded as Grand Duke Peter's. 2630: 2146: 2103: 1724: 1627: 1505: 1487: 968:

Catherine recalled in her memoirs her optimistic and resolute mood before her accession to the throne:

933: 8947: 8897: 5405:

Leckey, Colum (2005). "Patronage and Public Culture in the Russian Free Economic Society, 1765–1796".

4539:"Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources" 2555:

Judaism was a small, if not non-existent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the

2310: 1756:, which governed the caravan trade between the two empires. Another source of tension was the wave of 1340:. Russia inflicted some of the heaviest defeats ever suffered by the Ottoman Empire, including at the 10024: 9827: 9054: 8761: 8682: 7830: 3476:

A teenage clone of Catherine the Great appears a recurring character in the American animated series

3058: 2556: 2437:

In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under

1833:

A 5-kopeck coin bearing the monogram of Catherine the Great and the Imperial coat of arms, dated 1791

1292: 1055: 857: 796: 4945:"Doctor Thomas Dimsdale, and Smallpox in Russia: The Variolation of the Empress Catherine the Great" 2190: 2078:

style. Between 1762 and 1766, she had built the "Chinese Palace" at Oranienbaum which reflected the

1658:(14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the 868:, even including that part of Schleswig occupied by Denmark) to obtain experience to govern Russia. 558:

Many cities and towns were founded on Catherine's orders in the newly conquered lands, most notably

9094: 9059: 8628: 8317: 7894: 7886: 7630:

Sette, Alessandro. "Catherine II and the Socio-Economic Origins of the Jewish Question in Russia",

7304:——— (1972b). "Pugachev's Rebellion". In Forster, Robert; Greene, Jack P. (eds.). 7058: 3540: 3081: 2723: 2688: 2157: 2057: 1855: 1753: 1602: 1284: 1142: 1029: 984:

and his wife, the future Catherine the Great. He reigned only six months, and died on 17 July 1762.

523:. In anticipation of future conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, Russia colonised the territories of 496: 2567:

even under the guise of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow's middle class.

1655: 712:

In 1739, when Catherine was 10, she met the second cousin who would become her future husband and

9315: 9292: 9257: 9039: 9003: 8927: 8862: 8208: 7941: 7144:

Madariaga, Isabel De (1979). "The Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II".

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The Other East and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Imagining Poland and the Russian Empire

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and died the following evening around 9:45. An autopsy confirmed a stroke as the cause of death.

2608:

In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the

2602: 2174: 1996: 1864:

exchange rate for these two currencies was ongoing. The use of these notes continued until 1849.

1728: 1701: 1646:(July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the 1518: 1318: 838: 834: 753: 591: 298: 2365:, the closest female friend of Empress Catherine and a major figure of the Russian Enlightenment 2110:

who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as

903:, who edited a version of Catherine's memoirs, Catherine had her first sexual relationship with 10009: 9607: 9509: 9466: 9325: 9206: 8613: 8558: 8203: 8102: 7898: 7809: 7498:

by Markus Cruse and Hilde Hoogenboom (translators). New York: Modern Library, 2005 (hardcover,

7228: 6694: 3657: 3398: 3094: 3085: 2711: 2696: 2583: 2064: 1705: 1524:

It was widely expected that a 13,000-strong Russian corps would be led by the seasoned general

1257: 845:Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey), so that she was in all respects the namesake of 741: 729: 666: 610: 8274: 7251: 4659: 1736: 1146: 55: 9392: 9178: 9117: 9013: 8524: 8402: 8374: 8193: 8153: 7951: 7921: 7823: 7639:

Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin

4854: 4632: 4299: 4196: 4190: 3913: 3602: 3594: 3514: 3363: 3050: 2901: 2276: 2261: 2119: 2111: 2013: 1797: 1328:

Peter the Great had gained a foothold in the south, on the edge of the Black Sea, during the

1101: 992:: 25 December 1761), Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III and Catherine became 937: 614: 9305: 9300: 8395: 8224: 7354: 6178: 6168: 3436: 1808:. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by 1183: 760:

relied. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophie's mother,

9974: 9969: 9657: 9517: 9479: 9430: 9074: 9044: 8872: 8587: 8478: 8198: 8118: 8041: 7931: 4444: 4325: 3453: 3440: 3110: 3054: 2835: 2296: 1876:

Catherine made public health a priority. She made use of the social theory ideas of German

1681: 1671: 1651: 1493: 1187: 1154: 1009: 945: 884: 544: 454: 422: 9451: 9330: 7491:. Saint Petersburg: Typography of A. Suvorin, 1885. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats 2122:, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She recruited the scientists 1971: 814:

Sophie recalled in her memoirs that as soon as she arrived in Russia, she fell ill with a

8: 9084: 8852: 8821: 8364: 8354: 8344: 8282: 8178: 8173: 8096: 8084: 8031: 7971: 7936: 7926: 7916: 7784: 4508:

K. D. Bugrov, "Nikita Panin and Catherine II: Conceptual aspect of political relations".

3561: 3553: 3386: 3346: 2912: 2284: 2131: 1785: 1618:(1778–1779) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780, she established a 1541: 1513: 1357: 1332:. Catherine completed the conquest of the south, making Russia the dominant power in the 1082: 1002: 981: 928:

After this, Catherine carried on sexual liaisons over the years with many men, including

918: 913: 861: 853:. Catherine had recently turned 16. Her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. 827: 772: 757: 745: 713: 450: 197: 104: 9682: 8957: 8932: 6946:

Hans, N. (1961). "Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II".

2519:

and practise all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to

9410: 9272: 9262: 9247: 9237: 9191: 9079: 8902: 8623: 8349: 8339: 8158: 8069: 8056: 8036: 8026: 7976: 7966: 7911: 7605: 7440: 7412: 7154: 7120: 7051: 7036: 7024: 7016: 6955: 6934: 6926: 6827: 6574: 6328: 6242: 6115: 5613: 5520: 5485: 5430: 5422: 4961: 4944: 4816: 4808: 4601: 3894: 3523: 3334: 2807: 2786: 2692: 2560: 2215: 2207: 2127: 1885: 1860: 1793: 1685: 1576: 1509: 1214: 1021: 1017: 865: 683: 650: 155: 9382: 8551: 7724: 5329:

Catherine and Diderot: The Empress, the Philosopher, and the Fate of the Enlightenment

4470: 2107: 1407:. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval and commercial traffic in the 9615: 9420: 9415: 9377: 9367: 9216: 9132: 9127: 9069: 8917: 8907: 8672: 8529: 8369: 8334: 8302: 8287: 8267: 8168: 8140: 8108: 8064: 8046: 8011: 7906: 7791: 7691: 7676: 7668: 7650: 7642: 7563: 7548: 7533: 7525: 7507: 7499: 7446: 7416: 7381: 7360: 7339: 7333: 7309: 7278: 7257: 7236: 7205: 7183: 7160: 7112: 7085: 7062: 7028: 6979: 6972: 6938: 6895: 6885: 6858: 6744: 6671: 6646: 6609: 6584: 6550: 6365: 6267: 6182: 6121: 5852: 5434: 5158: 5137: 5013: 5005: 4966: 4899:"The Economic Contributions of the German Russians to the Imperial Russian Economy". 4860: 4820: 4665: 4638: 4370: 4364: 4305: 4219: 4200: 4112: 4085: 3919: 3853: 3843: 3557: 3470: 3359: 3314: 3306: 3118: 2850: 2782: 2348: 2288: 2236:, pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially 2199: 2038: 1960: 1910: 1713: 1709: 1689: 1643: 1568: 1549: 1497: 1474:(1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimean peninsula and granted the 1396: 1280: 1269: 1108:

in 1725. Historians debate Catherine's technical status, whether as a regent or as a

1069: 1068:

At the time of Peter III's overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included

900: 787: 737: 587: 512: 488: 446: 228: 72: 9456: 8877: 6225:

Meehan-Waters, Brenda (1975). "Catherine the Great and the Problem of Female Rule".

5314:

M. B. W. Trent, "Catherine the Great Invites Euler to Return to St. Petersburg." in

4411: 2791: 2393: 1555:

By mid-June 1796, Zubov's troops easily overran most of the territory of modern-day

1096:, which had preceded the Romanovs as rulers of Russia. She succeeded her husband as 693:

Catherine found her childhood to be uneventful; she once wrote to her correspondent

9620: 9252: 9232: 9201: 8892: 8857: 8801: 8297: 8188: 8127: 8113: 8016: 8006: 8001: 7961: 7956: 7801: 7755: 7601: 7597: 7404: 7197: 7176: 7006: 6967: 6918: 6760: 6531: 6320: 6234: 5516: 5512: 5414: 5342: 5170: 4997: 4956: 4800: 3767: 3683: 3652: 3614: 3565: 3430: 3413: 3341: 3134: 3027: 2831: 2478: 2438: 2414: 2398: 2387: 2050: 2042: 1889: 1801: 1768: 1748: 1341: 1322: 1265: 1150: 1089: 941: 922: 909: 850: 662: 492: 480: 458: 391: 354: 310: 289: 244: 114: 9335: 7588:

Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal".

5503:

Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal".

1796:

to the south for supplies and food. In 1783, storms drove a Japanese sea captain,

1659: 1444: 706: 9425: 9310: 9186: 9148: 8967: 8811: 8806: 8608: 8514: 8384: 8359: 8323: 8148: 8123: 7981: 7740: 7731: 7375: 7272: 6852: 6640: 6213: 5131: 4661:

Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 volumes)

4534: 3719: 3626: 3608: 3519:, which has been extended for a second season in 2017 and a third season in 2019. 3421: 3298: 3006: 2893: 2839: 2803: 2700: 2494: 2375: 2211: 1936: 1894: 1471: 1460: 1428: 1345: 1162: 1105: 904: 756:, a known partisan of the Austrian alliance on whom the reigning Russian Empress 634: 583: 552: 508: 280: 9474: 7575:

Ruling Russia: Politics & Administration in the Age of Absolutism, 1762–1796

7078:

China and Japan in the Russian Imagination, 1685–1922: To the Ends of the Orient

5582:

Entry dated 23 December 1773 // CIAM. F. 127. Op. 1. Unit hr. 12. L. 72-72 vol.

5001: 2738:. In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of 2458: 2223: 2033: 833:

Sophie's father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter's conversion to

9597: 9547: 9405: 9282: 9277: 9267: 9163: 9089: 8998: 8993: 8816: 8791: 8771: 8756: 8741: 8726: 8388: 8312: 8292: 8163: 8090: 8074: 8021: 7991: 7986: 7517: 6854:

Poland's Last King and English Culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798

5553: 3990: 3780: 3695: 3632: 3499: 3439:

portrayed Catherine's journey to the throne as a side-plot in the Soviet film "

3409: 3329: 2885: 2881: 2775: 2280: 2152: 2123: 2115: 1805: 1757: 1593: 1533: 1419: 1230: 1210: 1198: 516: 504: 6909:

Fisher, Alan W. (1968). "Enlightened Despotism and Islam under Catherine II".

6806: 2382: 2287:

laid the groundwork for the great writers of the 19th century, especially for

1415: 1240: 9958: 9625: 9582: 9552: 9532: 9196: 9122: 9049: 8952: 8882: 8796: 8751: 8736: 8633: 8582: 8079: 7116: 6174: 5821: 5009: 3707: 3495: 3483: 3393: 2951: 2877: 2771: 2609: 2431: 2343: 2292: 2189:

to learn about the vast and wealthy Chinese empire that bordered her empire;

2099: 1848: 1789: 1598: 1525: 1500:

against any new invasions and further political aspirations of their Persian

1459:

Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire southward to absorb the

1273: 1097: 1093: 1059: 997: 993: 856:

The bridegroom, then known as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of

807: 702: 621:, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. 476: 465: 172: 7709: 4985: 3857: 2919:

and despite attempts to revive her, she fell into a coma. She was given the

1676: 9635: 9630: 9577: 9567: 9542: 9522: 9242: 9211: 9158: 9153: 8937: 8847: 8786: 8766: 8653: 8577: 8307: 7855: 7660: 6517:(English translation by Aidan Ellis). Oxford, Aidan Ellis, 1978, pp. 66–72. 3585: 3578: 3503: 3426: 2931: 2650: 2635: 2370: 2027: 1761: 1639: 1529: 1404: 1383:, signed 21 July 1774 (OS: 10 July 1774), gave the Russians territories at 1191: 1073: 823: 819: 679: 500: 6995:"The Ambiguous Legal Status of Russian Jewry in the Reign of Catherine II" 6838:

Brechka, Frank (January 1969). "Catherine the Great: The Books She Read".

5889: 5017: 4970: 4590:"Şahin Girey, the Reformer Khan, and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea" 3714: 3129:

Born many years after the death of Catherine's husband, brought up in the

2531: 1923: 9587: 9372: 9168: 8942: 8781: 8660: 8643: 8638: 8213: 7466: 3871: 3536: 3293: 2926: 2897: 2229: 2173:. In the second category fell the work of Denis Diderot, Jacques Necker, 2074: 1992: 1881: 1809: 1647: 1622:, designed to defend neutral shipping from being searched by the British 1408: 1202: 1077: 846: 524: 469: 324: 8602: 7609: 5524: 5489: 4605: 4589: 4139: 3898: 3886: 3088:. After the funeral, Catherine never mentioned her dead daughter again. 1812:. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed. 441:; 2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796), most commonly known as 9592: 9572: 9557: 9527: 8776: 8687: 8544: 8519: 8509: 8447: 7124: 7100: 7020: 6959: 6930: 6891: 6492:(English translation by Aidan Ellis). Oxford, Aidan Ellis, 1978, p. 58. 5617: 5426: 5174: 4812: 3968: 3966: 3478: 3406: 3289: 2920: 2410: 1877: 1623: 1606: 1556: 1501: 1245: 1201:

by some 520,000 square kilometres (200,000 sq mi), absorbing

1190:, the chief architect of Catherine's foreign policy after the death of 960:

accusation. She therefore spent much of this time alone in her private

842: 675: 606: 579: 462: 7725:

Some of the code of laws mentioned above, along with other information

6332: 6308: 6246: 3842:(in Dutch) (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: G.A. van Oorschot. p. 111. 2638:, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the 8618: 8539: 7081: 5476:

Thaler, Roderick P. (1957). "Catherine II's Reaction to Radishchev".

4839:

Kamenskii A. B. "Catherine the Great's Foreign Policy Reconsidered".

3546:

Catherine (portrayed by Meghan Tonjes) is featured in the web series

3099: 2955: 2755: 2646: 2593: 2203: 2138: 1470:. This war was another catastrophe for the Ottomans, ending with the 1392: 1222: 1012:

with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of

815: 792: 575: 528: 449:

from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband,

252: 7219:

Max (2006). "If these walls....Smolny's Repeated Roles in History".

7011: 6994: 6922: 6309:"Catherine II, Potemkin, and Colonization Policy in Southern Russia" 5536: 5534: 5462:

Isabel De Madariaga, "Catherine the Great." in by H. M. Scott, ed.,

5418: 4804: 4111:(First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 89–102. 3963: 3560:" (12 July 2016), pitted against the titular characters, as well as 3190: 736:

The choice of Sophie as wife of the future tsar was a result of the

535:. In the west, the Russian Empire gained the largest share when the 8977: 8572: 8565: 7737:

Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II, inviting foreign immigration

7408: 6324: 6238: 4791:

Lensen, George Alexander (1950). "Early Russo-Japanese Relations".

4573:

The Eastern question, 1774–1923: A study in international relations

4538: 4366:

Great Catherine: The Life of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia

3510: 3381: 3130: 2811: 2571: 2503: 2405:

and the first European state higher education institution for women

2049:

Catherine was a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The

1564: 1455: 1368: 1226: 1129:

Catherine II on a balcony of the Winter Palace on 9 July [

1013: 876: 780: 642: 595: 571: 532: 398: 6504:. Edited by M Morager, London, Hamish-Hamilton, 1955, pp. 205–218. 5340:

Inna Gorbatov, "Voltaire and Russia in the Age of Enlightenment."

1548:

on 21 May (OS: 10 May). The event was glorified by the court poet

1112:, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul. 8263: 5531: 4901:

Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia

3005:

According to court gossip, this lost pregnancy was attributed to

2963: 2826: 2751: 2735: 2731: 2142: 2023: 1545: 1537: 1475: 1400: 1376: 1333: 1218: 1109: 961: 892: 749: 567: 340: 151: 7101:"Catherine II and the Serfs: A Reconsideration of Some Problems" 5448:

Lentin, A. (May 1972). "Catherine the Great and Denis Diderot".

5053: 5051: 4301:

A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present

4082:

L'Allemagne dynastique: Les quinze Familles qui on fait l'Empire

3057:. He succeeded as emperor of Russia in 1796 and was murdered at 2699:, by virtue of Poniatowski's maternal descent from the Scottish 2267: 810:

portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna from before 1749

8648: 5075: 5063: 2916: 2747: 2516: 1976: 1665: 1372: 1364: 1249: 1206: 1051: 687: 563: 559: 427: 9901:

Viktoria Feodorovna (Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha)

6641:

Catherine the Great; Cruse, Markus; Hoogenboom, Hilde (2006).

5762: 5760: 5159:"Naive Monarchism and Rural Resistance In Contemporary Russia" 4634:

Iranian–Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800

3992:

A History of Sweden from the Earliest Times to the Present Day

3960:(ADB). Band 4, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1876, S. 157–59. 2814:, and later served as ambassador in Turin, the capital of the 2766: 2165:

She especially liked the work of German comic writers such as

818:

that almost killed her. She credited her survival to frequent

802: 8534: 8254: 5087: 5048: 4698:

Imperial Policies and Perspectives towards Georgia, 1760–1819

3338:(1924) told the story of Catherine's romance with an officer. 2785:(1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the 2739: 2520: 2472: 2233: 1928: 1859:

upon the presentation of those notes. The emergence of these

1572: 1388: 1261: 1157:, divided by a foliate garland and fastened with a low hoop. 1062: 10000:

Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg

7041:

A course in Russian history: the time of Catherine the Great

4879: 4242: 2876:

1794 portrait of Catherine, aged approximately 65, with the

2588: 1571:. By November, they were stationed at the confluence of the 1005:(1756–1763) and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761. 988:

After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (

613:. As a patron of the arts, she presided over the age of the 7470: 7335:

Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815

5757: 5111: 5036: 4435: 4433: 3589: 3390:

in 1944, starring in it then and in subsequent productions.

2743: 2727: 2322:

Madame Vigée Le Brun also describes the empress at a gala:

1784:

In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in

1560: 1532:, and entrusted the command to his youthful brother, Count 1384: 1356:

in Ukraine, saw the capture of up to 20,000 slaves for the

7253:

Catherine the Great and Potemkin: The Imperial Love Affair

5877: 5099: 4254: 2854:

absolute ruler of New Russia, governing its colonisation.

2523:, which previously had been denied. Catherine created the 1959:

Captured Russian officials and aristocrats being tried by

1399:

and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers

1032:, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia's traditional 10070:

Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree

9712: 7719: 6082: 6036: 6034: 5604:

Roucek, Joseph S. (1958). "Education in Czarist Russia".

5236: 5212: 4392: 4140:"Почему дворяне в России говорили именно на французском?" 3433:

as Empress Elizabeth, is based on Catherine's early life.

1650:). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the 896:

learned to look for the "hidden and interested motives".

6603: 5846: 4678: 4430: 4146: 4044: 4042: 3045:

in 1773 and had no issue. He married secondly, in 1776,

1884:, as well as Russian precedents and experiments such as 1197:

During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the

9874:

Militza Nikolaevna of Montenegro (Milica of Montenegro)

5543:

Translated by Siân Evans. (London: Camden Press. 1989.)

4938: 4936: 3915:

Western Civilization: A Global and Comparative Approach

3601:

She appears as a leader of the Russian civilization in

3396:

played a version of Catherine in the farce comedy film

3368:

Lubitsch remade his 1924 silent film as the sound film

2068:

The throne of Empress Catherine II in the Winter Palace

539:

which had been ruled by Catherine's former lover, King

9859:

Alexandra Georgievna (Alexandra of Greece and Denmark)

9854:

Elizabeth Feodorovna (Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine)

6070: 6058: 6031: 5989: 4990:

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

4583: 4581: 4297: 3498:. In the series' 2023 revival, Miller was recast with 3492:

Changes: The Big Prom: The Sex Romp: The Season Finale

2645:

Catherine kept her illegitimate son by Grigory Orlov (

1792:. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with 1466:

The Ottomans restarted hostilities with Russia in the

830:

doted on Sophie and saw her as a daughter after this.

7641:. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois UP, 2004 (hardcover, 5692:

A History of Russia: Peoples, Legends, Events, Forces

5224: 5188: 5024: 4344: 4158: 4039: 3800: 3757: 3667: 633:

Young Catherine soon after her arrival in Russia, by

453:. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the 303: 7465:. Berlin: Publishing Frederick Gottgeyner, 1900. At 6382: 6380: 6378: 5660: 4933: 4841:

Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography

4108:

Guardians of language: twenty voices through history

3988: 3911: 3840:

Een geschiedenis van Rusland. Van Rurik tot Brezjnev

3456:

as Catherine and Jeanne Moreau as Empress Elizabeth.

2944:

Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise

2649:, later elevated to Count Bobrinsky by Paul I) near 1528:, but the Empress followed the advice of her lover, 10075:

Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

9864:

Elizaveta Mavrikievna (Elisabeth of Saxe-Altenburg)

7625:

The Politics of Catherinian Russia: The Panin Party

7479:

Russian army in the age of the Empress Catherine II

5865: 4578: 4075: 4073: 4006: 3918:. Vol. II: Since 1600. Routledge. p. 86. 3215:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2746:and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of 2141:of Russia" (in reference to the legendary Queen of 1815: 439:

Princess Sophie Augusta Frederica von Anhalt-Zerbst

37:"Catherine II" redirects here. For other uses, see 9917:Leonida Georgievna (Leonida Bagration of Mukhrani) 9761:Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt) 7632:Annales Universitatis Apulensis - Series Historica 7175: 7053:Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom 7050: 6971: 6826: 6734:Tarasov, M.A. Washington, DC 23 July 2021 page 148 6544: 2806:(London, England, 1784–1842) who took part in the 1145:, designed by Swiss-French court diamond jeweller 719: 468:) immigrants, and became recognized as one of the 285:Sophia Augusta Frederica/Sophie Auguste Friederike 9818:Alexandra Iosifovna (Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg) 9787:Anna Feodorovna (Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld) 9766:Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg) 6572: 6397: 6395: 6375: 3887:"Foreign Settlement in Russia under Catherine II" 3783:: 21 April 1729 – 6 November 1796. 3509:Her rise to power and reign are portrayed in the 2086:style. In 1779, she hired the Scottish architect 185:Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg 9956: 9944:title granted by Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich 5801: 5799: 5636: 4852: 4105:Coulmas, Florian (2016). "Catherine the Great". 4070: 3463:played the role of the Empress in the 2000 film 3320:The Empress is parodied in Offenbach's operetta 3109:Born at the Winter Palace, he was brought up at 2948:Description of the Muscovite and Persian journey 2722:), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under 1731:. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the 1582: 1248:of Sweden and Empress Catherine II of Russia in 7182:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 6700: 6008: 6006: 6004: 3311:Catherine: The Great Journey, Russia, 1743–1745 2234:"Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly" 1092:dynasty, her ancestors included members of the 837:. Despite his objections, on 28 June 1744, the 10005:Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Lutheranism 9879:Maria Georgievna (Maria of Greece and Denmark) 9869:Anastasia Nikolaevna (Anastasia of Montenegro) 9849:Maria Pavlovna (Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin) 9745:Catherine Alexeievna (Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst) 6392: 6351: 4502: 3535:The song "Catherine the Great" from the album 2781:Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the 2022:Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of 1966: 875:It was during this period that she first read 598:, nomads, peoples of the Volga, and peasants. 9728:Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel 9698: 8463: 8240: 7871: 6224: 5816: 5814: 5796: 4700:(Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2000) pp. 63–76. 3745: 3416:(Ekaterina Velika) was named after Catherine. 3173:, (the father of Catherine's daughter-in-law 3043:Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt 2271:The Bolshoi Theatre in the early 19th century 948:and others. She became friends with Princess 10100:Ethnic German people from the Russian Empire 10065:People of the War of the Bavarian Succession 8592: 8563: 8549: 7885: 7562:. New York: HarperCollins, 2006 (hardcover, 7394: 7098: 7035: 6817: 6718: 6665: 6535:, Arts & Letters, p. 15. 18 August 2005. 6001: 5117: 5105: 5093: 5081: 5069: 5057: 5042: 4859:. University of Virginia Press. p. 75. 4856:A History of the European Economy, 1000–2000 3419:The British/Canadian/American TV miniseries 3288:Empress Catherine appears as a character in 2954:alleged a supposed Russian tendency towards 2462:Catherine II in the Russian national costume 1776:" ("my Chinese neighbour with small eyes"). 1666:Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1088:Although Catherine did not descend from the 1085:(с. 1745–1775) was another potential rival. 10040:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences 9823:Alexandra Petrovna (Alexandra of Oldenburg) 9792:Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) 8658: 7667:. New York: Dorset Press, 1991 (hardcover, 7432:Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917) 7306:Preconditions of Revolution in Early Europe 6645:. New York: Random House LLC. p. 214. 4657: 4443:. Famousdiamonds.tripod.com. Archived from 3814:"Despot" is not derogatory in this context. 1642:checked the Royal Swedish navy in the tied 1133:28 June] 1762, the day of the coup 1100:, following the legal precedent of Empress 10045:Mistresses of Stanisław August Poniatowski 9990:18th-century women from the Russian Empire 9705: 9691: 8470: 8456: 8247: 8233: 7878: 7864: 7580:Malecka, Anna. "Did Orlov Buy the Orlov", 7249: 7227: 6850: 6799:"Alexander the Great vs Ivan the Terrible" 6775: 6706: 6670:. London: Profile Books. pp. 106–07. 6628: 6568: 6566: 6484: 6482: 6157:. New York, Oxford University Press, 2011. 5811: 3953:Christian August (Fürst von Anhalt-Zerbst) 3344:portrayed Catherine the Great in the film 1375:(literally: "the Glory of Catherine") and 1229:at the expense, mainly, of two powers—the 54: 9797:Elena Pavlovna (Charlotte of Württemberg) 8256:Tsaritsas and empresses consort of Russia 7173: 7152: 7143: 7010: 6824: 6723:. Governing Senate of the Russian Empire. 6690: 6547:Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power 6203:Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power 6088: 5947: 5895: 5805: 5790: 5778: 5766: 5751: 5739: 5727: 5654: 5630: 5206: 4983: 4960: 4942: 4684: 4350: 4260: 4248: 3833: 3831: 3543:was released as a single on 24 June 2016. 3469:, based on the novel of the same name by 3275:Learn how and when to remove this message 2867: 2596:, an example of Late Baroque architecture 1026:Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff 996:. The imperial couple moved into the new 659:Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst 369:Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst 8477: 7547:. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001 (paperback, 7373: 7356:Catherine the Great: Love, Sex and Power 7352: 7322: 7202:Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman 7156:Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great 6743:"Матушка Екатерина (1760 - 1770-е гг.)" 6576:Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman 6461: 6437: 6425: 6413: 6386: 6166: 5851:. Oxford University Press. p. 404. 5388: 5386: 5318:(AK Peters/CRC Press, 2009) pp. 276–283. 5281: 5257: 5156: 4362: 4304:. Indiana University Press. p. 71. 4285: 4188: 4176: 4060: 4033: 4021: 3972: 3884: 3502:, and depicted as now dating a clone of 3171:Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg 3169:Empress Catherine's correspondence with 2925: 2871: 2825: 2765: 2673: 2587: 2530: 2498: 2457: 2392: 2381: 2357: 2342: 2266: 2246: 2151: 2063: 2032: 2017: 1970: 1954: 1922: 1918: 1828: 1824: 1675: 1592: 1454: 1433: 1317:Equestrian portrait of Catherine in the 1312: 1239: 1182: 1124: 975: 801: 723: 628: 421: 10110:Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia 9938:also a Grand Duchess of Russia by birth 7545:Catherine the Great (Profiles in Power) 7233:Prince of Princes: the life of Potemkin 7048: 6966: 6837: 6805:. Youtube. 12 July 2016. Archived from 6788:. Allmusic.com, accessed 13 March 2021. 6563: 6479: 6052: 6012: 5392: 5377: 5360: 5269: 5253: 5251: 4986:"Catherine the Great and public health" 4533: 4164: 4152: 4104: 4079: 4048: 3837: 3488:Escape to Beer Mountain: A Rope of Sand 3047:Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg 1980: 1779: 1742: 1508:in 1796 after they, under the new king 779:(Karl August von Holstein). He died of 690:and trained herself to master a sword. 14: 10085:Art collectors from the Russian Empire 9957: 9782:Elizabeth Alexeievna (Louise of Baden) 7616:Nikolaev, Vsevolod, and Albert Parry. 7587: 7331: 7327:. England: Cambridge University Press. 7303: 7270: 7196: 6908: 6579:. New York: Random House LLC. p. 6107: 6076: 6064: 6040: 5995: 5899: 5883: 5871: 5603: 5541:The Memoirs of Elisabeth Vigée-Le Brun 5502: 5475: 5466:(Palgrave, London, 1990) pp. 289–311. 5447: 5404: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5356: 5354: 5352: 5298: 5296: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5242: 5230: 5218: 5194: 5030: 4790: 4774: 4772: 4747: 4745: 4711:War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790 4630: 4587: 4521: 4398: 3976: 3828: 2179:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 2056:She ordered the planting of the first 1348:(21 July 1770). In 1769, a last major 1072:(1740–1764), who had been confined at 925:, survived and appeared to be strong. 669:. He failed to become the duke of the 547:. In the east, Russian settlers began 213: 9714:Grand Duchesses of Russia by marriage 9686: 8708: 8489: 8451: 8228: 7859: 7522:Catherine, Empress of All the Russias 7445:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7235:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 7105:The Slavonic and East European Review 7045:(Translation of a 19th-century work.) 6992: 6883: 6473: 6449: 6419: 6401: 6361:(Swedish translation by Harald Bohrn 6306: 6297:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) pp. 14–40. 6113: 5983: 5971: 5959: 5935: 5923: 5911: 5678: 5383: 5129: 4920: 4916: 4914: 4276:(Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 34, 62. 4274:The Courtships of Catherine the Great 4009:The Courtships of Catherine the Great 3768:[jɪkətʲɪˈrʲinəɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvnə] 3766: 3494:", and depicted as dating a clone of 3180: 2705:Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia 2302:Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow 2291:. Catherine became a great patron of 2195:Memoires de les Turcs et les Tartares 1298: 822:; in a single day, she received four 617:, including the establishment of the 9844:Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark) 7524:. London: Collins, 1978 (hardcover, 7442:Catherine the Great: Life and Legend 7178:Catherine the Great: A Short History 6974:Russia: People and Empire, 1552–1917 6945: 6833:. New York: Oxford University Press. 6829:Catherine the Great: Life and Legend 6260:Hatt, Christine (24 November 2017). 6259: 5828:from the original on 6 February 2007 5666: 5642: 5564:from the original on 1 February 2024 5248: 4594:Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 4553:from the original on 27 October 2018 4418:from the original on 17 October 2018 3932:from the original on 22 January 2023 3731: 3213:adding citations to reliable sources 3184: 3049:and had issue, including the future 2577: 2453: 2333:Moscow State Academy of Choreography 2134:from Sweden to the Russian capital. 1481: 1175:Foreign policy of the Russian Empire 1120: 1115: 762:Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp 655:Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp 641:Catherine was born on 2 May 1729 in 603:Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility 379:Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp 217: 32:Catherine the Great (disambiguation) 10105:Russian grand duchesses by marriage 9813:Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse) 7675:); London: Orion, 2000 (paperback, 7218: 7075: 6363:Katarina den stora : 1729–1796 6339:from the original on 17 August 2022 5715: 5703: 5591: 5366: 5349: 5302: 5287: 4778: 4769: 4763: 4751: 4742: 4575:(London: Macmillan, 1966) pp. 1–27. 4369:. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. 4279: 4195:, New York: Penguin Books, p. 2347:Catherine visits Russian scientist 2183:Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville 2037:Portrait of Catherine the Great by 2007: 1764:who took refuge with the Russians. 1633:From 1788 to 1790, Russia fought a 1559:, including three principal cities— 1451:, Platon Zubov and Grigory Potemkin 1289:its victory in the Seven Years' War 551:Alaska, establishing the colony of 170:6 November] 1796 (aged 67) 27:Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796 24: 9828:Olga Feodorovna (Cäcilie of Baden) 8394: 8273: 7496:The Memoirs of Catherine the Great 7425: 7291:from the original on 28 April 2024 6871:from the original on 28 April 2024 6643:The Memoirs of Catherine the Great 6502:The Memoirs of Catherine the Great 4949:Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal 4911: 4011:. Kessinger Publishing. p. 5. 2525:Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly 1774:mon voisin chinois aux petits yeux 1589:Russia and the American Revolution 1536:. The Russian troops set out from 1440:Monument to the founders of Odessa 1168: 752:, and to overthrow the chancellor 175:, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire 25: 10131: 10030:House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov 7703: 7485:Brickner, Alexander Gustavovich. 7146:Slavonic and East European Review 6948:Slavonic and East European Review 6786:, operetta in 3 acts: Description 6604:Bantysh-Kamensky, Dmitri (2005). 5847:Nancy Shields Kollmann · (2017). 5694:(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004). 5331:(Harvard University Press, 2019). 5316:Leonhard Euler and the Bernoullis 4332:from the original on 25 June 2014 4230:from the original on 27 June 2020 1979:on Catherine's morals and on the 1496:(1783), Russia agreed to protect 619:Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens 10115:Russian people of German descent 10060:People of the Russo-Persian Wars 9666: 9665: 7618:The Loves of Catherine the Great 6791: 6784:La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein 6753: 6737: 6727: 6712: 6659: 6634: 6622: 6597: 6538: 6520: 6507: 6495: 6467: 6455: 6443: 6431: 6407: 6300: 6287: 6253: 6218: 6195: 6160: 6147: 6134: 6094: 6046: 6018: 5977: 5965: 5953: 5941: 5929: 5917: 5905: 5840: 5784: 5772: 5745: 5733: 5721: 5709: 5697: 5684: 5672: 5648: 5478:Slavic and East-European Studies 4923:Canadian–American Slavic Studies 4737:Canadian-American Slavic Studies 4612:from the original on 10 May 2021 3995:. Chicago, New York The author. 3713: 3701: 3689: 3677: 3323:La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein 3189: 2660:, reported back to London that: 2619: 2374:pioneers, particularly the Rev. 2118:, became foreign members of the 1871: 1816:The evaluation of foreign policy 1654:in 1790, the parties signed the 1104:, who had succeeded her husband 671:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia 483:. Assisted by highly successful 412: 143:Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst 7796:9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796 7637:Smith, Douglas, ed. and trans. 7131:from the original on 1 May 2021 6608:. Moscow: Truten. p. 106. 5624: 5597: 5585: 5576: 5546: 5496: 5469: 5456: 5441: 5398: 5334: 5321: 5308: 5275: 5263: 5200: 5150: 5123: 4977: 4892: 4873: 4846: 4833: 4827: 4784: 4757: 4729: 4716: 4703: 4690: 4658:Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). 4651: 4624: 4565: 4527: 4515: 4510:RUDN Journal of Russian History 4485: 4459: 4404: 4383: 4356: 4318: 4298:Barbara Evans Clements (2012). 4291: 4266: 4212: 4182: 4170: 4132: 4098: 4027: 4015: 4000: 3982: 3663:Family tree of Russian monarchs 3355:The Rise of Catherine the Great 3200:needs additional citations for 3152:begins with Catherine's title: 2718:Prussia (through the agency of 2331:Russia's second ballet school, 1716:, under the supervision of her 1698:Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski 1443:: Catherine and her companions 1010:partition of Polish territories 930:Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski 720:Marriage and reign of Peter III 305:Yekaterina Alekseyevna Romanova 209: 10035:Leaders who took power by coup 7602:10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360 7488:History of Catherine the Great 7462:History of Catherine the Great 7274:Catherine the Great: A Profile 7174:——— (1993). 7153:——— (1981). 6840:The Journal of Library History 5517:10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360 5133:Rebels in the Name of the Tsar 3958:Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 3944: 3905: 3878: 3864: 3808: 3786: 3774: 3738: 3648:Legends of Catherine the Great 3095:Aleksey Grigorievich Bobrinsky 3073:8 March 1759 (aged 15 months) 2669: 2363:Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova 1616:War of the Bavarian Succession 1521:, who had defected to Russia. 1468:Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 1338:Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 1256:Catherine's foreign minister, 1235:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 537:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 430:Catherine II ММД - Krasny Mint 83:9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796 13: 1: 10015:Duchesses of Holstein-Gottorp 9985:18th-century Russian monarchs 7835:5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762 7743: (archived 27 March 2004) 7338:. W.W. Norton & Company. 7099:de Madariaga, Isabel (1974). 7076:Lim, Susanna Soojung (2013). 6763:. Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart 6719:Catherine II (25 July 1763). 3989:Cronholm, Neander N. (1902). 3912:Campbell, Kenneth C. (2015). 3726: 2550:History of the Jews in Russia 1583:Relations with Western Europe 1309:Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) 1305:Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) 1179:History of Russia (1721–1796) 1137:Catherine was crowned at the 950:Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova 624: 511:following victories over the 315:Catherine Alexeievna Romanova 294:Екатерина Алексеевна Романова 234: 61: 39:Catherine II (disambiguation) 9932:never converted to Orthodoxy 9884:Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia 8709: 8595:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 7584:, July 2014, pp. 10–12. 6978:. Harvard University Press. 6851:Butterwick, Richard (1998). 6170:A Treasure of Royal Scandals 6142:Russia under the old regime, 5849:The Russian Empire 1450-1801 5606:History of Education Journal 5136:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 4843:. 2019. No. 12. pp. 169–187. 4469:. Almazi.net. Archived from 4192:A Treasure of Royal Scandals 4007:Sergeant, Philip W. (2004). 3891:New Zealand Slavonic Journal 3838:Bezemer, Jan Willem (1988). 3821: 3119:Elizabeth Grigorieva Temkina 2930:Catherine's last favourite, 2689:Sir Charles Hanbury Williams 2679:Stanisław August Poniatowski 2506:riders from the Ural steppes 2338: 1888:. In 1764, she launched the 1504:. Catherine waged a new war 767:Historical accounts portray 541:Stanisław August Poniatowski 131:5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762 86:(34 years, 4 months, 8 days) 7: 10095:Empresses regnant of Russia 10090:Empresses consort of Russia 10055:People of the Caucasian War 9995:18th-century women monarchs 9980:18th-century art collectors 8564: 8330:Maria Buynosova-Rostovskaya 7439:Alexander, John T. (1988). 7353:Rounding, Virginia (2006). 7308:. The Johns Hopkins Press. 6803:Epic Rap Battles of History 6545:Rounding, Virginia (2008). 6155:A Concise History of Russia 6117:Russia under the old regime 6026:Russia under the old regime 4984:Alexander, John T. (1981). 3801: 3758: 3641: 3549:Epic Rap Battles of History 3164: 2821: 2810:(7 September 1812) against 2592:St. Catherine Cathedral in 2485:in most of Europe in 1773. 2403:Institute for Noble Maidens 2171:Christoph Friedrich Nicolai 2160:in Saint Petersburg in 1757 1967:Attitudes towards Catherine 1700:, her former lover, on the 1427:in 1783. The palace of the 1054:, possibly at the hands of 304: 249:Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna 10: 10136: 8490: 7947:Sviatoslav III of Vladimir 7690:. New York: Algora, 2001 ( 7429: 7374:Streeter, Michael (2007). 7204:. New York: Random House. 7043:. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. 6573:Massie, Robert K. (2012). 6167:Farquhar, Michael (2001). 5157:Mamonova, Natalia (2016). 4631:Cronin, Stephanie (2013). 4441:"The Russian Crown Jewels" 4363:Erickson, Carolly (1994). 4189:Farquhar, Michael (2001), 4084:. A. Giraud. p. 166. 3571:The television miniseries 3358:(1934) is a film starring 2804:Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin 2631:Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov 2581: 2547: 2543: 2535:The Russian Empire in 1792 2492: 2483:suppression of the Jesuits 2147:National Library of Russia 2043:The State Hermitage Museum 2011: 1908: 1733:Polish–Russian War of 1792 1725:May Constitution of Poland 1696:In 1764, Catherine placed 1669: 1628:American Revolutionary War 1620:League of Armed Neutrality 1605:is shown in armour riding 1586: 1488:Persian expedition of 1796 1485: 1449:François Sainte de Wollant 1302: 1172: 934:Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov 36: 29: 9926: 9909: 9893: 9836: 9805: 9774: 9753: 9737: 9720: 9652: 9606: 9508: 9465: 9444: 9391: 9360: 9344: 9291: 9225: 9177: 9141: 9108: 9027: 8986: 8830: 8719: 8715: 8704: 8609:Methodological skepticism 8500: 8496: 8485: 8383: 8262: 8139: 8055: 7895:Grand princes of Vladimir 7893: 7837: 7831:Empress consort of Russia 7828: 7815: 7808: 7798: 7789: 7781: 7776: 7749: 7730:26 September 2011 at the 7397:Journal of Modern History 7159:. Yale University Press. 6818:General and cited sources 6549:. Macmillan. p. 74. 6283:– via Google Books. 6266:. World Almanac Library. 5002:10.1093/jhmas/XXXVI.2.185 4853:François Crouzet (2001). 4793:The Far Eastern Quarterly 4664:. ABC-CLIO. p. 763. 4637:. Routledge. p. 51. 4220:"О происхождении Павла I" 3793: 3746: 2907:On 16 November [ 2557:First Partition of Poland 2413:, and founded the famous 2167:Moritz August von Thümmel 1293:European balance of power 408: 384: 374: 364: 339: 330: 323: 314: 293: 284: 271: 266: 262: 227: 191: 179: 162: 139: 135: 127: 122:Empress consort of Russia 120: 110: 100: 90: 78: 71: 53: 48: 8318:Maria Skuratova-Belskaya 7992:Dmitry the Terrible Eyes 7887:List of Russian monarchs 7590:Canadian Slavonic Papers 7059:Harvard University Press 7049:Kolchin, Peter (1990) . 6825:Alexander, John (1989). 6307:Duran, James A. (1969). 5822:"The Religion of Russia" 5505:Canadian Slavonic Papers 4588:Fisher, Alan W. (1967). 4467:"Diamond Fund Treasures" 4080:Huberty, Michel (1994). 3885:Bartlett, Roger (1974). 3143: 3082:Order of Saint Catherine 3068:Grand Duchess of Russia 3037:23 March 1801 (aged 46) 2980: 2830:Catherine II and Prince 2761: 2488: 2309:Catherine also received 2251:Portrait of Catherine II 2158:Imperial Academy of Arts 2156:The inauguration of the 2058:English landscape garden 1904: 1708:uprising in Poland, the 1603:William Pitt the Younger 1381:Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca 1354:Russian held territories 1350:Crimean–Nogai slave raid 1344:(5–7 July 1770) and the 1143:Imperial Crown of Russia 1065:and an apoplexy stroke. 1030:Duke of Holstein-Gottorp 799:with Napoleonic France. 527:along the coasts of the 349:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov 158:, Holy Roman Empire 7942:Yaroslav II of Vladimir 7476:Bogdanovich, Modest I. 7323:Reddaway, W.F (1971) . 7250:—— (2010). 7229:Montefiore, Simon Sebag 6993:Klier, John D. (1976). 6114:Pipes, Richard (1974). 3482:(2002–2003), voiced by 3106:20 June 1813 (aged 51) 2975:Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun 2750:down south in front of 2653:, away from her court. 2603:Collegium of Accounting 2311:Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun 2262:Charter to the Nobility 2175:Johann Bernhard Basedow 1729:Targowica Confederation 1692:in 1772, 1793, and 1795 1684:carried out by Russia, 1319:Preobrazhensky Regiment 1291:, which threatened the 1276:(in office 1781–1797). 839:Russian Orthodox Church 754:Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin 253:Alexei, Count Bobrinsky 149:21 April] 1729 10080:Sheikh Mansur Movement 8659: 8593: 8559:Enlightened absolutism 8550: 8399: 8278: 8141:Emperors of all Russia 7359:. London: Hutchinson. 5464:Enlightened Absolutism 5130:Field, Daniel (1976). 4943:Griffiths, J. (1984). 4882:Social Science Journal 3759:Yekaterina Alekseyevna 3658:Catherine II and opera 3466:The Captain's Daughter 3441:Vivat, Gardes-Marines! 3374:(1945), also known as 3159: 3126:25 May 1854 (aged 78) 3086:Alexander Nevsky Lavra 3071:9 December 1757 – 3059:Saint Michael's Castle 2934: 2889: 2868:Final months and death 2842: 2778: 2712:Augustus III of Poland 2697:Christian I of Denmark 2685: 2667: 2597: 2584:Christianity in Russia 2536: 2507: 2463: 2406: 2390: 2366: 2351: 2329: 2320: 2272: 2252: 2191:François Baron de Tott 2161: 2069: 2046: 2030: 1984: 1963: 1931: 1844: 1834: 1718:ambassadors and envoys 1693: 1610: 1463: 1452: 1325: 1279:Catherine agreed to a 1253: 1194: 1134: 985: 974: 811: 742:Jean Armand de Lestocq 733: 730:Georg Christoph Grooth 638: 431: 166:17 November [ 10020:German art collectors 8525:Counter-Enlightenment 8408:Catherine Alekseyevna 8398: 8277: 7952:Andrey II of Vladimir 7922:Vsevolod the Big Nest 7634:, 23#2 (2019): 47–63. 7494:Catherine the Great. 7271:Raeff, Marc (1972a). 7037:Kliuchevskii, Vasilii 6884:Dixon, Simon (2009). 6666:Dixon, Simon (2010). 6233:(3). quoting p. 293. 5346:62.5 (2007): 381–393. 4726:pp. 134–135, 316–320. 4326:"Catherine The Great" 3584:She was portrayed by 3532:was released in 2015. 3364:Douglas Fairbanks Jr. 3305:She was a subject in 3224:"Catherine the Great" 3154: 3051:Alexander I of Russia 3035:1 October 1754 – 2929: 2875: 2829: 2769: 2677: 2662: 2591: 2534: 2502: 2461: 2396: 2385: 2361: 2346: 2324: 2315: 2279:. Gavrila Derzhavin, 2277:Russian Enlightenment 2270: 2250: 2155: 2120:Free Economic Society 2067: 2036: 2021: 2014:Russian Enlightenment 1974: 1958: 1926: 1919:Rights and conditions 1890:Moscow Foundling Home 1839: 1832: 1825:Economics and finance 1679: 1597:A 1791 caricature by 1596: 1514:again invaded Georgia 1458: 1437: 1316: 1243: 1186: 1155:Western Roman Empires 1128: 1020:over the province of 979: 970: 938:Alexander Vasilchikov 805: 727: 647:Province of Pomerania 632: 615:Russian Enlightenment 425: 60:Catherine the Great, 10120:Women art collectors 10050:People from Szczecin 8479:Age of Enlightenment 8438:Alexandra Feodorovna 8423:Alexandra Feodorovna 8418:Elizabeth Alexeievna 8065:Ivan IV the Terrible 7932:Konstantin of Rostov 7912:Andrei I Bogolyubsky 7751:Catherine the Great 7710:Catherine the Great 7532:); 1996 (paperback, 7506:); 2006 (paperback, 7459:Bilbasov, Vasily A. 7332:Rodger, NAM (2005). 5898:, pp. 508–511; 4739:4.3 (1970): 570–593. 4696:Nikolas K. Gvosdev, 4495:(1944) pp. 298–320. 4272:Sergeant, Philip W. 3747:Екатерина Алексеевна 3454:Catherine Zeta-Jones 3446:The television film 3209:improve this article 3104:11 April 1762 – 3055:Nicholas I of Russia 2634:last of her lovers, 2401:, the first Russian 2369:Catherine appointed 2297:Alexander Radishchev 1997:Pugachev's Rebellion 1780:Relations with Japan 1743:Relations with China 1710:Confederation of Bar 1682:Partitions of Poland 1672:Partitions of Poland 1652:Battle of Svensksund 1544:the key fortress of 1494:Treaty of Georgievsk 1352:, which ravaged the 1188:Alexander Bezborodko 1139:Assumption Cathedral 1042:Ismailovsky Regiment 946:Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov 885:French Enlightenment 663:ruling German family 592:Pugachev's Rebellion 216:; died 30:For other uses, see 18:Empress Catherine II 9965:Catherine the Great 9485:Feijóo y Montenegro 9436:Vorontsova-Dashkova 8365:Praskovia Saltykova 8355:Agafya Grushetskaya 8345:Maria Miloslavskaya 8283:Anastasia Romanovna 8057:Tsars of all Russia 8032:Vasily II the Blind 7972:Dmitry of Pereslavl 7937:Yuri II of Vladimir 7927:Yuri II of Vladimir 7917:Mikhail of Vladimir 7665:Catherine the Great 7649:); 2005 (paperback 7380:. Haus Publishing. 7377:Catherine the Great 6887:Catherine the Great 6857:. Clarendon Press. 6809:on 27 October 2021. 6781:Corleonis, Adrian. 6668:Catherine the Great 6527:Dangerous Liaisons. 6515:Catherine the Great 6490:Catherine the Great 6359:Catherine la Grande 6263:Catherine the Great 6212:3 July 2013 at the 6201:Virginia Rounding, 6153:Bushkovitch, Paul. 6104:(2006) pp. 147–173. 5886:, pp. 546–548. 5690:Catherine Evtuhov, 5245:, pp. 171–172. 5221:, pp. 166–169. 5084:, pp. 565–567. 5072:, pp. 563–564. 4724:Catherine the Great 4713:(1993) pp. 156–157. 4709:Stewart P. Oakley, 4493:A History of Russia 4401:, pp. 274–275. 4328:. History Channel. 4251:, pp. 400–403. 4224:history-gatchina.ru 3950:Ferdinand Siebigk: 3802:Yekaterina Velikaya 3574:Catherine the Great 3562:Frederick the Great 3554:Alexander the Great 3529:Catherine the Great 3449:Catherine the Great 3387:Catherine Was Great 3347:The Scarlet Empress 3309:series in the book 3124:13 July 1775 – 3121:(alleged daughter) 3078:her deceased sister 2913:Maria Perekusikhina 2836:Millennium Monument 2816:Kingdom of Sardinia 2681:, the last King of 2285:Ippolit Bogdanovich 2132:Anders Johan Lexell 1861:assignation roubles 1760:fugitives from the 1737:Kościuszko Uprising 1358:Crimean slave trade 1083:Princess Tarakanova 1034:ally against Sweden 746:Frederick the Great 714:Peter III of Russia 611:enlightened despots 445:, was the reigning 443:Catherine the Great 198:Peter III of Russia 8624:Natural philosophy 8428:Maria Alexandrovna 8403:Marta Skavronskaya 8400: 8375:Marta Skavronskaya 8350:Natalya Naryshkina 8340:Eudoxia Streshneva 8279: 8037:Ivan III the Great 7977:Andrey of Gorodets 7967:Vasily of Kostroma 7842:Title next held by 7820:Title last held by 7623:Ransel, David L. 7582:Gems and Jewellery 7560:Sex With the Queen 6440:, pp. 508–509 6313:The Russian Review 6227:The Russian Review 6102:Sex With the Queen 5950:, pp. 504–508 5926:, pp. 506–507 5808:, pp. 111–122 5284:, pp. 222–223 5209:, pp. 239–255 5175:10.1111/ruso.12097 3592:television series 3552:, in the episode " 3526:television series 3524:Channel One Russia 3513:television series 3437:Kristina Orbakaitė 3335:Forbidden Paradise 3181:In popular culture 3032:Emperor of Russia 3028:Paul (I) Petrovich 2950:), German scholar 2935: 2890: 2843: 2808:Battle of Borodino 2787:Battle of Zorndorf 2779: 2693:Czartoryski family 2686: 2598: 2561:Pale of Settlement 2537: 2508: 2464: 2407: 2391: 2367: 2352: 2273: 2253: 2216:William Blackstone 2208:Ferdinando Galiani 2162: 2128:Peter Simon Pallas 2070: 2047: 2045:, Saint-Petersburg 2031: 1985: 1964: 1932: 1927:Punishment with a 1835: 1694: 1635:war against Sweden 1611: 1510:Agha Mohammad Khan 1464: 1453: 1326: 1299:Russo-Turkish Wars 1254: 1215:right-bank Ukraine 1195: 1135: 986: 866:Schleswig-Holstein 812: 734: 661:, belonged to the 651:Kingdom of Prussia 639: 432: 156:Kingdom of Prussia 9952: 9951: 9680: 9679: 9648: 9647: 9644: 9643: 8700: 8699: 8696: 8695: 8673:Scientific method 8530:Critical thinking 8445: 8444: 8385:Empresses consort 8370:Eudoxia Lopukhina 8335:Maria Dolgorukova 8303:Anna Vasilchikova 8288:Maria Temryukovna 8264:Tsaritsas consort 8222: 8221: 8022:Dmitry of the Don 7997:Alexander of Tver 7907:Yuri I Dolgorukiy 7854: 7853: 7824:Martha Skowrońska 7799:Succeeded by 7792:Empress of Russia 7688:Terrible Tsarinas 7573:LeDonne, John P. 7558:Herman, Eleanor. 7452:978-0-19-505236-7 7387:978-1-905791-06-4 7366:978-0-09-179992-2 7345:978-0-393-06050-8 7284:978-1-349-01467-5 7263:978-0-297-86623-7 7242:978-1-84212-438-3 7223:. pp. 19–24. 7211:978-0-679-45672-8 7198:Massie, Robert K. 7189:978-0-300-05427-9 7068:978-0-674-92098-9 6968:Hosking, Geoffrey 6901:978-0-06-078627-4 6864:978-0-19-820701-6 6749:978-5-373-03076-2 6721:Manifesto of 1763 6677:978-1-84765-192-1 6652:978-0-8129-6987-0 6615:978-5-94926-007-4 6590:978-0-345-40877-8 6556:978-0-312-37863-9 6370:978-91-1-952612-0 6188:978-0-7394-2025-6 5633:, pp. 369–95 5327:Robert Zaretsky, 5143:978-0-395-21986-7 5118:Wirtschafter 1998 5106:de Madariaga 1974 5096:, pp. 42–46. 5094:de Madariaga 1974 5082:Wirtschafter 1998 5070:Wirtschafter 1998 5060:, pp. 48–51. 5058:de Madariaga 1974 5043:Wirtschafter 1998 4866:978-0-8139-2190-7 4671:978-1-59884-337-8 4644:978-0-415-62433-6 4543:Oxford University 4311:978-0-253-00104-7 4263:, pp. 51–54. 4206:978-0-7394-2025-6 4155:, pp. 39–52. 4091:978-2-901138-07-5 3979:, pp. 10–19. 3925:978-1-317-45230-0 3799: 3794:Екатерина Великая 3756: 3732:Explanatory notes 3558:Ivan the Terrible 3541:The Divine Comedy 3471:Alexander Pushkin 3429:as Catherine and 3425:(1991), starring 3360:Elisabeth Bergner 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An admirer of 493:Pyotr Rumyantsev 481:Grigory Potemkin 459:public libraries 416: 392:Russian Orthodox 316: 307: 297: 295: 286: 279: 264: 263: 238: 221: 219: 215: 211: 145:2 May [ 84: 66: 63: 58: 46: 45: 21: 10135: 10134: 10130: 10129: 10128: 10126: 10125: 10124: 9955: 9954: 9953: 9948: 9922: 9905: 9889: 9832: 9801: 9770: 9749: 9733: 9716: 9711: 9681: 9676: 9675: 9662: 9640: 9602: 9504: 9461: 9440: 9387: 9356: 9352:Carvalho e Melo 9340: 9287: 9221: 9173: 9137: 9104: 9023: 8982: 8826: 8711: 8692: 8678:Spanish America 8552:Encyclopédistes 8515:Civil liberties 8492: 8481: 8476: 8446: 8441: 8379: 8360:Marfa Apraksina 8324:Marina Mniszech 8258: 8253: 8223: 8218: 8135: 8130: 8051: 7982:Mikhail of Tver 7889: 7884: 7847: 7846:Sophie Dorothea 7843: 7834: 7821: 7810:Russian royalty 7804: 7795: 7787: 7766: 7760: 7759: 7756:House of Anhalt 7752: 7741:Wayback Machine 7732:Wayback Machine 7706: 7701: 7686:Troyat, Henri. 7518:Cronin, Vincent 7473:and PDF formats 7453: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7426:Further 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8272: 8270: 8260: 8259: 8252: 8251: 8244: 8237: 8229: 8220: 8219: 8217: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8145: 8143: 8137: 8136: 8134: 8133: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8099: 8094: 8091:False Dmitry I 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8061: 8059: 8053: 8052: 8050: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8019: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7987:Yuri of Moscow 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7903: 7901: 7891: 7890: 7883: 7882: 7875: 7868: 7860: 7852: 7851: 7848:of Württemberg 7841: 7836: 7827: 7819: 7813: 7812: 7806: 7805: 7800: 7797: 7788: 7783: 7779: 7778: 7777:Regnal titles 7774: 7773: 7753: 7750: 7745: 7744: 7734: 7722: 7705: 7704:External links 7702: 7700: 7699: 7684: 7658: 7635: 7628: 7621: 7614: 7596:(2): 187–201. 7585: 7578: 7571: 7556: 7543:Dixon, Simon. 7541: 7515: 7492: 7483: 7474: 7457: 7451: 7435: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7421: 7409:10.1086/235117 7403:(3): 561–587. 7392: 7386: 7371: 7365: 7350: 7344: 7329: 7320: 7314: 7301: 7283: 7268: 7262: 7247: 7241: 7225: 7216: 7210: 7194: 7188: 7171: 7165: 7150: 7141: 7111:(126): 34–62. 7096: 7091:978-1135071615 7090: 7073: 7067: 7046: 7033: 6990: 6984: 6964: 6943: 6917:(4): 542–553. 6906: 6900: 6881: 6863: 6848: 6835: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6790: 6774: 6752: 6736: 6726: 6711: 6699: 6691:Alexander 1989 6683: 6676: 6658: 6651: 6633: 6621: 6614: 6596: 6589: 6562: 6555: 6537: 6529:Liena Zagare, 6519: 6513:Henri Troyat, 6506: 6494: 6488:Henri Troyat, 6478: 6466: 6454: 6442: 6430: 6418: 6406: 6391: 6374: 6350: 6325:10.2307/126983 6299: 6286: 6273:978-0836855357 6272: 6252: 6239:10.2307/127976 6217: 6194: 6187: 6159: 6146: 6133: 6127:978-0684140414 6126: 6106: 6093: 6091:, p. 224. 6089:Alexander 1989 6081: 6079:, p. 298. 6069: 6067:, p. 296. 6057: 6045: 6043:, p. 294. 6030: 6017: 6000: 5998:, p. 293. 5988: 5976: 5964: 5952: 5948:Madariaga 1981 5940: 5928: 5916: 5904: 5902:, p. 549. 5896:Madariaga 1981 5888: 5876: 5864: 5857: 5839: 5810: 5806:Madariaga 1981 5795: 5791:Madariaga 1979 5783: 5779:Madariaga 1979 5771: 5767:Madariaga 1979 5756: 5752:Madariaga 1979 5744: 5740:Madariaga 1979 5732: 5728:Madariaga 1979 5720: 5708: 5696: 5683: 5671: 5669:, p. 233. 5659: 5655:Madariaga 1979 5647: 5635: 5631:Madariaga 1979 5623: 5596: 5584: 5575: 5545: 5530: 5511:(2): 187–201. 5495: 5484:(3): 154–160. 5468: 5455: 5440: 5413:(2): 355–379. 5397: 5382: 5365: 5348: 5333: 5320: 5307: 5286: 5274: 5262: 5247: 5235: 5233:, p. 171. 5223: 5211: 5207:Madariaga 1981 5199: 5197:, p. 170. 5187: 5169:(3): 316–342. 5149: 5142: 5122: 5120:, p. 567. 5110: 5098: 5086: 5074: 5062: 5047: 5045:, p. 564. 5035: 5033:, p. 302. 5023: 4996:(2): 185–204. 4976: 4932: 4910: 4891: 4872: 4865: 4845: 4832: 4826: 4783: 4768: 4756: 4741: 4728: 4715: 4702: 4689: 4687:, p. 321. 4685:Alexander 1989 4677: 4670: 4650: 4643: 4623: 4600:(3): 341–364. 4577: 4564: 4526: 4514: 4501: 4484: 4458: 4429: 4403: 4391: 4382: 4376:978-0517590911 4375: 4355: 4351:Alexander 1989 4343: 4317: 4310: 4290: 4278: 4265: 4261:Alexander 1989 4253: 4249:Alexander 1989 4241: 4211: 4205: 4181: 4169: 4157: 4145: 4142:. 4 June 2024. 4131: 4117: 4097: 4090: 4069: 4053: 4038: 4026: 4024:, pp. 7–8 4014: 3999: 3981: 3962: 3943: 3924: 3904: 3877: 3863: 3848: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3817: 3816: 3807: 3785: 3781:Old Style date 3773: 3736: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3722: 3710: 3698: 3686: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3638: 3599: 3582: 3569: 3544: 3533: 3520: 3507: 3500:Dannah Phirman 3474: 3457: 3444: 3434: 3417: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3366: 3351: 3339: 3330:Ernst Lubitsch 3327: 3318: 3303: 3292:'s unfinished 3283: 3282: 3197: 3195: 3188: 3182: 3179: 3166: 3163: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3138: 3127: 3122: 3115: 3114: 3107: 3102: 3090: 3089: 3074: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3038: 3033: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3011: 3010: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2982: 2979: 2886:Tsarskoye Selo 2882:Catherine Park 2869: 2866: 2823: 2820: 2776:Fyodor Rokotov 2763: 2760: 2671: 2668: 2621: 2618: 2579: 2576: 2545: 2542: 2490: 2487: 2481:following the 2455: 2452: 2340: 2337: 2299:published his 2281:Denis Fonvizin 2124:Leonhard Euler 2116:Jacques Necker 2108:encyclopedists 2012:Main article: 2009: 2006: 1968: 1965: 1920: 1917: 1906: 1903: 1873: 1870: 1826: 1823: 1817: 1814: 1806:Tsarskoye Selo 1781: 1778: 1758:Dzungar Mongol 1744: 1741: 1670:Main article: 1667: 1664: 1584: 1581: 1540:in April 1796 1534:Valerian Zubov 1506:against Persia 1483: 1480: 1476:Yedisan region 1425:annexed Crimea 1373:Yekaterinoslav 1336:following the 1330:Azov campaigns 1300: 1297: 1231:Ottoman Empire 1211:North Caucasus 1199:Russian Empire 1170: 1167: 1163:Armoury Museum 1149:. Inspired by 1147:Jérémie Pauzié 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 879:and the other 721: 718: 657:. Her father, 626: 623: 564:Yekaterinoslav 517:Ottoman Empire 505:Fyodor Ushakov 418: 417: 410: 406: 405: 403: 402: 395: 388: 386: 382: 381: 376: 372: 371: 366: 362: 361: 359: 358: 352: 345: 343: 337: 336: 333: 332: 328: 327: 321: 320: 318: 317: 308: 287: 272: 269: 268: 260: 259: 258:(Illegitimate) 256: 255: 250: 247: 241: 239: 225: 224: 205: 201: 196: 195: 193: 189: 188: 183: 181: 177: 176: 164: 160: 159: 141: 137: 136: 133: 132: 129: 125: 124: 118: 117: 112: 108: 107: 102: 98: 97: 94: 88: 87: 80: 76: 75: 69: 68: 59: 51: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10132: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10010:Denis Diderot 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9962: 9960: 9945: 9941: 9939: 9935: 9933: 9929: 9928: 9925: 9918: 9915: 9914: 9912: 9908: 9902: 9899: 9898: 9896: 9892: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9841: 9839: 9835: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9810: 9808: 9804: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9779: 9777: 9773: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9758: 9756: 9752: 9746: 9743: 9742: 9740: 9736: 9729: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9708: 9703: 9701: 9696: 9694: 9689: 9688: 9685: 9672: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9659: 9651: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9613: 9611: 9609: 9608:United States 9605: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9515: 9513: 9511: 9507: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9468: 9464: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9449: 9447: 9443: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9398: 9396: 9394: 9390: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9368:Budai-Deleanu 9366: 9365: 9363: 9359: 9353: 9350: 9349: 9347: 9343: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9294: 9290: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9230: 9228: 9224: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9180: 9176: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9146: 9144: 9140: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9111: 9107: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9032: 9030: 9026: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8991: 8989: 8985: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8835: 8833: 8829: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8732:Ashley-Cooper 8730: 8728: 8725: 8724: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8707: 8703: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8634:Progressivism 8632: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8604: 8600: 8597: 8596: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8583:Individualism 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8568: 8567: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8554: 8553: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8502: 8499: 8495: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8473: 8468: 8466: 8461: 8459: 8454: 8453: 8450: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8397: 8392: 8390: 8386: 8382: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8325: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8280: 8276: 8271: 8269: 8265: 8261: 8257: 8250: 8245: 8243: 8238: 8236: 8231: 8230: 8227: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8209:Alexander III 8207: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8142: 8138: 8129: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8104: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8092: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8060: 8058: 8054: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8023: 8020: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7888: 7881: 7876: 7874: 7869: 7867: 7862: 7861: 7858: 7850: 7849: 7840: 7833: 7832: 7826: 7825: 7818: 7814: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7794: 7793: 7786: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7763: 7758: 7757: 7748: 7742: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7729: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7717: 7716: 7711: 7708: 7707: 7697: 7696:1-892941-54-6 7693: 7689: 7685: 7682: 7681:1-84212-029-8 7678: 7674: 7673:0-88029-688-7 7670: 7666: 7662: 7661:Troyat, Henri 7659: 7656: 7655:0-87580-607-4 7652: 7648: 7647:0-87580-324-5 7644: 7640: 7636: 7633: 7629: 7626: 7622: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7586: 7583: 7579: 7576: 7572: 7569: 7568:0-06-084673-9 7565: 7561: 7557: 7554: 7553:0-582-09803-3 7550: 7546: 7542: 7539: 7538:1-86046-091-7 7535: 7531: 7530:0-00-216119-2 7527: 7523: 7519: 7516: 7513: 7512:0-8129-6987-1 7509: 7505: 7504:0-679-64299-4 7501: 7497: 7493: 7490: 7489: 7484: 7481: 7480: 7475: 7472: 7468: 7464: 7463: 7458: 7454: 7448: 7444: 7443: 7437: 7436: 7433: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7393: 7389: 7383: 7379: 7378: 7372: 7368: 7362: 7358: 7357: 7351: 7347: 7341: 7337: 7336: 7330: 7326: 7321: 7317: 7315:9780801813771 7311: 7307: 7302: 7290: 7286: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7269: 7265: 7259: 7255: 7254: 7248: 7244: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7217: 7213: 7207: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7185: 7180: 7179: 7172: 7168: 7166:9780300025156 7162: 7158: 7157: 7151: 7147: 7142: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7097: 7093: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7074: 7070: 7064: 7060: 7057:. Cambridge: 7055: 7054: 7047: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7005:(3): 504–17. 7004: 7000: 6999:Slavic Review 6996: 6991: 6987: 6985:9780674781184 6981: 6976: 6975: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6911:Slavic Review 6907: 6903: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6888: 6882: 6870: 6866: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6830: 6823: 6822: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6794: 6787: 6785: 6778: 6762: 6756: 6750: 6746: 6740: 6730: 6722: 6715: 6709:, p. 159 6708: 6703: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6679: 6673: 6669: 6662: 6654: 6648: 6644: 6637: 6630: 6625: 6617: 6611: 6607: 6600: 6592: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6569: 6567: 6558: 6552: 6548: 6541: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6516: 6510: 6503: 6498: 6491: 6485: 6483: 6476:, p. 318 6475: 6470: 6464:, p. 503 6463: 6462:Rounding 2006 6458: 6452:, p. 314 6451: 6446: 6439: 6438:Rounding 2006 6434: 6428:, p. 508 6427: 6426:Rounding 2006 6422: 6416:, p. 502 6415: 6414:Rounding 2006 6410: 6404:, p. 315 6403: 6398: 6396: 6389:, p. 499 6388: 6387:Rounding 2006 6383: 6381: 6379: 6371: 6367: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6303: 6296: 6290: 6275: 6269: 6265: 6264: 6256: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6221: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6190: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6175:Penguin Books 6172: 6171: 6163: 6156: 6150: 6143: 6137: 6129: 6123: 6119: 6118: 6110: 6103: 6097: 6090: 6085: 6078: 6073: 6066: 6061: 6055:, p. 237 6054: 6049: 6042: 6037: 6035: 6027: 6021: 6015:, p. 231 6014: 6009: 6007: 6005: 5997: 5992: 5986:, p. 515 5985: 5980: 5974:, p. 512 5973: 5968: 5962:, p. 511 5961: 5956: 5949: 5944: 5938:, p. 507 5937: 5932: 5925: 5920: 5914:, p. 505 5913: 5908: 5901: 5897: 5892: 5885: 5880: 5873: 5868: 5860: 5858:9780199280513 5854: 5850: 5843: 5827: 5823: 5817: 5815: 5807: 5802: 5800: 5793:, p. 394 5792: 5787: 5781:, p. 391 5780: 5775: 5769:, p. 385 5768: 5763: 5761: 5754:, p. 383 5753: 5748: 5742:, p. 380 5741: 5736: 5730:, p. 379 5729: 5724: 5717: 5712: 5705: 5700: 5693: 5687: 5681:, p. 130 5680: 5675: 5668: 5663: 5657:, p. 374 5656: 5651: 5644: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5600: 5593: 5588: 5579: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5549: 5542: 5537: 5535: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5499: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5472: 5465: 5459: 5451: 5450:History Today 5444: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5407:Slavic Review 5401: 5394: 5389: 5387: 5379: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5362: 5357: 5355: 5353: 5345: 5344: 5337: 5330: 5324: 5317: 5311: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5283: 5282:Rounding 2006 5278: 5271: 5266: 5260:, p. 222 5259: 5258:Rounding 2006 5254: 5252: 5244: 5239: 5232: 5227: 5220: 5215: 5208: 5203: 5196: 5191: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5153: 5145: 5139: 5135: 5134: 5126: 5119: 5114: 5108:, p. 35. 5107: 5102: 5095: 5090: 5083: 5078: 5071: 5066: 5059: 5054: 5052: 5044: 5039: 5032: 5027: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4939: 4937: 4929:(3): 485–496. 4928: 4924: 4917: 4915: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4887: 4883: 4876: 4868: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4849: 4842: 4836: 4830: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4787: 4780: 4775: 4773: 4765: 4760: 4753: 4748: 4746: 4738: 4732: 4725: 4719: 4712: 4706: 4699: 4693: 4686: 4681: 4673: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4654: 4646: 4640: 4636: 4635: 4627: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4584: 4582: 4574: 4568: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4530: 4524:, p. 328 4523: 4518: 4511: 4505: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4472: 4468: 4462: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4434: 4417: 4413: 4407: 4400: 4395: 4386: 4378: 4372: 4368: 4367: 4359: 4352: 4347: 4331: 4327: 4321: 4313: 4307: 4303: 4302: 4294: 4287: 4286:Rounding 2006 4282: 4275: 4269: 4262: 4257: 4250: 4245: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4215: 4208: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4185: 4178: 4177:Rounding 2006 4173: 4167:, p. 41. 4166: 4161: 4154: 4149: 4141: 4135: 4120: 4118:9780198736523 4114: 4110: 4109: 4101: 4093: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4061:Streeter 2007 4057: 4051:, p. 40. 4050: 4045: 4043: 4035: 4034:Rounding 2006 4030: 4023: 4022:Rounding 2006 4018: 4010: 4003: 3994: 3993: 3985: 3978: 3975:, p. 3; 3974: 3973:Streeter 2007 3969: 3967: 3959: 3955: 3954: 3947: 3931: 3927: 3921: 3917: 3916: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3873: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3832: 3827: 3811: 3803: 3789: 3782: 3777: 3769: 3760: 3754: 3744:Russian: 3741: 3737: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3709: 3699: 3697: 3687: 3685: 3675: 3674: 3671: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3645: 3636: 3635: 3630: 3629: 3624: 3623: 3618: 3617: 3612: 3611: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3580: 3577:(2019) stars 3576: 3575: 3570: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3550: 3545: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3496:Julius Caesar 3493: 3489: 3485: 3484:Murray Miller 3481: 3480: 3475: 3472: 3468: 3467: 3462: 3461:Olga Antonova 3458: 3455: 3452:(1995) stars 3451: 3450: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3423: 3418: 3415: 3411: 3408: 3404: 3401: 3400: 3395: 3394:Jeanne Moreau 3392: 3389: 3388: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3336: 3331: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3319: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3286: 3279: 3276: 3268: 3265:December 2022 3257: 3254: 3250: 3247: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3229: 3226: – 3225: 3221: 3220:Find sources: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3198:This article 3196: 3192: 3187: 3186: 3178: 3176: 3172: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3151: 3136: 3133:household as 3132: 3128: 3123: 3120: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3066:Anna Petrovna 3065: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3024: 3019: 3017:30 June 1753 3016: 3013: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2990: 2987: 2986: 2978: 2976: 2973:According to 2971: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2957: 2953: 2952:Adam Olearius 2949: 2945: 2940: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2878:Chesme Column 2874: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2855: 2852: 2847: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2819: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2794: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2777: 2773: 2772:Grigory Orlov 2768: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2724:Maria Theresa 2721: 2716: 2713: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2666: 2661: 2659: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2626: 2620:Personal life 2617: 2613: 2611: 2610:Old Believers 2606: 2604: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2575: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2562: 2558: 2551: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2512: 2505: 2501: 2496: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2474: 2468: 2460: 2451: 2447: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2433: 2432:Franz Aepinus 2427: 2425: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2389: 2384: 2380: 2377: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2350: 2345: 2336: 2334: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2312: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2298: 2294: 2293:Russian opera 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2269: 2265: 2263: 2257: 2249: 2245: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2225: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2204:British Crown 2201: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2096: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2076: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2054: 2052: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1938: 1930: 1925: 1916: 1912: 1902: 1898: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1872:Public health 1869: 1865: 1862: 1857: 1854:In 1768, the 1852: 1850: 1849:Volga Germans 1843: 1838: 1831: 1822: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1790:Kuril Islands 1787: 1777: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1702:Polish throne 1699: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1663: 1661: 1660:Treaty of Åbo 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1599:James Gillray 1595: 1590: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1526:Ivan Gudovich 1522: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1489: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1462: 1457: 1450: 1446: 1445:José de Ribas 1442: 1441: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1420:Crimean Tatar 1417: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1285:Great Britain 1282: 1277: 1275: 1274:Ivan Osterman 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1180: 1176: 1166: 1164: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1132: 1127: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1094:Rurik dynasty 1091: 1086: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1074:Schlüsselburg 1071: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1060:haemorrhoidal 1057: 1053: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1006: 1004: 999: 998:Winter Palace 995: 991: 983: 978: 973: 969: 966: 963: 957: 953: 951: 947: 943: 939: 936:(1734–1783), 935: 931: 926: 924: 920: 915: 911: 906: 902: 899:According to 897: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 873: 869: 867: 863: 859: 854: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 831: 829: 825: 821: 817: 809: 804: 800: 798: 794: 789: 784: 782: 778: 774: 770: 765: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 731: 726: 717: 715: 710: 708: 704: 703:lingua franca 698: 696: 691: 689: 685: 681: 677: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 636: 631: 622: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 599: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 576:Yekaterinodar 573: 569: 565: 561: 556: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 477:Grigory Orlov 473: 471: 467: 464: 460: 456: 455:Enlightenment 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 429: 424: 415: 411: 407: 400: 396: 393: 390: 389: 387: 383: 380: 377: 373: 370: 367: 363: 356: 353: 351:(by marriage) 350: 347: 346: 344: 342: 338: 329: 326: 322: 312: 309: 306: 300: 291: 288: 282: 278: 274: 273: 270: 265: 261: 254: 251: 248: 246: 243: 242: 240: 237: 236: 230: 226: 199: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 173:Winter Palace 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 148: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 123: 119: 116: 113: 109: 106: 103: 99: 95: 93: 89: 81: 77: 74: 70: 57: 52: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 9943: 9937: 9931: 9744: 9656: 9401:Catherine II 9400: 8853:Beaumarchais 8683:Universality 8654:Reductionism 8601: 8578:Human rights 8407: 8322: 8308:Maria Nagaya 8204:Alexander II 8184:Catherine II 8183: 8101: 8089: 7844: 7838: 7829: 7822: 7816: 7790: 7768: 7761: 7754: 7714: 7687: 7664: 7638: 7631: 7624: 7617: 7593: 7589: 7581: 7574: 7559: 7544: 7521: 7495: 7487: 7478: 7461: 7441: 7400: 7396: 7376: 7355: 7334: 7324: 7305: 7293:. Retrieved 7277:. Springer. 7273: 7252: 7232: 7221:Russian Life 7220: 7201: 7177: 7155: 7145: 7133:. Retrieved 7108: 7104: 7077: 7052: 7040: 7002: 6998: 6973: 6951: 6947: 6914: 6910: 6886: 6873:. Retrieved 6853: 6843: 6839: 6828: 6807:the original 6802: 6793: 6783: 6777: 6765:. Retrieved 6755: 6739: 6729: 6720: 6714: 6702: 6686: 6667: 6661: 6642: 6636: 6631:, p. 40 6624: 6605: 6599: 6575: 6546: 6540: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6514: 6509: 6501: 6497: 6489: 6469: 6457: 6445: 6433: 6421: 6409: 6362: 6358: 6353: 6341:. Retrieved 6319:(1): 23–36. 6316: 6312: 6302: 6294: 6289: 6277:. Retrieved 6262: 6255: 6230: 6226: 6220: 6202: 6197: 6173:. New York: 6169: 6162: 6154: 6149: 6141: 6136: 6120:. Scribner. 6116: 6109: 6101: 6096: 6084: 6072: 6060: 6053:Hosking 1997 6048: 6025: 6020: 6013:Hosking 1997 5991: 5979: 5967: 5955: 5943: 5931: 5919: 5907: 5891: 5879: 5867: 5848: 5842: 5830:. Retrieved 5786: 5774: 5747: 5735: 5723: 5718:, p. 21 5711: 5706:, p. 20 5699: 5691: 5686: 5674: 5662: 5650: 5638: 5626: 5612:(2): 37–45. 5609: 5605: 5599: 5587: 5578: 5566:. Retrieved 5557: 5548: 5540: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5481: 5477: 5471: 5463: 5458: 5449: 5443: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5393:Brechka 1969 5380:, p. 44 5378:Brechka 1969 5363:, p. 43 5361:Brechka 1969 5341: 5336: 5328: 5323: 5315: 5310: 5305:, p. 54 5277: 5272:, p. 47 5270:Brechka 1969 5265: 5238: 5226: 5214: 5202: 5190: 5180:12 September 5178:. Retrieved 5166: 5162: 5152: 5132: 5125: 5113: 5101: 5089: 5077: 5065: 5038: 5026: 4993: 4989: 4979: 4955:(1): 14–16. 4952: 4948: 4926: 4922: 4904: 4900: 4894: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4855: 4848: 4840: 4835: 4829: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4781:, p. 56 4759: 4754:, p. 55 4736: 4731: 4723: 4718: 4710: 4705: 4697: 4692: 4680: 4660: 4653: 4633: 4626: 4614:. Retrieved 4597: 4593: 4572: 4567: 4555:. Retrieved 4546: 4542: 4529: 4517: 4509: 4504: 4492: 4487: 4475:. Retrieved 4471:the original 4461: 4449:. 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Retrieved 3914: 3907: 3890: 3880: 3866: 3839: 3810: 3788: 3776: 3740: 3633: 3627: 3620: 3615: 3609: 3604:Civilization 3603: 3598:(2020–2023). 3593: 3586:Elle Fanning 3579:Helen Mirren 3572: 3547: 3527: 3515: 3504:Genghis Khan 3477: 3464: 3447: 3427:Julia Ormond 3420: 3397: 3385: 3375: 3369: 3353: 3345: 3333: 3321: 3310: 3297: 3271: 3262: 3252: 3245: 3238: 3231: 3219: 3207:Please help 3202:verification 3199: 3168: 3160: 3155: 3149: 3147: 3093: 3026: 3014:Miscarriage 2999:Miscarriage 2972: 2960: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2932:Platon Zubov 2906: 2891: 2863: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2801: 2797: 2790: 2780: 2720:Prince Henry 2717: 2709: 2687: 2663: 2658:James Harris 2655: 2644: 2636:Platon Zubov 2627: 2623: 2614: 2607: 2599: 2569: 2565: 2553: 2538: 2513: 2509: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2428: 2423: 2420: 2408: 2371:Ivan Betskoy 2368: 2353: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2308: 2300: 2274: 2258: 2254: 2224:Encyclopédie 2222: 2220: 2194: 2186: 2163: 2136: 2112:Arthur Young 2106:—all French 2097: 2092: 2083: 2079: 2073: 2071: 2055: 2048: 2028:Fedot Shubin 2002: 1990: 1986: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1933: 1914: 1899: 1875: 1866: 1853: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1819: 1783: 1773: 1766: 1746: 1722: 1706:anti-Russian 1695: 1640:Baltic Fleet 1632: 1612: 1609:, his horse. 1554: 1530:Prince Zubov 1523: 1491: 1465: 1438: 1413: 1362: 1327: 1278: 1258:Nikita Panin 1255: 1250:Fredrikshamn 1196: 1192:Nikita Panin 1159: 1136: 1087: 1067: 1056:Alexei Orlov 1049: 1046: 1038: 1007: 987: 971: 967: 958: 954: 927: 898: 888: 880: 874: 870: 855: 832: 824:phlebotomies 820:bloodletting 813: 785: 766: 735: 711: 701:French, the 699: 692: 680:Charles XIII 640: 602: 600: 557: 501:Samuel Greig 474: 470:great powers 442: 438: 435:Catherine II 434: 433: 331:Catherine II 233: 65: 1780s 49:Catherine II 43: 9975:1796 deaths 9970:1729 births 9658:Romanticism 9480:Charles III 9321:Poniatowski 9258:Leeuwenhoek 9238:de la Court 9226:Netherlands 9070:Mendelssohn 9065:Lichtenberg 8943:Montesquieu 8661:Sapere aude 8644:Rationalism 8639:Rationality 8629:Objectivity 8214:Nicholas II 8194:Alexander I 8154:Catherine I 8131:(co-rulers) 7715:In Our Time 7467:Runivers.ru 6846:(1): 39–52. 6767:26 November 6279:24 November 6077:Raeff 1972a 6065:Raeff 1972a 6041:Raeff 1972a 5996:Raeff 1972a 5900:Fisher 1968 5884:Fisher 1968 5872:Fisher 1968 5243:Raeff 1972b 5231:Raeff 1972b 5219:Raeff 1972b 5195:Raeff 1972b 5031:Massie 2011 4888:(2): 39–50. 4799:(1): 2–37. 4522:Rodger 2005 4399:Massie 2011 4063:, pp. 3977:Massie 2011 3893:(1): 1–22. 3537:Foreverland 3294:mock-heroic 2898:Lutheranism 2792:coup d'état 2670:Poniatowski 2238:Montesquieu 2093:chinoiserie 2084:chinoiserie 2080:chinoiserie 2075:Chinoiserie 1983:, from 1791 1882:physiocracy 1880:and French 1810:Adam Laxman 1762:Qing Empire 1735:and in the 1648:Theatre War 1626:during the 1577:Kura Rivers 1542:and stormed 1478:to Russia. 1416:Şahin Giray 1102:Catherine I 1078:Lake Ladoga 881:philosophes 862:Oranienbaum 847:Catherine I 695:Baron Grimm 549:to colonise 545:partitioned 479:and Prince 472:of Europe. 401:(1729–1744) 394:(1744–1796) 325:Regnal name 101:Predecessor 9959:Categories 9500:Villarroel 9495:Jovellanos 9431:Radishchev 9378:Micu-Klein 9316:Niemcewicz 9283:Swammerdam 9273:Nieuwentyt 9263:Mandeville 9118:Farmakidis 9004:Burlamaqui 8913:La Mettrie 8888:Fontenelle 8843:d'Argenson 8838:d'Alembert 8762:Harrington 8688:Utopianism 8588:Liberalism 8545:Empiricism 8520:Classicism 8510:Capitalism 8199:Nicholas I 8119:Feodor III 8042:Vasily III 7764:2 May 1729 7430:See also: 6693:, p. 6474:Dixon 2009 6450:Dixon 2009 6402:Dixon 2009 6177:. p. 5984:Klier 1976 5972:Klier 1976 5960:Klier 1976 5936:Klier 1976 5924:Klier 1976 5912:Klier 1976 5679:Dixon 2009 5568:5 February 5452:: 313–332. 4722:Anderson, 4557:8 December 4549:(1): 2–7. 3936:11 October 3849:9028206833 3727:References 3622:Revolution 3479:Clone High 3384:published 3290:Lord Byron 3235:newspapers 2956:bestiality 2921:last rites 2742:almost to 2582:See also: 2548:See also: 2493:See also: 2411:John Locke 2104:d'Alembert 1909:See also: 1878:cameralism 1624:Royal Navy 1607:George III 1587:See also: 1557:Azerbaijan 1486:See also: 1303:See also: 1246:Gustav III 1203:New Russia 843:patronymic 808:equestrian 676:Gustav III 625:Early life 580:Sevastopol 525:New Russia 463:protestant 357:(by birth) 92:Coronation 9621:Jefferson 9563:Hutcheson 9452:Obradović 9421:Lomonosov 9416:Kheraskov 9326:Śniadecki 9090:Weishaupt 9085:Thomasius 9075:Pufendorf 8918:Lavoisier 8903:d'Holbach 8898:Helvétius 8878:Descartes 8873:Condorcet 8868:Condillac 8802:Priestley 8619:Modernity 8540:Democracy 8179:Peter III 8174:Elizabeth 8103:Vladislav 8097:Vasili IV 8085:Feodor II 7785:Peter III 7683:) popular 7417:154510675 7256:. 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