2010:(2023), the Supreme Court held that race and ethnicity cannot be used in admissions decisions. In other words, preferential treatment based on race or ethnicity violates The Equal Protection Clause. Although "nothing in this opinion should be construed as prohibiting universities from considering an applicant's discussion of how race affected his or her life, be it through discrimination, inspiration, or otherwise," Chief Justice Roberts made it clear that "universities may not simply establish through application essays or other means the regime we hold unlawful today." Moreover, "what cannot be done directly cannot be done indirectly." These opinions effectively ended affirmative action in schools. Although the scope and reach of these opinions are unknown, it is not uncommon for Supreme Court cases' rationale to be applied to similar or analogous facts or circumstances.
619:
Thirteenth
Amendment the South began to institute Black Codes which were restrictive laws seeking to keep black Americans in a position of inferiority. The Fourteenth amendment was ratified by nervous Republicans in response to the rise of Black Codes. This ratification was irregular in many ways. First, there were multiple states that rejected the Fourteenth Amendment, but when their new governments were created due to reconstruction, these new governments accepted the amendment. There were also two states, Ohio and New Jersey, that accepted the amendment and then later passed resolutions rescinding that acceptance. The nullification of the two states' acceptance was considered illegitimate and both Ohio and New Jersey were included in those counted as ratifying the amendment.
686:
1893:, Congress enacted programs primarily to assist newly freed slaves who had personally been denied many advantages earlier in their lives, based on their former slave status, not necessarily their race or ethnicity. Such legislation was enacted by many of the same people who framed the Equal Protection Clause, though that clause did not apply to such federal legislation, and instead only applied to state legislation. However, now the Equal Protection Clause does apply to private universities and possibly other private businesses (particularly those who accept federal funds), in accordance with
916:
first known published count by a scholar), the
Supreme Court interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment in 312 cases dealing with the rights of corporations but in only 28 cases dealing with the rights of African Americans. Thus, the Fourteenth Amendment was used primarily by corporations to attack laws that regulated corporations, not to protect the formerly enslaved people from racial discrimination. Granting rights under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to business corporations was introduced into Supreme Court jurisprudence through a series of sleights of hands.
1604:" policy in New York allows officers to stop anyone who they feel looks suspicious. Data from police stops shows that even when controlling for variability, people who are black and those of Hispanic descent were stopped more frequently than white people, with these statistics dating back to the late 1990s. A term that has been created to describe the disproportionate number of police stops of black people is "Driving While Black." This term is used to describe the stopping of innocent black people who are not committing any crime.
1995:—that the scrutiny the Court has applied in some cases is much less searching than true strict scrutiny, and that the Court has acted not as a principled legal institution but as a biased political one. On the other side, it is argued that the purpose of the Equal Protection Clause is to prevent the socio-political subordination of some groups by others, not to prevent classification; since this is so, non-invidious classifications, such as those used by affirmative action programs, should not be subjected to heightened scrutiny.
1376:(2007), the Court held that, if a school system became racially imbalanced due to social factors other than governmental racism, then the state is not as free to integrate schools as if the state had been at fault for the racial imbalance. This is especially evident in the charter school system where parents of students can pick which schools their children attend based on the amenities provided by that school and the needs of the child. It seems that race is a factor in the choice of charter school.
1018:
452:
44:
1246:
1584:; if a legislature wants to correct unintentional but racially disparate effects, it may be able to do so through further legislation. It is possible for a discriminating state to hide its true intention, and one possible solution is for disparate impact to be considered as stronger evidence of discriminatory intent. This debate, though, is currently academic, since the Supreme Court has not changed its basic approach as outlined in
784:
4766:
929:
the Court that he, as a member of the
Committee that drafted this amendment to the Constitutional, knew that this is what the Committee had intended. Legal historians in the 20th Century examined the history of the drafting of the Fourteenth Amendment and found that Conkling had fabricated the notion that the Committee had intended the term "person" of the Fourteenth Amendment to encompass corporations. This
1597:(1987). In that case a black man was convicted of murdering a white police officer and sentenced to death in the state of Georgia. A study found that killers of whites were more likely to be sentenced to death than were killers of blacks. The Court found that the defense had failed to prove that such data demonstrated the requisite discriminatory intent by the Georgia legislature and executive branch.
640:
that knowing the evils and injustice the
Fourteenth Amendment was meant to combat is key in our legal understanding of its implications and purpose. With the abridgment of the Privileges or Immunities clause, legal arguments aimed at protecting black American's rights became more complex and that is when the equal protection clause started to gain attention for the arguments it could enhance.
949:, drafted the "syllabus" (summary) of Supreme Court decisions and the "headnotes" that summarized key points of law held by the Court. These were published before each case as part of the official court publication communicating the law of the land as held by the Supreme Court. A headnote that Davis as court reporter published immediately preceding the court opinion in Santa Clara case stated:
3835:, Vol. 79, p. 685 (1991). Farber and Frickey point out that "only Chief Justice Hughes, Justice Brandeis, and Justice Roberts joined Justice Stone's footnote", and in any event "It is simply a myth ... that the process theory of footnote four in Carolene Products is, or ever has been, the primary justification for invalidating laws embodying prejudice against racial minorities."
1370:, or due to Congressional action, or due to societal change, the percentage of black students attending majority-black school districts decreased somewhat until the early 1980s, at which point that percentage began to increase. By the late 1990s, the percentage of black students in mostly minority school districts had returned to about what it was in the late 1960s. In
2106:
3280:, Justice Field had urged the Court to address precisely this issue by endorsing such corporate rights on Fourteenth Amendment grounds, and he harshly criticized his fellow justices for failing to do so. (Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) pp. 156-157)
2163:
opportunities in education, employment, and other areas. The U.S. Constitution makes a similar provision in the
Fourteenth Amendment. It says that no state shall make or enforce any law that will "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law." These provisions require the government to treat persons equally and impartially.
4514:(July 1, 2013): "There is another similarity between his opinion in Windsor and his earlier ones in Romer and Lawrence: the Supreme Court invalidated the law without using heightened scrutiny for sexual-orientation discrimination ... A law based on animus fails to meet even rational-basis review so there was no need to adopt a higher level of scrutiny."
1224:, from publishing any concurring opinion; Jackson's draft, which emerged much later (in 1988), included this statement: "Constitutions are easier amended than social customs, and even the North never fully conformed its racial practices to its professions". The Court set the case for re-argument on the question of how to implement the decision. In
3272:, the corporation that had filed these lawsuits, and, as a Supreme Court justice and federal appellate judge for years, had a pro-corporationist agenda. (Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) pp. 140-143.) Justice Field must have known that in the
1617:
1608:
doctrine heavily relies on the ability of neutral evaluative tools to engage in neutral selection procedures, racial biases indirectly permitted under the doctrine can have grave ramifications and result in 'uneven conditions.' ' These issues can be especially prominent in areas of public benefits, employment, and college admissions, etc.'
961:"MR. CHIEF JUSTICE WAITE said: 'The Court does not wish to hear argument on the question of whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution which forbids a state to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does.'"
660:
to a member of one caste while another and a different measure is meted out to the member of another caste, both castes being alike citizens of the United States, both bound to obey the same laws, to sustain the burdens of the same
Government, and both equally responsible to justice and to God for the deeds done in the body?
1398:(1954), has been interpreted as imposing some of the same restrictions on the federal government: "Though the Fifth Amendment does not contain an equal protection clause, as does the Fourteenth Amendment which applies only to the States, the concepts of equal protection and due process are not mutually exclusive." In
1488:". Strict scrutiny means that a challenged statute must be "narrowly tailored" to serve a "compelling" government interest, and must not have a "less restrictive" alternative. In contrast, rational basis scrutiny merely requires that a challenged statute be "reasonably related" to a "legitimate" government interest.
3228: (1886). John C. Bancroft was a former railway company president. In the summary of the case Bancroft wrote that the Court declared that it did not need to hear argument on whether the Equal Protection Clause protected corporations, because "we are all of the opinion that it does." Id. at 396. Chief Justice
1404:(2003) the Supreme Court added: "Equality of treatment and the due process right to demand respect for conduct protected by the substantive guarantee of liberty are linked in important respects, and a decision on the latter point advances both interests" Some scholars have argued that the Court's decision in
1975:, the Court invalidated Michigan's undergraduate admissions policy, on the grounds that unlike the law school's policy, which treated race as one of many factors in an admissions process that looked to the individual applicant, the undergraduate policy used a point system that was excessively mechanistic.
1863:
that the fundamental right to marry is guaranteed to same-sex couples by both the Due
Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and required all states to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and to recognize same-sex marriages
1729:
Originally, the
Fourteenth Amendment did not forbid sex discrimination to the same extent as other forms of discrimination. On the one hand, Section Two of the amendment specifically discouraged states from interfering with the voting rights of "males", which made the amendment anathema to many women
681:
Bingham said in a speech on March 31, 1871 that the clause meant no State could deny anyone "the equal protection of the
Constitution of the United States ... any of the rights which it guarantees to all men", nor deny to anyone "any right secured to him either by the laws and treaties of the United
659:
It prohibits the hanging of a black man for a crime for which the white man is not to be hanged. It protects the black man in his fundamental rights as a citizen with the same shield which it throws over the white man. Ought not the time to be now passed when one measure of justice is to be meted out
577:
President Andrew
Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 amid concerns (among other things) that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to enact such a bill. Such doubts were one factor that led Congress to begin to draft and debate what would become the Equal Protection Clause of the
1766:
a suspect class. Many commentators have noted, however—and Justice Thurgood Marshall so notes in his partial concurrence—that the Court did appear to examine the City of Cleburne's denial of a permit to a group home for intellectually disabled people with a significantly higher degree of
1215:
To separate from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone ... We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine
915:
In the decades after ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the vast majority of Supreme Court cases interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment dealt with the rights of corporations, not with the rights of African Americans. In the period 1868–1912 (from ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the
622:
Many historians have argued that Fourteenth Amendment was not originally intended to grant sweeping political and social rights to the citizens but instead to solidify the constitutionality of the 1866 Civil rights Act. While it is widely agreed that this was a key reason for the ratification of the
1832:
While the courts have applied rational-basis scrutiny to classifications based on sexual orientation, it has been argued that discrimination based on sex should be interpreted to include discrimination based on sexual orientation, in which case intermediate scrutiny could apply to gay rights cases.
1206:
had already come before the Court. While Vinson was still Chief Justice, there had been a preliminary vote on the case at a conference of all nine justices. At that time, the Court had split, with a majority of the justices voting that school segregation did not violate the Equal Protection Clause.
928:
before the Supreme Court in 1882. In this case, the issue was whether corporations are "persons" within the meaning of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Conkling argued that corporations were included in the meaning of the term person and thus entitled to such rights. He told
1780:
constitutional amendment aimed at denying homosexuals "minority status, quota preferences, protected status or claim of discrimination." The Court rejected as "implausible" the dissent's argument that the amendment would not deprive homosexuals of general protections provided to everyone else but
668:
proposed the Fourteenth Amendment on June 13, 1866. A difference between the initial and final versions of the clause was that the final version spoke not just of "equal protection" but of "the equal protection of the laws". John Bingham said in January 1867: "no State may deny to any person the
639:
in which it was determined that a citizen's privileges and immunities were only ensured at the Federal level and that it was government overreach to impose this standard on the states. Even in this halting decision the Court still acknowledged the context in which the Amendment was passed, stating
467:
Though equality under the law is an American legal tradition arguably dating to the Declaration of Independence, formal equality for many groups remained elusive. Before passage of the Reconstruction Amendments, which included the Equal Protection Clause, American law did not extend constitutional
437:
All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall
1607:
In addition to concerns that a discriminating statute can hide its true intention, there have also been concerns that facially neutral evaluative and statistical devices that are permitted by decision-makers can be subject to racial bias and unfair appraisals of ability.' As the equal protection
774:
excluding blacks from serving on juries. Exclusion of blacks from juries, the Court concluded, was a denial of equal protection to black defendants, since the jury had been "drawn from a panel from which the State has expressly excluded every man of race." At the same time, the Court explicitly
643:
During the debate in Congress, more than one version of the clause was considered. Here is the first version: "The Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper to secure ... to all persons in the several states equal protection in the rights of life, liberty, and
3232:
announced from the bench that the Court would not hear argument on the question whether the equal protection clause applied to corporations: "We are all of the opinion that it does." The background and developments from this utterance are treated in H. Graham, Everyman's Constitution--Historical
997:
as established precedent that the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection of the law and due process rights for corporations, even though in the Santa Clara case the Supreme Court held or stated no such thing. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the clause was used to strike down
886:
that the statute in question had its origin in the purpose, not so much to exclude white persons from railroad cars occupied by blacks, as to exclude colored people from coaches occupied by or assigned to white persons ... n view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this
1536:
Because inequalities can be caused either intentionally or unintentionally, the Supreme Court has decided that the Equal Protection Clause itself does not forbid governmental policies that unintentionally lead to racial disparities, though Congress may have some power under other clauses of the
779:
and other types of discrimination, saying that states "may confine the selection to males, to freeholders, to citizens, to persons within certain ages, or to persons having educational qualifications. We do not believe the Fourteenth Amendment was ever intended to prohibit this. ... Its aim was
720:
Marriage is a civil contract, and in that character alone is dealt with by the municipal law. The same right to make a contract as is enjoyed by white citizens, means the right to make any contract which a white citizen may make. The law intended to destroy the distinctions of race and color in
1881:
is the consideration of race, gender, or other factors, to benefit an underrepresented group or to address past injustices done to that group. Individuals who belong to the group are preferred over those who do not belong to the group, for example in educational admissions, hiring, promotions,
1684:
Harlan also relied on the fact that Section Two of the Fourteenth Amendment "expressly recognizes the States' power to deny 'or in any way' abridge the right of their inhabitants to vote for 'the members of the Legislature.'" Section Two of the Fourteenth Amendment provides a specific federal
605:
states were opposed to the Civil Rights Act, but in 1865 Congress, exercising its power under Article I, Section 5, Clause 1 of the Constitution, to "be the Judge of the ... Qualifications of its own Members", had excluded Southerners from Congress, declaring that their states, having rebelled
2162:
The basic intent of equal protection is to make sure that people are treated as equally as possible under our legal system. For example, it is to see that everyone who gets a speeding ticket will face the samEpocedures . A further intent is to ensure that all Americans are provided with equal
819:
dissented alone, saying, "I cannot resist the conclusion that the substance and spirit of the recent amendments of the Constitution have been sacrificed by a subtle and ingenious verbal criticism." Harlan went on to argue that because (1) "public conveyances on land and water" use the public
497:
and determined black men, whether free or in bondage, had no legal rights under the U.S. Constitution at the time. Currently, a plurality of historians believe that this judicial decision set the United States on the path to the Civil War, which led to the ratifications of the Reconstruction
618:
With the return to originalist interpretations of the Constitution, many wonder what was intended by the framers of the reconstruction amendments at the time of their ratification. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery but to what extent it protected other rights was unclear. After the
369:, which guaranteed that all citizens would have the guaranteed right to equal protection by law. As a whole, the Fourteenth Amendment marked a large shift in American constitutionalism, by applying substantially more constitutional restrictions against the states than had applied before the
9056:
1197:
In 1954 the contextualization of the equal protection clause would change forever. The Supreme Court itself recognized the gravity of the Brown v Board decision acknowledging that a split decision would be a threat to the role of the Supreme Court and even to the country. When
644:
property." Bingham said about this version: "It confers upon Congress power to see to it that the protection given by the laws of the States shall be equal in respect to life and liberty and property to all persons." The main opponent of the first version was Congressman
1512:
argued for only one level of scrutiny, given that "there is only one Equal Protection Clause". The whole tiered strategy developed by the Court is meant to reconcile the principle of equal protection with the reality that most laws necessarily discriminate in some way.
3151: (1830), in which Chief Justice Marshall wrote: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men." Nevertheless, the concept of corporate personhood remains controversial. See
882:. All that was therefore required of the law was reasonableness, and Louisiana's railway law amply met that requirement, being based on "the established usages, customs and traditions of the people." Justice Harlan again dissented. "Every one knows," he wrote,
630:
Although the equal protection clause is one of the most cited ideas in legal theory, it received little attention during the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Instead the key tenet of the Fourteenth Amendment at the time of its ratification was the
933:
case was settled by the parties without the Supreme Court issuing an opinion however the Court's misunderstanding of the intention of the Amendment's drafters that had been created by Conkling's likely deliberate deception was never corrected at the time.
1133:, which educated blacks and whites at separate institutions. The Court (again through Chief Justice Vinson, and again with no dissenters) invalidated the school system—not because it separated students, but rather because the separate facilities were not
1475:
When the law lays an unequal hand on those who have committed intrinsically the same quality of offense and sterilizes one and not the other, it has made as invidious a discrimination as if it had selected a particular race or nationality for oppressive
610:" Congress—that permitted the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment by Congress and subsequently proposed to the states. The ratification of the amendment by the former Confederate states was imposed as a condition of their acceptance back into the Union.
1108:
had admitted McLaurin, an African-American, but had restricted his activities there: he had to sit apart from the rest of the students in the classrooms and library, and could eat in the cafeteria only at a designated table. A unanimous Court, through
837:
These provisions are universal in their application to all persons within the territorial jurisdiction, without regard to any differences of race, of color, or of nationality, and the equal protection of the laws is a pledge of the protection of equal
1743:, extending the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to protect women from sex discrimination, in situations where there is no rational basis for the discrimination. That level of scrutiny was boosted to an intermediate level in
1286:. Under these plans, parents could choose to send their children to either a formerly white or a formerly black school. Whites almost never opted to attend black-identified schools, however, and blacks rarely attended white-identified schools.
701:
ruled that the state's ban on mixed-race marriage violated the "cardinal principle" of the 1866 Civil Rights Act and of the Equal Protection Clause. Almost a hundred years would pass before the U.S. Supreme Court followed that Alabama case
736:
Likewise, some states were more favorable to women's legal status than others; New York, for example, had been giving women full property, parental, and widow's rights since 1860, but not the right to vote. No state or territory allowed
812:", according to which the guarantees of the Equal Protection Clause apply only to acts done or otherwise "sanctioned in some way" by the state. Prohibiting blacks from attending plays or staying in inns was "simply a private wrong".
1328:
basically ended the Supreme Court's major involvement in school desegregation; however, up through the 1990s many federal trial courts remained involved in school desegregation cases, many of which had begun in the 1950s and 1960s.
1120:
There is a vast difference—a Constitutional difference—between restrictions imposed by the state which prohibit the intellectual commingling of students, and the refusal of individuals to commingle where the state presents no such
7134:
4756:
4746:
3749:
Balkin, J. M.; Bruce A. Ackerman (2001). "Part II". What Brown v. Board of Education should have said : the nation's top legal experts rewrite America's landmark civil rights decision. et al. New York University Press. p.
2196:
Equal Protection refers to the idea that a governmental body may not deny people equal protection of its governing laws. The governing body state must treat an individual in the same manner as others in similar conditions and
1708:. There, the Supreme Court held that the different standards of counting ballots across Florida violated the equal protection clause. The Supreme Court used four of its rulings from 1960s voting rights cases (one of which was
623:
Fourteenth Amendment, many historians adopt a much wider view. It is a popular interpretation that the Fourteenth Amendment was always meant to ensure equal rights for all those in the United States. This argument was used by
505:
during such times. During the Civil War, many of the Southern states stripped the state citizenship of many whites and banished them from their state, effectively seizing their property. Shortly after the Union victory in the
3926:, 517 U.S. 620, 631 (1996): "the equal protection of the laws must coexist with the practical necessity that most legislation classifies for one purpose or another, with resulting disadvantage to various groups or persons."
1516:
Choosing the standard of scrutiny can determine the outcome of a case, and the strict scrutiny standard is often described as "strict in theory and fatal in fact". In order to select the correct level of scrutiny, Justice
1666:. Harlan quoted the congressional debates of 1866 to show that the framers did not intend for the Equal Protection Clause to extend to voting rights, and in reference to the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments, he said:
1412:
has written that Congress never "required that the schools of the District of Columbia be segregated." According to that rationale, the segregation of schools in Washington D.C. was unauthorized and therefore illegal.
953:"The defendant Corporations are persons within the intent of the clause in section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment…, which forbids a state to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
1691:); for any discrimination in fundamental rights to be constitutional, the Court requires the legislation to pass strict scrutiny. Under this theory, equal protection jurisprudence has been applied to voting rights.
1978:
In these affirmative action cases, the Supreme Court has employed, or has said it employed, strict scrutiny, since the affirmative action policies challenged by the plaintiffs categorized by race. The policy in
1521:
urged the Court to identify rights as "fundamental" or identify classes as "suspect" by analyzing what was understood when the Equal Protection Clause was adopted, instead of based upon more subjective factors.
981:
in support of the proposition that corporations are entitled to equal protection of the law within the meaning of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Writing the opinion for the Court in
8046:
1720:
joined the majority of five—but only for the finding that there was an Equal Protection violation. Much more controversial was the remedy that the Court chose, namely, the cessation of a statewide recount.
1336:
is one of several reasons that have been cited to explain why equalized educational opportunity in the United States has fallen short of completion. In the view of various liberal scholars, the election of
9892:
1685:
response to such actions by a state: reduction of a state's representation in Congress. However, the Supreme Court has instead responded that voting is a "fundamental right" on the same plane as marriage (
8992:
1076:
case concerned a privately made contract that prohibited "people of the Negro or Mongolian race" from living on a particular piece of land. Seeming to go against the spirit, if not the exact letter, of
8984:
3264:
Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) pp. 154-156. Justice Field was a friend of railroad magnate
820:
highways, and (2) innkeepers engage in what is "a quasi-public employment", and (3) "places of public amusement" are licensed under the laws of the states, excluding blacks from using these services
9695:
4754:
4744:
4527:
5727:
9136:
5417:
648:
of New York, despite Bingham's public assurances that "under no possible interpretation can it ever be made to operate in the State of New York while she occupies her present proud position."
9104:
8960:
1712:) to support its ruling in Bush v. Gore. It was not this holding that proved especially controversial among commentators, and indeed, the proposition gained seven out of nine votes; Justices
1372:
9783:
9599:
5235:
1230:, decided in 1954, it was concluded that since the problems identified in the previous opinion were local, the solutions needed to be so as well. Thus the court devolved authority to local
9259:
6993:
5742:
5172:
1551:
a plot of land on which the plaintiff intended to build low-income, racially integrated housing. On the face, there was no clear evidence of racially discriminatory intent on the part of
6998:
5692:
7168:
1461:" (such as the right to procreation), and similarly more judicial scrutiny is also triggered if the purported victim of discrimination has been targeted because he or she belongs to a "
1211:
politician before joining the Court—was able to convince all eight associate justices to join his opinion declaring school segregation unconstitutional. In that opinion, Warren wrote:
8022:
5273:
993:, Justice Field, writing for the Court, thus took this point as established Constitutional law. In the decades that followed, the Supreme Court often continued to cite and to rely on
3807:
1282:, writing for a unanimous Court, rejected a "freedom-of-choice" school plan as inadequate. This was a significant decision; freedom-of-choice plans had been very common responses to
9433:
7400:
6407:
5540:
1559:, writing for the Court, stated, "Proof of racially discriminatory intent or purpose is required to show a violation of the Equal Protection Clause." Disparate impact merely has an
1347:(1973) that the Equal Protection Clause allows—but does not require—a state to provide equal educational funding to all students within the state. Moreover, the Court's decision in
689:
This drawing by E. W. Kemble shows a sleeping Congress with a broken Fourteenth Amendment. It makes the case that Congress ignored its constitutional obligations to Black Americans.
4755:
4745:
986:, Justice Field reasoned that a corporation is an association of its human shareholders and thus has rights under the Fourteenth Amendment just as the members of the association.
10024:
8968:
8228:
5642:
1353:(1925) allowed families to opt out of public schools, despite "inequality in economic resources that made the option of private schools available to some and not to others", as
946:
9096:
8282:
6837:
5412:
635:. This clause sought to protect the privileges and immunities of all citizens which now included black men. The scope of this clause was substantially narrowed following the
7390:
6359:
921:
1987:, passed muster because the Court deemed that they were narrowly tailored to achieve a compelling interest in diversity. On one side, critics have argued—including Justice
1833:
Other scholars disagree, arguing that "homophobia" is distinct from sexism, in a sociological sense, and so treating it as such would be an unacceptable judicial shortcut.
6963:
6374:
5712:
7820:
5245:
5129:
4929:
4861:
813:
63:
5697:
1734:
pointed out, the word "person" in the Equal Protection Clause was apparently chosen deliberately, instead of a masculine term that could have easily been used instead.
1242:
was actually a consolidation of four different cases from four different states.) The trial courts and localities were told to desegregate with "all deliberate speed".
5115:
1555:
planning commission. The result was racially disparate, however, since the refusal supposedly prevented mostly African-Americans and Hispanics from moving in. Justice
1501:", regarding gender discrimination. The Court may have added other tiers too, such as "enhanced rational basis" scrutiny, and "exceedingly persuasive basis" scrutiny.
1145:
337:
9916:
7107:
7047:
5893:
5100:
5090:
4007:
842:
Thus, the clause would not be limited to discrimination against African Americans, but would extend to other races, colors, and nationalities such as (in this case)
91:
5732:
2141:
1630:(1927) that the Fourteenth Amendment prohibited denial of the vote based on race. The first modern application of the Equal Protection Clause to voting law came in
1264:
did not begin in any significant way until the mid-1960s and then only to a small degree. In fact, much of the integration in the 1960s happened in response not to
362:... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." It mandates that individuals in similar situations be treated equally by the law.
9815:
8713:
7141:
7052:
7042:
5110:
5105:
5095:
5085:
1846:. No state statute was in question, and therefore the Equal Protection Clause did not apply. The Court did employ similar principles, however, in combination with
2441:
Hardy, David. "Original Popular Understanding of the 14th Amendment As Reflected in the Print Media of 1866-68", Whittier Law Review, Vol. 30, p. 695 (2008-2009).
1756:" status (thus making a law that categorizes on that basis subject to greater judicial scrutiny) for groups other than racial minorities and religious groups. In
8689:
8126:
7032:
6829:
5065:
1825:. Notably, O'Connor's opinion did not claim to apply a higher level of scrutiny than mere rational basis, and the Court has not extended suspect-class status to
3628:
2771:
Resurrecting the Privileges or Immunities Clause and Revising the Slaughter-House Cases Without Exhuming Lochner: Individual Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment
10029:
8928:
8808:
7630:
7037:
7010:
5075:
5070:
5039:
5034:
2085:
2080:
1947:, the Court held that racial quotas are unconstitutional, but that educational institutions could legally use race as one of many factors to consider in their
1655:
511:
477:
400:
which legalized same-sex marriages, along with many other decisions rejecting discrimination against, and bigotry towards, people belonging to various groups.
355:
225:
9759:
9409:
8896:
8872:
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8014:
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5080:
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3218:
3009:
1651:
1059:, since Lincoln did not have a law school, but was denied admission due solely to his race. The Supreme Court, applying the separate-but-equal principle of
515:
501:
Before and during the Civil War, the Southern states prohibited speech of pro-Union citizens, anti-slavery advocates, and northerners in general, since the
9703:
8768:
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Whatever its precise origins, the basic idea of the modern approach is that more judicial scrutiny is triggered by purported discrimination that involves "
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2124:
1643:
were so malapportioned (with some legislators representing ten times the number of residents as others) that they violated the Equal Protection Clause.
1480:
Until 1976, the Supreme Court usually ended up dealing with discrimination by using one of two possible levels of scrutiny: what has come to be called "
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9876:
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7974:
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5617:
4985:
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729:
actually required separate schools for blacks. However, some states (e.g. New York) gave local districts discretion to set up schools that were deemed
3289:
Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) pp. 156-157
3203:
Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) pp. 150-152
3194:
Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) pp. 128-136
9473:
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8864:
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4995:
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opinion (which clearly stated that both deprivation of fundamental rights as well as oppression of a particular race or nationality were invidious).
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9385:
9187:
8976:
7480:
7213:
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6393:
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2855:, p. 253 (Palgrave Macmillan, Jan 17, 2004). The four of the original thirteen states are New Hampshire, Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York. Id.
1924:
1758:
205:
1882:
awarding of contracts, and the like. Such action may be used as a "tie-breaker" if all other factors are inconclusive, or may be achieved through
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5818:
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Adam Winkler, "We the Corporations, How American Businesses Won Their Corporate Rights" (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018) p. xv
833:(1886). In it the word "person" from the Fourteenth Amendment's section has been given the broadest possible meaning by the U.S. Supreme Court:
8373:
7416:
7345:
7279:
6303:
4909:
4904:
4034:
Krieger, Linda Hamilton (1995). "The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Protection Opportunity".
673:..." By July 9, 1868, three-fourths of the states (28 of 37) ratified the amendment, and that is when the Equal Protection Clause became law.
422:
330:
9924:
9275:
9032:
8880:
8673:
7421:
6988:
5672:
4914:
4894:
4889:
1272:. The Supreme Court intervened a handful of times in the late 1950s and early 1960s, but its next major desegregation decision was not until
574:
and color ... full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens."
1971:, however, Justice O'Connor, writing for the Court, said she expected that in 25 years, racial preferences would no longer be necessary. In
808:
on land or water, theatres, and other places of public amusement." In its opinion, the Court explicated what has since become known as the "
741:
when the Equal Protection Clause took effect in 1868. In contrast, at that time African American men had full voting rights in five states.
606:
against the Union, could therefore not elect members to Congress. It was this fact—the fact that the Fourteenth Amendment was enacted by a "
6110:
5162:
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694:
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1670:
If constitutional amendment was the only means by which all men and, later, women, could be guaranteed the right to vote at all, even for
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8266:
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7156:
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principles. The Court did not purport to use any level of scrutiny more demanding than rational basis review, according to law professor
8525:
7380:
5358:
4884:
4847:
3030:"Annotation 18 - Fourteenth Amendment: Section 1 – Rights Guaranteed: Equal Protection of the Laws: Scope and application state action"
1341:
in 1968 meant that the executive branch was no longer behind the Court's constitutional commitments. Also, the Court itself decided in
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9751:
9283:
8298:
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7558:
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5353:
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5298:
323:
185:
70:
1817:
sodomy as well, Texas's statute did not meet rational-basis review under the Equal Protection Clause; her opinion prominently cited
895:
Such "arbitrary separation" by race, Harlan concluded, was "a badge of servitude wholly inconsistent with the civil freedom and the
669:
equal protection of the laws, including all the limitations for personal protection of every article and section of the Constitution
7340:
7102:
5602:
1274:
738:
598:. It was the most influential of these men, John Bingham, who was the principal author and drafter of the Equal Protection Clause.
175:
1454:(1938) contained a footnote that was a critical turning point for equal protection jurisprudence, but that assertion is disputed.
9564:
8429:
8030:
7897:
7233:
7163:
6503:
5813:
2000:
1895:
1890:
1873:
1620:
Justice John Marshall Harlan II sought to interpret the Equal Protection Clause in the context of Section 2 of the same amendment
726:
391:
33:
8936:
8110:
7921:
7284:
6781:
5903:
5572:
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4017:(2000). The Court has also interpreted federal statutory law as limiting the power of states to correct disparate effects. See
3964:"Accountable Algorithms (Ricci v. DeStefano: The Tensions Between Equal Protection, Disparate Treatment, and Disparate Impact)"
3378:
Karlan, Pamela S. (2009). "What Can Brown® do for You?: Neutral Principles and the Struggle over the Equal Protection Clause".
1450:
1425:
195:
180:
154:
5587:
3665:"Racial, Economic, and Linguistic Segregation: Analyzing Market Supports in the District of Columbia's Public Charter Schools"
2175:
1081:, the Court found that, although a discriminatory private contract could not violate the Equal Protection Clause, the courts'
564:. The Act provided that all persons born in the United States were citizens (contrary to the Supreme Court's 1857 decision in
8290:
7548:
7501:
6125:
5215:
5210:
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159:
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redundant. Indeed, it was on this argument, as well as on the legislative history of the Fourteenth Amendment, that Justice
973:
Supreme Court Justice Stephen Field seized on this deceptive and incorrect published summary by the court reporter Davis in
627:
when he used the Fourteenth Amendment as the basis for his arguments to expand the protections afforded to black Americans.
9441:
9128:
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9016:
7395:
7254:
6338:
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rights to black Americans. Black people were considered inferior to white Americans, and subject to chattel slavery in the
75:
3616:"entrenched the pattern of a two-tiered system of schooling, which sanctions private opt-outs from publicly run schools").
200:
9024:
8134:
7475:
7365:
7305:
7070:
6485:
6234:
5853:
5445:
4212:
Van Alstyne, William. "The Fourteenth Amendment, the Right to Vote, and the Understanding of the Thirty-Ninth Congress",
2149:
1914:
502:
965:
In fact, the Supreme Court decided the case on narrower grounds and had specifically avoided this Constitutional issue.
9840:
9556:
9481:
8745:
7218:
6972:
5490:
3996:
1110:
1096:
387:
245:
149:
111:
3709:
2622:
Sumner, Charles, and Daniel Murray Pamphlet Collection. . Washington: S. & R. O. Polkinhorn, Printers, 1874. Pdf.
2129:
The equal protection clause guarantees the right of "similarly situated" people to be treated the same way by the law.
9900:
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7151:
5833:
5195:
4870:
3791:
3639:
1964:
1948:
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1035:
220:
58:
3782:
304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938). For a theory of judicial review based on Stone's footnote, see Ely, John Hart (1981).
2770:
376:
The meaning of the Equal Protection Clause has been the subject of much debate, and inspired the well-known phrase "
9719:
8589:
7506:
6333:
5677:
2030:
1705:
1208:
17:
8469:
8314:
7828:
7543:
7269:
7020:
6385:
5682:
5667:
4814:
3590:
Reynolds, Troy. "Education Finance Reform Litigation and Separation of Powers: Kentucky Makes Its Contribution,"
3251:
1601:
1165:
1063:, held that a State offering a legal education to whites but not to blacks violated the Equal Protection Clause.
632:
106:
3905:'There is Only One Equal Protection Clause': An Appreciation of Justice Stevens's Equal Protection Jurisprudence
1908:
403:
While the Equal Protection Clause itself applies only to state and local governments, the Supreme Court held in
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8157:
7538:
7310:
7178:
6813:
6089:
3276:
case the Supreme Court explicitly declined to address the Constitutional issue because, in a companion case to
1044:
286:
142:
1789:
decision seemed to employ a markedly higher level of scrutiny than the nominally applied rational-basis test.
7941:
7680:
7614:
7563:
7370:
6508:
5863:
5803:
5392:
4413:
Farrell, Robert C. (1999). "Successful Rational Basis Claims in the Supreme Court from the 1971 Term Through
3847:, 316 U.S. 535 (1942). Sometimes the "suspect" classification strand of the modern doctrine is attributed to
1416:
The federal government has at times shared its power to discriminate against noncitizens with states through
900:
526:
311:
240:
2720:
1440:, much of modern equal protection jurisprudence originated in other cases, though not everyone agrees about
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8549:
8501:
8242:
7857:
6353:
6151:
5582:
5455:
5260:
5142:
4942:
2521:
1537:
Constitution to address unintentional disparate impacts. This subject was addressed in the seminal case of
1349:
1235:
469:
3486:
political branches' engagement with the Supreme Court's commitment to desegregation (and vice versa), see
2262:
1576:(1976), and has been defended on the basis that the Equal Protection Clause was not designed to guarantee
9583:
8753:
8054:
7905:
7470:
7375:
6367:
6271:
6229:
6224:
5627:
5313:
5278:
3829:
Is Carolene Products Dead--Reflections on Affirmative Action and the Dynamics of Civil Rights Legislation
2693:
1552:
1508:
who argued for a "spectrum of standards in reviewing discrimination", instead of discrete tiers. Justice
1192:
1048:
1022:
665:
530:
382:
210:
96:
2238:
1293:, many Southern districts replaced freedom-of-choice with geographically based schooling plans; because
8705:
7335:
7300:
6581:
6455:
6321:
5768:
5737:
5460:
5225:
5220:
3849:
3255:, 337 U.S. 562, 576 (1949), have disagreed that corporations are persons for equal protection purposes.
1421:
3032:. FindLaw for Legal Professionals - Law & Legal Information by FindLaw, a Thomson Reuters business
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and mandated separate railway cars for members of the two races. The Court, speaking through Justice
759:
473:
3986:
3029:
1360:
American public school systems, especially in large metropolitan areas, to a large extent are still
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6038:
5908:
5772:
5632:
5551:
5397:
5387:
5255:
4510:
4445:
Koppelman, Andrew (1994). "Why Discrimination against Lesbians and Gay Men is Sex Discrimination".
4001:
3963:
1842:
1763:
1269:
1149:
924:, which had drafted the Fourteenth Amendment, was the lawyer who argued an important case known as
804:
was at issue. The Act provided that all persons should have "full and equal enjoyment of ... inns,
801:
561:
366:
4322:
Pettinga, Gayle Lynn (1987). "Rational Basis with Bite: Intermediate Scrutiny by Any Other Name".
4120:
3174:
1207:
Warren, however, through persuasion and good-natured cajoling—he had been an extremely successful
685:
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States or of such State." At that time, the meaning of equality varied from one state to another.
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9369:
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5776:
5702:
5407:
5402:
5338:
5308:
5250:
4644:"Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Anticlassification Values in Constitutional Struggles over
2045:
2020:
1837:
1674:
officers, how can it be that the far less obvious right to a particular kind of apportionment of
1659:
1591:
For an example of how this rule limits the Court's powers under the Equal Protection Clause, see
1294:
1137:. They lacked "substantial equality in the educational opportunities" offered to their students.
1026:
896:
733:. In contrast, Iowa and Massachusetts flatly prohibited segregated schools ever since the 1850s.
418:
377:
281:
3513:
Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws That Changed America
1902:
Several important affirmative action cases to reach the Supreme Court have concerned government
1085:
of such a contract could; after all, the Supreme Court reasoned, courts were part of the state.
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7238:
7085:
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5991:
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5382:
5333:
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For details on the rationale for, and ratification of, the Fourteenth Amendment, see generally
2040:
1903:
1806:
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Because of the inequality imposed by Black Codes, a Republican-controlled Congress enacted the
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306:
137:
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here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.
582:
who were under personal and legal attack in the former Confederacy. The effort was led by the
365:
A primary motivation for this clause was to validate the equality provisions contained in the
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9679:
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2148:. Carl Vinson Institute of Government at University of Georgia. July 30, 2004. Archived from
2065:
1498:
1485:
1216:
of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
698:
636:
3301:
433:
The Equal Protection Clause is located at the end of Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment:
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9607:
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7990:
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5562:
5535:
5485:
5230:
4783:
4771:
These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 9 April 2006
4624:
3133:
2483:(1992). "Completing the Constitution: The Fourteenth Amendment and Constitutional Rights".
2055:
1930:
1859:
1409:
1304:
942:
816:
396:
1504:
All of this is known as "tiered" scrutiny, and it has had many critics, including Justice
1471:(1942), which involved depriving certain criminals of the fundamental right to procreate:
1072:(1948), the Court showed increased willingness to find racial discrimination illegal. The
8:
9791:
9743:
9687:
9623:
9615:
9548:
9465:
9401:
9064:
9008:
8952:
8944:
8581:
8461:
8445:
8322:
8102:
8086:
7780:
7664:
6861:
6845:
6805:
6702:
6326:
6115:
5843:
5707:
5495:
5440:
5343:
5200:
4164:
4036:
2060:
1577:
1572:
1467:
1309:
1160:, who in the 1930s first began to challenge racial discrimination in the federal courts.
697:, and the other states were divided on the issue in the Reconstruction era. In 1872, the
583:
271:
190:
4545:
2550:
Perry, Michael J. (1979). "Modern Equal Protection: A Conceptualization and Appraisal".
1543:(1977). In that case, the plaintiff, a housing developer, sued a city in the suburbs of
1484:" (when a suspect class or fundamental right is involved), or instead the more lenient "
438:
any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law;
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9203:
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2179:
1936:
1878:
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legislatures ... can be conferred by judicial construction of the Fourteenth Amendment?
1646:
It may seem counterintuitive that the Equal Protection Clause should provide for equal
1458:
1279:
1261:
1257:
1231:
1153:
1068:
863:
851:
829:
796:
730:
708:
507:
410:
370:
296:
291:
255:
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121:
101:
4684:
3148:
2757:
2637:
920:, a skillful lawyer and former powerful politicians who had served as a member of the
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6941:
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6710:
6589:
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6348:
6094:
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5933:
5808:
5787:
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5190:
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4643:
4454:
4426:
4391:
4351:
4331:
4261:
4236:
4121:"Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience"
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3106:
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2383:
2365:
2338:
2114:
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1919:
1918:(1989). But the most famous cases have dealt with affirmative action as practiced by
1854:. The four dissenting justices argued that the authors of the statute were rational.
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1581:
1544:
1509:
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1157:
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533:
following the war, with these laws severely restricting the rights of blacks to hold
405:
4839:
4225:
For criticisms as well as several defenses of the Court's decision, see Bush v. Gore
1809:'s opinion concurring in the judgment, however, she argued that by prohibiting only
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Congress and the Fourteenth Amendment: Enforcing Liberty and Equality in the States
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2649:
2597:
2559:
2492:
2318:
2222:
2183:
1709:
1626:
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1593:
1531:
1100:, both decided in 1950, paved the way for a series of school integration cases. In
607:
595:
6415:
1636:(1962), where the Court ruled that the districts that sent representatives to the
1313:(1974), it set aside a lower court order that had required the busing of students
941:, which left a written legacy of corporate rights under the Fourteenth Amendment.
849:
In its most contentious Gilded Age interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause,
9057:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville
8649:
8389:
8258:
7812:
7772:
7696:
7228:
7203:
6853:
6255:
6203:
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6043:
5954:
5878:
5782:
5764:
5500:
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5328:
4802:
4531:
4505:
4465:
3904:
3811:
3265:
3213:
2480:
2358:
2075:
2070:
1988:
1983:, and a Harvard College admissions policy praised by Justice Powell's opinion in
1481:
1317:
1173:
917:
874:, ruled that the Equal Protection Clause had been intended to defend equality in
805:
753:
In the United States, 1877 marked the end of Reconstruction and the start of the
3606:. "Confronting the Seduction of Choice: Law, Education and American Pluralism",
2803:
2675:
1116:, said that Oklahoma had deprived McLaurin of the equal protection of the laws:
9799:
9631:
9377:
9342:
9219:
8729:
8485:
8397:
8166:
7672:
7465:
7431:
7385:
6773:
6759:
6193:
6172:
6156:
6120:
6064:
6033:
5848:
3922:
3532:
3229:
2025:
1772:
1745:
1717:
1518:
1493:
1113:
871:
867:
764:
645:
624:
591:
440:
nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws
4368:
Kuligowski, Monte. "Romer v. Evans: Judicial Judgment or Emotive Utterance?,"
3857:
did not involve the Fourteenth Amendment, and moreover it came later than the
3438:"Hesitating Between Two Worlds": The Civil Rights Odyssey of Robert H. Jackson
2993:
No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship
2877:
Calabresi, Steven and Matthews, Andrea. "Originalism and Loving v. Virginia",
1256:
Partly because of that enigmatic phrase, but mostly because of self-declared "
757:. The first truly landmark equal protection decision by the Supreme Court was
10008:
9893:
Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
9521:
8912:
8784:
8453:
8421:
8349:
8212:
8118:
7966:
7881:
7573:
7568:
7496:
7264:
6298:
6219:
6177:
6146:
6074:
5996:
5868:
5838:
5754:
5657:
5368:
5323:
4458:
4430:
4395:
4355:
4335:
4249:
3680:
3483:
3355:
Origin of the Civil Rights Movements: Black Communities Organizing for Change
3170:
3102:
1647:
1632:
1338:
1180:
cases to litigate, selecting the best legal proving grounds for their cause.
768:
538:
250:
116:
4570:"Affirmative Action and the Legislative History of the Fourteenth Amendment"
2932:
Rehearsal for Reconstruction: Antebellum Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment
9807:
9171:
8357:
7712:
7533:
7274:
7208:
3603:
3237:
and American Constitutionalism (1968), chs. 9, 10, and pp. 566-84. Justice
2852:
Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law--An American History
1883:
1781:
rather would merely prevent "special treatment of homosexuals." Much as in
1739:
1713:
1696:
1662:(the grandson of the earlier Justice Harlan) relied on in his dissent from
1445:
1354:
1297:
was widespread, little integration was accomplished. In 1971, the Court in
1040:
904:
875:
859:
652:
587:
519:
494:
456:
3664:
2753:, Vol. 69, pp. 35-37 (1955). Bingham was speaking on February 27, 1866.
8681:
7958:
7873:
7745:
6250:
6130:
4639:
3340:
Scorpions: The Battles and Triumphs of FDR's Great Supreme Court Justices
2866:
What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America
1465:" (such as a single racial group). This modern doctrine was pioneered in
1389:
1199:
879:
843:
827:
A few years later, Justice Stanley Matthews wrote the Court's opinion in
542:
276:
9137:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
4199:
3939:, p. 282 (Kendall Hunt 2003) (attributing the phrase to Gerald Gunther).
3391:
2295:
1384:
By its terms, the clause restrains only state governments. However, the
1129:, the Court considered the constitutionality of Texas's state system of
9227:
5975:
4673:
4596:
4144:
4118:
4105:
4096:
4067:
4058:
3577:
3325:
3238:
2890:
2661:
2571:
2504:
2417:
The Supreme Court: The Personalities and Rivalries That Defined America
2353:
2330:
2234:
1847:
1799:
1176:
advocates, but part of their shrewdness lay in their careful choice of
1130:
1017:
754:
554:
484:
451:
301:
9105:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
8961:
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
4710:
4535:, No. 12-307, 2013 BL 169620, 118 FEP Cases 1417 (U.S. June 26, 2013).
4382:
Joslin, Courtney (1997). "Equal Protection and Anti-Gay Legislation".
4074:
Lawrence, Charles R. III (1987). "Reckoning with Unconscious Racism".
2609:
1928:(1978), and two companion cases decided by the Supreme Court in 2003,
1373:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
1307:
as a remedy to segregation; three years later, though, in the case of
358:. The clause, which took effect in 1868, provides "nor shall any State
5883:
2827:, p. 232 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1908). For Bingham's full speech, see
2623:
1637:
887:
country no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no
856:
550:
43:
4665:
4588:
4342:
Wadhwani, Neelum J. (2006). "Rational Reviews, Irrational Results".
4136:
4087:
4049:
3569:
3317:
3050:
For a summary of the social, political and historical background to
2653:
2563:
2496:
2322:
2226:
1767:
scrutiny than is typically associated with the rational-basis test.
1245:
744:
8023:
Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists
7578:
7528:
7169:
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
4702:
4538:
3155:"Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights"
2601:
1777:
1730:
when it was proposed in 1866. On the other hand, as feminists like
1560:
1362:
1226:
1052:
999:
783:
693:
Four of the original thirteen states never passed any laws barring
579:
534:
3450:
I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases
2938:, p. 19 (Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Moss, eds., LSU Press, 1991).
2936:
The Facts of Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of John Hope Franklin
2309:
Swisher, Carl Brent (1957). "Dred Scott One Hundred Years After".
651:
Hale ended up voting for the final version, however. When Senator
5918:
5348:
3805:
Between the Tiers: The New(est) Equal Protection and Bush v. Gore
3469:(one on which this article relies for its assertions), see Brest
1701:
1563:
value; absent a "stark" pattern, "impact is not determinative."
771:
522:
6920:
interpreted the Impartial Jury Clause of the Sixth Amendment. **
3302:"The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The New Deal, 1931–1940"
8229:
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York
7629:
7588:
3063:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 6 and pp. 69–70.
1802:
1548:
947:
Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States
903:
would eventually become more widely accepted, especially after
776:
578:
Fourteenth Amendment. Additionally, Congress wanted to protect
8283:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
4119:
Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles; Woodworth, George (1983).
2638:"The Original Understanding of "Equal Protection of the Laws""
1444:
other cases. Many scholars assert that the opinion of Justice
1055:. He applied for admission to the law school at the all-white
1968:
1525:
922:
United States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction
888:
3022:
2829:
Appendix to the Congressional Globe, 42d Congress, 1st Sess.
2382:. Gaithersburg: Aspen Law & Business. pp. 241–242.
2007:
Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina
1724:
460:
3528:
For more on the debate summarized in the text, see, e.g.,
2896:
Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877
2360:
Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863—1877
1886:, which allot a certain number of benefits to each group.
1798:(2003), the Court struck down a Texas statute prohibiting
1146:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
9917:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
7821:
O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.
4008:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
3461:
For a comprehensive history of school desegregation from
937:
A second fraud occurred a few years later in the case of
899:
established by the Constitution." Harlan's philosophy of
27:
Guarantee of law protecting all persons equally in the US
8714:
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
7142:
Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
4248:
3816:
University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law
1408:
should have been reached on other grounds. For example,
463:
was the principal framer of the Equal Protection Clause.
8127:
Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.
2913:
The Original Understanding and the Segregation Decision
2745:
The Original Understanding and the Segregation Decision
1752:
The Supreme Court has been disinclined to extend full "
1125:
The present situation, Vinson said, was the former. In
991:
Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway Company v. Beckwith
984:
Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway Company v. Beckwith
979:
Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway Company v. Beckwith
676:
10025:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
8809:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
6971:
4186:
Barocas, Solon (2016). "Big Data's Disparate Impact".
3995:
Note that the Court has put significant limits on the
3534:
The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?
2086:
McDonald v. Board of Election Commissioners of Chicago
2081:
Uniform Parental Rights Enforcement and Protection Act
998:
numerous statutes applying to corporations. Since the
725:
As for public schooling, no states during this era of
356:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
8873:
United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
8015:
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
4869:
3452:, pp. 133–151 (Mark Tushnet, ed. Beacon Press, 2008).
1029:" which were inspired by the Equal Protection Clause.
9704:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
8769:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
8095:
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England
6483:
2588:
Boyd, William M. (1955). "The Second Emancipation".
2142:"Fair Treatment by the Government: Equal Protection"
1497:, the Court added another tier of scrutiny, called "
1379:
1344:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
1172:, joined him. Both men were extraordinarily skilled
9592:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
7147:
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
2676:"Constitution of the United States - We the People"
1836:In 2013, the Court struck down part of the federal
487:lacked many crucial legal protections. In the 1857
9252:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
9121:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
7975:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth
6293:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
3937:Constitutional Government: The American Experience
3531:
3489:
2357:
1700:(2000). At issue was the controversial recount in
1694:A recent use of equal protection doctrine came in
977:and cited that case as precedent in the 1889 case
780:against discrimination because of race or color."
8889:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
8566:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health
3556:, Racial Change, and the Civil Rights Movement".
1300:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
10006:
9768:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
8977:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
7108:U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division
4796:Original Meaning of Equal Protection of the Laws
4370:Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development
3950:Civil Rights & Liberties in the 21st Century
3873:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
1963:as a precedent and the admissions policy of the
1925:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
1759:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
8849:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
8374:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.
4384:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
4284:, pp. 91-92 (Infobase Publishing, Jan 1, 2009).
3214:Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad
2729:The Supreme Court in and of the Stream of Power
1805:on substantive due process grounds. In Justice
1540:Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Corp.
1164:, a former student of Houston's and the future
846:in the United States who are Chinese citizens.
6304:Bibliography of the United States Constitution
1260:" in the South to the desegregation decision,
1002:, however, such invalidations have been rare.
957:Davis added before the opinion of the Court:
800:(1883), in which the constitutionality of the
763:(1880). A black man convicted of murder by an
10030:History of voting rights in the United States
9925:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs
9276:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County
9033:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
8881:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
8674:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
7615:
7422:Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
6957:
6401:
4855:
3089:Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases".
2963:Is This Any Way to Run a Democratic Election?
2456:. Cambridge: Belknap Press. pp. 99–252.
1183:
926:San Mateo County v. Southern Pacific Railroad
331:
8143:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
8047:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
7930:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
3243:Connecticut General Life Ins. Co. v. Johnson
2263:"Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1856)"
1140:All of these cases, as well as the upcoming
968:
9728:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia
9640:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections
8629:
8267:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police
7519:Democratic backsliding in the United States
7157:Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act
4488:, p. 55 (Cambridge University Press, 2004).
4258:The Vote: Bush, Gore, and the Supreme Court
4247:Another much-cited collection of essays is
3786:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2951:, p. 185 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984).
2804:"Ratification of Constitutional Amendments"
1220:Warren discouraged other justices, such as
1005:
8993:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education
8526:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill
7622:
7608:
6964:
6950:
6408:
6394:
4862:
4848:
4282:Encyclopedia of Women's History in America
4112:
3899:
3897:
3083:For a skeptical evaluation of Harlan, see
2721:Clio and the Court: An Illicit Love Affair
2635:
2380:Processes of Constitutional Decisionmaking
1864:validly performed in other jurisdictions.
1526:Discriminatory intent and disparate impact
1025:opened in 1935, inscribed with the words "
503:Bill of Rights did not apply to the states
338:
324:
10015:Clauses of the United States Constitution
9752:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer
9284:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
8299:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
6434:
4567:
4444:
4095:
4057:
3797:
3529:
2731:(Kermit Hall ed., Psychology Press 2000).
2694:"Slaughterhouse Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1872)"
2636:Frank, John P.; Munro, Robert F. (1950).
2288:The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
2104:
1725:Sex, disability, and romantic orientation
910:
394:. The clause has also been the basis for
8985:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1
6360:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution
4765:
4341:
4321:
4293:Hymowitz, Carol and Weissman, Michaele.
4233:Bush v. Gore: the question of legitimacy
4230:
4162:
4073:
3538:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3233:Essays on the Fourteenth Amendment, the
3055:
2825:The Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment
2715:
2713:
2522:"Coleman v. Miller, 307 U.S. 433 (1939)"
2454:We the People, Volume 2: Transformations
2451:
1737:In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court decided
1615:
1275:Green v. School Board of New Kent County
1244:
1016:
995:Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific Railroad
975:Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific Railroad
939:Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific Railroad
794:The next important postwar case was the
782:
684:
655:introduced that final version, he said:
570:), and required that "citizens of every
450:
10035:United States equal protection case law
9696:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.
9565:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward
8430:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur
8031:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
7898:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
7164:National Voter Registration Act of 1993
7120:Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
6504:Racial discrimination in jury selection
4412:
4185:
4158:
4156:
4154:
4125:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
4033:
3894:
3762:"Discriminatory Cooperative Federalism"
3636:Harvard University Civil Rights Project
3626:
3551:
3136:predates the Fourteenth Amendment. See
2479:
2308:
2208:
2001:Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard
1896:Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard
1874:Affirmative action in the United States
1650:; after all, it would seem to make the
14:
10007:
9839:
8937:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
7732:
7643:
7401:United States Virgin Islands residents
6782:Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete Company
4779:, and do not reflect subsequent edits.
4679:
4638:
4611:Schuck, Peter H. (September 5, 2003).
4610:
4485:Same Sex Marriage and the Constitution
4469:, 491 F.Supp. 381, 388, fn. 6 (1980),
4381:
4299:, p. 128 (Random House Digital, 2011).
3984:
3662:
3492:The Warren Court and American Politics
3409:
3377:
3352:
3299:
3245:, 303 U.S. 77, 85 (1938), and Justice
2902:
1762:(1985), the Court refused to make the
1451:United States v. Carolene Products Co.
1238:that had originally heard the cases. (
1170:Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
586:of both houses of Congress, including
553:. Such codes also established harsher
9967:
9838:
8628:
8291:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
7731:
7642:
7603:
6945:
6482:
6433:
6389:
4843:
4260:. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
3968:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
3961:
3827:Farber, Daniel and Frickey, Philip. "
3759:
3152:
2884:
2801:
2710:
2583:
2581:
2549:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2516:
2514:
2475:
2473:
2377:
2352:
2257:
2255:
2211:"Equal Protection outside the Clause"
1867:
493:decision, the Supreme Court rejected
9017:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
8158:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes
6994:House Electors Qualifications Clause
6339:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day
4817:, Heritage Guide to the Constitution
4235:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4151:
3712:. Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. 1954-05-17
3509:
3487:
3084:
2587:
1436:Despite the undoubted importance of
721:respect to the rights secured by it.
677:Early history following ratification
354:is part of the first section of the
9784:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools
9600:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth
9025:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
8135:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo
8111:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
7922:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
6327:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom
5854:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
3612:, Vol. 120, p. 814, 819-820 (2011)(
2899:, pp. 321–322 (HarperCollins 2002).
2879:Brigham Young University Law Review
2450:See Foner (1988), passim. See also
2430:The Constitution and its Amendments
1915:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
1857:In 2015, the Supreme Court held in
1426:Children's Health Insurance Program
855:(1896), the Supreme Court upheld a
24:
9557:Arlington County Board v. Richards
9482:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero
9260:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.
8746:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
7631:United States Fourteenth Amendment
7391:Northern Mariana Islands residents
6973:Voting rights in the United States
5418:Drafting and ratification timeline
5163:District of Columbia Voting Rights
3997:congressional power of enforcement
3663:Jacobs, Nicholas (8 August 2011).
2624:https://www.loc.gov/item/12005313/
2578:
2538:
2511:
2470:
2252:
2109:. In Schultz, David Andrew (ed.).
1431:
1097:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
745:Gilded Age interpretation and the
716:, the Alabama Supreme Court said:
549:, and to form legally enforceable
390:decision that helped to dismantle
25:
10046:
9901:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents
9442:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n
7152:Federal Voting Assistance Program
4871:Constitution of the United States
4720:
4685:"When Victims Happen to Be Black"
4408:-like rational basis standard ...
4165:"Equal Protection Design Defects"
3404:For an exhaustive history of the
3342:, p. 145 (Hachette Digital 2010).
2981:, p. 212 (Interlink Books, 2001).
2949:Women and the American Experience
2378:Brest, Paul; et al. (2000).
2178:. Legal Information Institute at
1965:University of Michigan Law School
1380:Application to federal government
1036:Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada
380:". This clause was the basis for
9720:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas
9129:Fisher v. University of Texas II
8590:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
7559:Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.
7476:Women's poll tax repeal movement
5274:Convention to propose amendments
4764:
4752:
4742:
3911:, Vol. 74, p. 2301, 2306 (2006).
3710:"FindLaw | Cases and Codes"
3496:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
3306:University of Chicago Law Review
2978:A Traveller's History of the USA
2432:, Vol. 4, p. 8 (Macmillan 1999).
2111:The Encyclopedia of American Law
2031:Equal consideration of interests
1611:
824:an act sanctioned by the state.
42:
9434:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach
9113:Fisher v. University of Texas I
8470:Moore v. City of East Cleveland
8315:Los Angeles County v. Humphries
7829:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
7103:U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
7021:Privileges or Immunities Clause
4631:
4603:
4560:
4517:
4491:
4476:
4437:
4404:Court applied a more 'active,'
4375:
4362:
4314:
4302:
4287:
4274:
4219:
4206:
4179:
4026:
3978:
3955:
3942:
3929:
3914:
3879:
3864:
3838:
3821:
3776:
3753:
3743:
3723:
3702:
3656:
3619:
3597:
3584:
3476:
3455:
3443:
3430:
3408:case from start to finish, see
3398:
3371:
3345:
3332:
3292:
3283:
3258:
3252:Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Glander
3206:
3197:
3188:
3126:
3117:
3077:
3044:
2999:
2984:
2969:
2954:
2941:
2924:
2871:
2868:, p. 58 (Oxford U. Press 2009).
2858:
2843:
2834:
2817:
2795:
2792:, p. 79 (Lexington Books 2013).
2780:
2763:
2734:
2686:
2668:
2629:
2616:
2444:
2435:
2422:
2409:
2209:Antieau, Chester James (1952).
2004:(2023), and its companion case
633:Privileges or Immunities Clause
613:
483:Even black Americans that were
419:equal protection under the laws
9300:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
7381:District of Columbia residents
7311:Multiple non-transferable vote
7234:Voter registration in the U.S.
7179:Election Assistance Commission
6999:Congressional Elections Clause
6814:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
5889:Separation of church and state
4447:New York University Law Review
3985:Herzog, Don (March 22, 2005).
3132:However, the legal concept of
3085:Chin, Gabriel J. (1996). "The
3061:The Strange Career of Jim Crow
2727:at p. 148 (1965) reprinted in
2396:
2364:. New York: Harper & Row.
2345:
2302:
2279:
2202:
2168:
2134:
2107:"Equal protection of the laws"
2098:
1202:became Chief Justice in 1953,
1156:graduate and law professor at
1045:Lincoln University of Missouri
421:of the federal government via
13:
1:
8969:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman
8174:McNeese v. Board of Education
7681:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
7564:National Voting Rights Museum
7174:Help America Vote Act of 2002
6690:Thiel v. Southern Pacific Co.
6509:Women in United States juries
5393:Virginia Ratifying Convention
4809:Equal Protection: An Overview
4296:A History of Women in America
3952:, pp. 337-338 (Pearson 2009).
3552:Klarman, Michael J. (1994). "
3530:Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1993).
2802:Mount, Steve (January 2007).
2286:"Dred Scott, 150 Years Ago".
2113:. Infobase. pp. 152–53.
2092:
1821:, and also relied in part on
1491:However, in the 1976 case of
1332:The curtailment of busing in
901:constitutional colorblindness
514:was proposed by Congress and
446:
312:Common good constitutionalism
8698:Hirabayashi v. United States
8550:DeShaney v. Winnebago County
8502:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.
8243:Owen v. City of Independence
7858:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
7427:Timeline of women's suffrage
6675:Fair cross-section in venire
6569:Brownfield v. South Carolina
6354:National Constitution Center
6152:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
5451:Assemble and Petition Clause
4227:: The Question of Legitimacy
3987:"Constitutional Rights: Two"
3516:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2921:, Vol. 69, pp. 35–37 (1955).
1909:Adarand Constructors v. Peña
1350:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
1144:case, were litigated by the
557:for blacks than for whites.
476:and the ratification of the
7:
9584:United States v. Cruikshank
8754:Brown v. Board of Education
8055:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
7906:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
7481:History of direct democracy
7471:Selma to Montgomery marches
7214:Initiatives and referendums
6225:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
5279:State ratifying conventions
5216:Equal Opportunity to Govern
5211:Electoral College abolition
5138:Congressional Apportionment
4830:The Not So Definite Article
4821:Equal Protection (U.S. law)
4231:Ackerman, Bruce A. (2002).
4163:Feingold, Jonathon (2019).
3669:Education and Urban Society
3625:For data and analysis, see
3594:, Vol. 80 (1991): 309, 310.
3488:Powe, Lucas A. Jr. (2001).
3138:Providence Bank v. Billings
2996:, p. 133 (Macmillan, 1999).
2452:Ackerman, Bruce A. (2000).
2013:
1624:The Supreme Court ruled in
1366:segregated. Whether due to
1193:Brown v. Board of Education
1049:historically black colleges
1023:U.S. Supreme Court Building
989:In this Supreme Court case
666:39th United States Congress
383:Brown v. Board of Education
206:Right to keep and bear arms
10:
10051:
8706:Korematsu v. United States
7301:First-past-the-post voting
7071:U.S. Department of Justice
6582:Franklin v. South Carolina
6518:Racial exclusion in venire
6456:United States v. Armstrong
3850:Korematsu v. United States
3440:, p. 468 (ProQuest, 2007).
1871:
1706:2000 presidential election
1529:
1422:Welfare Reform Act of 1996
1392:guarantee, beginning with
1190:
216:Criminal procedural rights
9974:
9968:
9963:
9909:United States v. Morrison
9847:
9834:
9575:
9540:
9361:
9326:
9316:United States v. Skrmetti
9308:United States v. Virginia
9147:
8921:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson
8641:
8637:
8624:
8342:Jacobson v. Massachusetts
8333:
8275:Gonzaga University v. Doe
8153:
7940:
7839:
7744:
7740:
7727:
7651:
7638:
7489:
7437:Woman Suffrage Procession
7409:
7328:
7293:
7247:
7196:
7189:
7125:Voting Rights Act of 1965
7061:
6979:
6733:
6674:
6526:Strauder v. West Virginia
6517:
6496:
6492:
6478:
6442:
6429:
6312:
6284:
6264:
6243:
6212:
6186:
6165:
6139:
6103:
6052:
6021:
6005:
5984:
5963:
5942:
5926:
5917:
5796:
5678:Privileges and Immunities
5491:Congressional enforcement
5426:
5413:Rhode Island ratification
5304:Articles of Confederation
5291:
5269:
5246:Parental Rights amendment
5171:
5128:
5053:
5025:
5004:
4941:
4937:
4928:
4877:
4823:, Encyclopædia Britannica
4014:United States v. Morrison
3888:United States v. Virginia
3818:, Vol. 4, p. 372 (2002) .
3740: (2003), at page 2482
3353:Morris, Aldon D. (1986).
3300:Currie, David P. (1987).
3270:Southern Pacific Railroad
2831:, p. 83 (March 31, 1871).
2775:Boston College Law Review
2419:, p. 79 (MacMillan 2007).
2105:Failinger, Marie (2009).
1278:(1968), in which Justice
969:The Supreme Court holding
760:Strauder v. West Virginia
474:Emancipation Proclamation
9941:United States v. Georgia
9885:City of Boerne v. Flores
9049:United States v. Fordice
8606:Williams v. Pennsylvania
8574:Washington v. Glucksberg
7376:American Samoa residents
7115:Civil Rights Act of 1960
7098:Civil Rights Act of 1957
6696:Ballard v. United States
6683:Glasser v. United States
5909:Unitary executive theory
5683:Privileges or Immunities
5398:New York Circular Letter
5388:Massachusetts Compromise
4656:(Submitted manuscript).
4568:Schnapper, Eric (1985).
4525:United States v. Windsor
4511:The National Law Journal
4280:Cullen-Dupont, Kathryn.
4127:(Submitted manuscript).
4002:City of Boerne v. Flores
3681:10.1177/0013124511407317
3410:Kluger, Richard (1977).
3357:. New York: Free Press.
3308:(Submitted manuscript).
2966:, p. 27 (CQ PRESS 2013).
2725:The Supreme Court Review
1959:, the Court upheld both
1843:United States v. Windsor
1770:The Court's decision in
1764:developmentally disabled
1704:in the aftermath of the
1420:. It has done so in the
1270:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1150:Charles Hamilton Houston
866:of blacks and whites on
802:Civil Rights Act of 1875
562:Civil Rights Act of 1866
525:. Subsequently, many ex-
367:Civil Rights Act of 1866
287:Political process theory
9949:Shelby County v. Holder
9514:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido
9370:Patsone v. Pennsylvania
8631:Equal Protection Clause
8558:Michael H. v. Gerald D.
7951:United States v. Vuitch
7866:Griswold v. Connecticut
7081:Enforcement Act of 1870
7016:Equal Protection Clause
5829:Dormant Commerce Clause
5673:Presidential succession
5408:Fayetteville Convention
5403:Hillsborough Convention
5339:Three-fifths Compromise
5319:Philadelphia Convention
5309:Mount Vernon Conference
5196:Campaign finance reform
4499:Justice Kennedy's World
3629:"Schools More Separate"
3482:For the history of the
3153:Mayer, Carl J. (1990).
2311:The Journal of Politics
2046:Equality before the law
2021:Economic egalitarianism
1838:Defense of Marriage Act
1570:was similar to that in
1295:residential segregation
1249:The Court that decided
1043:was a black student at
1027:Equal Justice Under Law
897:equality before the law
787:The Court that decided
518:by the states in 1865,
428:
378:Equal Justice Under Law
352:Equal Protection Clause
282:Substantive due process
9816:Armour v. Indianapolis
9180:Moritz v. Commissioner
8236:Procunier v. Navarette
8154:Civil rights liability
7942:Abortion jurisprudence
7086:Second Enforcement Act
6902:Flowers v. Mississippi
5992:William Samuel Johnson
5864:Nondelegation doctrine
5436:Admission to the Union
5383:Anti-Federalist Papers
5334:Connecticut Compromise
4834:Brown Political Review
4727:Listen to this article
4311:, 429 U.S. 190 (1976).
3962:Kroll, Joshua (2017).
3784:Democracy and Distrust
2041:Equal Rights Amendment
1754:suspect classification
1682:
1621:
1478:
1463:suspect classification
1418:cooperative federalism
1253:
1218:
1123:
1106:University of Oklahoma
1079:The Civil Rights Cases
1057:University of Missouri
1030:
963:
955:
945:, an attorney and the
911:Rights of Corporations
893:
840:
791:
723:
690:
662:
567:Dred Scott v. Sandford
490:Dred Scott v. Sandford
464:
444:
307:Strict constructionism
211:Right to trial by jury
201:Freedom of association
9869:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer
9712:Richardson v. Ramirez
9680:Boddie v. Connecticut
9268:Kirchberg v. Feenstra
9097:Johnson v. California
8817:McLaughlin v. Florida
8205:O'Connor v. Donaldson
7765:Allgeyer v. Louisiana
7657:Slaughter-House Cases
7539:Elections in the U.S.
7396:Puerto Rico residents
7135:covered jurisdictions
6838:Johnson v. California
6830:Miller-El v. Cockrell
6790:Hernandez v. New York
6735:Peremptory challenges
6625:Patton v. Mississippi
6545:Gibson v. Mississippi
6464:United States v. Bass
6436:Selective prosecution
6199:Richard Dobbs Spaight
5668:Presidential Electors
5643:Original Jurisdiction
5583:Full Faith and Credit
5456:Assistance of Counsel
5377:The Federalist Papers
5206:Crittenden Compromise
4548:. Stanford University
4497:Chemerinsky, Erwin. "
4188:California Law Review
3833:California Law Review
3627:Orfield (July 2001).
3416:. New York: Vintage.
2215:California Law Review
2066:Equality of sacrifice
1906:—for instance,
1776:(1996) struck down a
1668:
1619:
1499:intermediate scrutiny
1486:rational basis review
1473:
1248:
1213:
1118:
1020:
959:
951:
884:
835:
810:state action doctrine
786:
718:
699:Alabama Supreme Court
688:
657:
555:criminal consequences
545:), and many forms of
454:
435:
423:reverse incorporation
417:nonetheless requires
9861:Katzenbach v. Morgan
9608:Breedlove v. Suttles
9458:Graham v. Richardson
9351:Obergefell v. Hodges
9156:Breedlove v. Suttles
9089:Grutter v. Bollinger
8929:Jefferson v. Hackney
8598:Obergefell v. Hodges
8534:Edwards v. Aguillard
8414:Epperson v. Arkansas
8251:Harlow v. Fitzgerald
8186:Jenkins v. McKeithen
8079:Mazurek v. Armstrong
8039:Hodgson v. Minnesota
7999:Bellotti v. Baird II
7991:Colautti v. Franklin
7746:Economic substantive
6752:Griffith v. Kentucky
6651:Eubanks v. Louisiana
6598:Patterson v. Alabama
6551:Smith v. Mississippi
6368:A More Perfect Union
6344:Constitution Gardens
6265:Convention Secretary
5927:Convention President
5899:Symmetric federalism
5894:Separation of powers
5628:Necessary and Proper
5623:Natural-born citizen
5568:Freedom of the Press
5506:Copyright and Patent
5496:Contingent Elections
5314:Annapolis Convention
4836:(November 16, 2012).
4811:, Cornell Law School
4788:More spoken articles
4546:"Affirmative Action"
4214:Supreme Court Review
3935:Curry, James et al.
3803:Goldstein, Leslie. "
3766:Villanova Law Review
3592:Kentucky Law Journal
3473:(2000), pp. 768–794.
3159:Hastings Law Journal
3134:corporate personhood
2849:Wallenstein, Peter.
2682:. 10 September 2020.
2056:Equality of autonomy
1931:Grutter v. Bollinger
1860:Obergefell v. Hodges
1656:Nineteenth Amendment
1547:that had refused to
1410:Michael W. McConnell
1320:, instead of merely
1187:and its consequences
1088:The companion cases
943:J. C. Bancroft Davis
817:John Marshall Harlan
695:interracial marriage
637:Slaughterhouse Cases
529:states then adopted
512:Thirteenth Amendment
478:Thirteenth Amendment
397:Obergefell v. Hodges
256:Comprehensible rules
226:Freedom from slavery
186:Freedom of the press
130:Government structure
92:Separation of powers
36:of the United States
9792:Gregory v. Ashcroft
9760:Mills v. Habluetzel
9744:Zablocki v. Redhail
9688:Eisenstadt v. Baird
9624:Oyama v. California
9616:Skinner v. Oklahoma
9549:Shapiro v. Thompson
9466:Sugarman v. Dougall
9410:Porterfield v. Webb
9402:Terrace v. Thompson
9065:Missouri v. Jenkins
9009:Hunter v. Underwood
8953:Milliken v. Bradley
8945:Norwood v. Harrison
8897:McDaniel v. Barresi
8582:Troxel v. Granville
8462:Mathews v. Eldridge
8446:Taylor v. Louisiana
8323:Connick v. Thompson
8103:Gonzales v. Carhart
8087:Stenberg v. Carhart
8071:Lambert v. Wicklund
7983:Bellotti v. Baird I
7781:Lochner v. New York
7665:Minor v. Happersett
6862:Snyder v. Louisiana
6846:Miller-El v. Dretke
6806:Georgia v. McCollum
6718:Holland v. Illinois
6703:Taylor v. Louisiana
6563:Tarrance v. Florida
6375:Worldwide influence
6116:Gunning Bedford Jr.
5844:Executive privilege
5824:Criminal sentencing
5747:Title of Nobility (
5738:Taxing and Spending
5638:Oath or Affirmation
5598:House Apportionment
5461:Case or Controversy
5344:Committee of Detail
5236:"Liberty" amendment
5201:Christian amendment
4577:Virginia Law Review
4324:Indiana Law Journal
4076:Stanford Law Review
4037:Stanford Law Review
3845:Skinner v. Oklahoma
3760:Ayers, Ava (2020).
3729:Lawrence v. Texas,
3558:Virginia Law Review
3510:Kotz, Nick (2004).
3436:Shimsky, MaryJane.
2975:McInerney, Daniel.
2786:Glidden, William.
2680:launchknowledge.com
2642:Columbia Law Review
2552:Columbia Law Review
2481:Zuckert, Michael P.
2406:(2000), pp. 242–46.
2146:GeorgiaLegalAid.org
2061:Equality of outcome
1920:public universities
1807:Sandra Day O'Connor
1652:Fifteenth Amendment
1582:equal opportunities
1573:Washington v. Davis
1553:Arlington Heights's
1468:Skinner v. Oklahoma
1334:Milliken v. Bradley
1310:Milliken v. Bradley
880:social arrangements
584:Radical Republicans
498:Amendments.
272:Living Constitution
191:Freedom of assembly
176:Freedom of religion
9853:Civil Rights Cases
9841:Enforcement Clause
9672:Oregon v. Mitchell
9664:Williams v. Rhodes
9490:Nyquist v. Mauclet
9450:Hernandez v. Texas
9335:Bowers v. Hardwick
9327:Sexual orientation
9204:Stanton v. Stanton
9196:Geduldig v. Aiello
9164:Goesaert v. Cleary
9081:Gratz v. Bollinger
8905:Palmer v. Thompson
8857:Hunter v. Erickson
8833:Loving v. Virginia
8801:Anderson v. Martin
8722:Shelley v. Kraemer
8666:Plessy v. Ferguson
8658:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
8510:Kolender v. Lawson
8406:Loving v. Virginia
8221:Imbler v. Pachtman
8198:Wood v. Strickland
8063:Leavitt v. Jane L.
7890:Bowers v. Hardwick
7805:Buchanan v. Warley
7734:Due Process Clause
7645:Citizenship Clause
7584:Voter registration
7460:Give Us the Ballot
7356:Transgender people
7260:Grandfather clause
7224:Provisional ballot
6886:Felkner v. Jackson
6870:Rivera v. Illinois
6744:Batson v. Kentucky
6664:Vasquez v. Hillery
6657:Coleman v. Alabama
6644:Hernandez v. Texas
6484:Discrimination in
6422:criminal procedure
6029:William Livingston
6013:Alexander Hamilton
5819:Criminal procedure
5814:Constitutional law
5749:Foreign Emoluments
5713:State of the Union
5698:Self-Incrimination
5688:Recess appointment
5481:Compulsory Process
5143:Titles of Nobility
4828:Naderi, Siavash. "
4801:2011-07-09 at the
4681:Carter, Stephen L.
4653:Harvard Law Review
4530:2015-04-27 at the
4504:2013-07-09 at the
4419:Indiana Law Review
4020:Ricci v. DeStefano
3909:Fordham Law Review
3810:2016-03-04 at the
3247:William O. Douglas
3235:Conspiracy Theory,
3006:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
2930:Finkelman, Paul. "
2918:Harvard Law Review
2769:Curtis, Michael. "
2750:Harvard Law Review
2180:Cornell Law School
2176:"Equal Protection"
2127:on July 24, 2020.
1991:in his dissent to
1937:Gratz v. Bollinger
1879:Affirmative action
1868:Affirmative action
1827:sexual orientation
1688:Loving v. Virginia
1622:
1459:fundamental rights
1280:William J. Brennan
1258:massive resistance
1254:
1154:Harvard Law School
1069:Shelley v. Kraemer
1031:
878:, not equality in
862:that required the
852:Plessy v. Ferguson
830:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
806:public conveyances
797:Civil Rights Cases
792:
731:separate but equal
709:Loving v. Virginia
691:
508:American Civil War
465:
411:Due Process Clause
392:racial segregation
292:Judicial restraint
251:Right to candidacy
138:Legislative branch
34:Constitutional law
10002:
10001:
9998:
9997:
9988:Trump v. Anderson
9980:Gold Clause Cases
9959:
9958:
9933:Tennessee v. Lane
9830:
9829:
9826:
9825:
9736:Trimble v. Gordon
9656:Levy v. Louisiana
9648:Rinaldi v. Yeager
9530:Bernal v. Fainter
9506:Ambach v. Norwick
9498:Foley v. Connelie
9394:Crane v. New York
9292:Lehr v. Robertson
9244:Caban v. Mohammed
9001:Palmore v. Sidoti
8841:Lee v. Washington
8825:Reitman v. Mulkey
8776:Gebhart v. Belton
8762:Briggs v. Elliott
8738:Sweatt v. Painter
8620:
8619:
8616:
8615:
8494:Parratt v. Taylor
8478:Duren v. Missouri
8438:Arnett v. Kennedy
8366:Powell v. Alabama
8307:Ashcroft v. Iqbal
8192:Scheuer v. Rhodes
8007:H. L. v. Matheson
7914:Lawrence v. Texas
7850:Meyer v. Nebraska
7797:Coppage v. Kansas
7723:
7722:
7689:Perez v. Brownell
7597:
7596:
7544:Electoral College
7366:African Americans
7324:
7323:
7316:One man, one vote
7285:Voter suppression
6939:
6938:
6935:
6934:
6928:were civil cases.
6912:
6911:
6894:Foster v. Chatman
6724:Berghuis v. Smith
6711:Duren v. Missouri
6590:Norris v. Alabama
6575:Rogers v. Alabama
6533:Virginia v. Rives
6474:
6473:
6448:McCleskey v. Kemp
6383:
6382:
6349:Constitution Week
6334:Independence Mall
6322:National Archives
6280:
6279:
6095:Gouverneur Morris
6080:Thomas Fitzsimons
6060:Benjamin Franklin
5934:George Washington
5834:Enumerated powers
5809:Concurrent powers
5804:Balance of powers
5633:No Religious Test
5573:Freedom of Speech
5364:Independence Hall
5287:
5286:
5191:Bricker amendment
5124:
5123:
4805:, Federalist Blog
4757:
4747:
4482:Gerstmann, Evan.
4372:, Vol. 12 (1996).
4267:978-0-226-21307-1
4242:978-0-300-09379-7
4169:Temple Law Review
3903:Fleming, James. "
3545:978-0-226-72703-5
3523:978-0-618-08825-6
3503:978-0-674-00683-6
3423:978-0-394-72255-9
3364:978-0-02-922130-3
3070:978-0-19-514690-5
3057:Woodward, C. Vann
2909:Bickel, Alexander
2840:requires citation
2777:, Vol. 38 (1997).
2741:Bickel, Alexander
2463:978-0-674-00397-2
2389:978-0-7355-1250-4
2371:978-0-06-091453-0
2152:on March 20, 2020
2120:978-1-4381-0991-6
2051:Equality feminism
2036:Equal opportunity
1852:Erwin Chemerinsky
1795:Lawrence v. Texas
1732:Victoria Woodhull
1641:state legislature
1586:Arlington Heights
1568:Arlington Heights
1510:John Paul Stevens
1506:Thurgood Marshall
1401:Lawrence v. Texas
1395:Bolling v. Sharpe
1222:Robert H. Jackson
1166:Solicitor General
1162:Thurgood Marshall
1158:Howard University
1091:Sweatt v. Painter
706:) in the case of
547:personal property
406:Bolling v. Sharpe
348:
347:
196:Right to petition
181:Freedom of speech
168:Individual rights
122:Tiers of scrutiny
97:Individual rights
16:(Redirected from
10042:
9965:
9964:
9877:Dellmuth v. Muth
9836:
9835:
9236:Parham v. Hughes
9212:Edwards v. Healy
9041:Freeman v. Pitts
8796:(M.D. Ala. 1956)
8793:Browder v. Gayle
8639:
8638:
8626:
8625:
8542:Turner v. Safley
8518:Hudson v. Palmer
8382:NAACP v. Alabama
7841:Right to privacy
7789:Muller v. Oregon
7757:Mugler v. Kansas
7742:
7741:
7729:
7728:
7705:Rogers v. Bellei
7640:
7639:
7624:
7617:
7610:
7601:
7600:
7554:Electoral system
7549:Electoral reform
7524:Disfranchisement
7512:Native Americans
7502:Campaign finance
7447:U.S. suffragists
7442:Silent Sentinels
7371:Native Americans
7194:
7193:
7091:Ku Klux Klan Act
7076:Enforcement Acts
6966:
6959:
6952:
6943:
6942:
6878:Thaler v. Haynes
6798:Trevino v. Texas
6637:Avery v. Georgia
6631:Cassell v. Texas
6606:Hale v. Kentucky
6539:Neal v. Delaware
6494:
6493:
6480:
6479:
6431:
6430:
6418:equal protection
6410:
6403:
6396:
6387:
6386:
6230:Charles Pinckney
6039:William Paterson
5971:Nathaniel Gorham
5924:
5923:
5703:Speech or Debate
5531:Equal Protection
5241:Ludlow amendment
5226:Flag Desecration
5221:Federal Marriage
5186:Blaine amendment
5148:Corwin Amendment
4939:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4864:
4857:
4850:
4841:
4840:
4815:Equal Protection
4778:
4776:
4768:
4767:
4759:
4758:
4749:
4748:
4736:
4734:
4728:
4715:
4714:
4690:Yale Law Journal
4677:
4660:(5): 1470–1547.
4635:
4629:
4628:
4623:. Archived from
4613:"Reflections on
4607:
4601:
4600:
4574:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4542:
4536:
4521:
4515:
4495:
4489:
4480:
4474:
4462:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4410:
4379:
4373:
4366:
4360:
4359:
4350:: 801, 809–811.
4344:Texas Law Review
4339:
4318:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4291:
4285:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4254:Epstein, Richard
4246:
4223:
4217:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4160:
4149:
4148:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4099:
4071:
4061:
4044:(6): 1161–1248.
4030:
4024:
3994:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3959:
3953:
3946:
3940:
3933:
3927:
3918:
3912:
3901:
3892:
3883:
3877:
3868:
3862:
3842:
3836:
3825:
3819:
3801:
3795:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3757:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3727:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3650:
3644:
3638:. Archived from
3633:
3623:
3617:
3609:Yale Law Journal
3601:
3595:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3549:
3537:
3527:
3507:
3495:
3480:
3474:
3459:
3453:
3447:
3441:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3386:(6): 1049–1069.
3380:Duke Law Journal
3375:
3369:
3368:
3349:
3343:
3336:
3330:
3329:
3296:
3290:
3287:
3281:
3262:
3256:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3173:. Archived from
3130:
3124:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3026:
3020:
3003:
2997:
2990:Kerber, Linda.
2988:
2982:
2973:
2967:
2960:Wayne, Stephen.
2958:
2952:
2945:
2939:
2928:
2922:
2906:
2900:
2888:
2882:
2875:
2869:
2862:
2856:
2847:
2841:
2838:
2832:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2799:
2793:
2784:
2778:
2767:
2761:
2738:
2732:
2719:Kelly, Alfred. "
2717:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2633:
2627:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2585:
2576:
2575:
2558:(6): 1023–1084.
2547:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2518:
2509:
2508:
2477:
2468:
2467:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2433:
2426:
2420:
2415:Rosen, Jeffrey.
2413:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2375:
2363:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2290:(55): 19. 2007.
2283:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2237:. Archived from
2206:
2200:
2199:
2193:
2191:
2186:on June 22, 2020
2182:. Archived from
2172:
2166:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2123:. Archived from
2102:
1819:City of Cleburne
1813:sodomy, and not
1783:City of Cleburne
1710:Reynolds v. Sims
1627:Nixon v. Herndon
1594:McClesky v. Kemp
1532:Disparate impact
739:women's suffrage
672:
596:Thaddeus Stevens
409:(1954) that the
361:
340:
333:
326:
236:Equal protection
221:Right to privacy
160:Local government
155:State government
143:Executive branch
46:
30:
29:
21:
18:Equal protection
10050:
10049:
10045:
10044:
10043:
10041:
10040:
10039:
10005:
10004:
10003:
9994:
9970:
9955:
9843:
9822:
9571:
9536:
9474:In re Griffiths
9418:Webb v. O'Brien
9357:
9322:
9143:
9073:Texas v. Lesage
8865:Hadnott v. Amos
8650:Pace v. Alabama
8633:
8612:
8390:Hoyt v. Florida
8329:
8259:Felder v. Casey
8155:
8149:
7936:
7835:
7813:Adams v. Tanner
7773:Holden v. Hardy
7747:
7736:
7719:
7697:Afroyim v. Rusk
7647:
7634:
7628:
7598:
7593:
7485:
7405:
7320:
7289:
7255:Electoral fraud
7243:
7239:Voting in space
7229:Recall election
7204:Absentee ballot
7185:
7063:
7057:
6981:
6975:
6970:
6940:
6931:
6908:
6854:Rice v. Collins
6822:Purkett v. Elem
6767:Ford v. Georgia
6729:
6670:
6557:Carter v. Texas
6513:
6488:
6470:
6438:
6425:
6414:
6384:
6379:
6314:
6308:
6276:
6272:William Jackson
6260:
6256:Abraham Baldwin
6239:
6208:
6204:Hugh Williamson
6182:
6161:
6135:
6126:Richard Bassett
6099:
6085:Jared Ingersoll
6048:
6044:Jonathan Dayton
6017:
6001:
5980:
5959:
5955:Nicholas Gilman
5938:
5913:
5879:Reserved powers
5859:Judicial review
5792:
5588:General Welfare
5511:Double Jeopardy
5422:
5349:List of Framers
5329:New Jersey Plan
5283:
5265:
5261:Victims' Rights
5181:Balanced budget
5167:
5120:
5049:
5021:
5000:
4924:
4873:
4868:
4803:Wayback Machine
4792:
4791:
4780:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4762:
4753:
4743:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4730:(2 parts,
4729:
4726:
4723:
4718:
4666:10.2307/4093259
4640:Siegel, Reva B.
4636:
4632:
4608:
4604:
4589:10.2307/1073012
4572:
4565:
4561:
4551:
4549:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4532:Wayback Machine
4522:
4518:
4506:Wayback Machine
4496:
4492:
4481:
4477:
4466:Fricke v. Lynch
4442:
4438:
4380:
4376:
4367:
4363:
4319:
4315:
4307:
4303:
4292:
4288:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4243:
4224:
4220:
4216:, p. 33 (1965).
4211:
4207:
4184:
4180:
4161:
4152:
4137:10.2307/1143133
4117:
4113:
4088:10.2307/1228797
4050:10.2307/1229191
4031:
4027:
3983:
3979:
3960:
3956:
3947:
3943:
3934:
3930:
3919:
3915:
3902:
3895:
3884:
3880:
3869:
3865:
3843:
3839:
3826:
3822:
3812:Wayback Machine
3802:
3798:
3781:
3777:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3744:
3728:
3724:
3715:
3713:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3693:
3691:
3661:
3657:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3631:
3624:
3620:
3602:
3598:
3589:
3585:
3570:10.2307/1073592
3546:
3524:
3504:
3481:
3477:
3460:
3456:
3448:
3444:
3435:
3431:
3424:
3403:
3399:
3376:
3372:
3365:
3350:
3346:
3338:Feldman, Noah.
3337:
3333:
3318:10.2307/1599798
3297:
3293:
3288:
3284:
3266:Leland Stanford
3263:
3259:
3211:
3207:
3202:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3180:
3178:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3091:Iowa Law Review
3082:
3078:
3071:
3049:
3045:
3035:
3033:
3028:
3027:
3023:
3004:
3000:
2989:
2985:
2974:
2970:
2959:
2955:
2947:Woloch, Nancy.
2946:
2942:
2929:
2925:
2907:
2903:
2889:
2885:
2876:
2872:
2864:Pascoe, Peggy.
2863:
2859:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2823:Flack, Horace.
2822:
2818:
2808:
2806:
2800:
2796:
2785:
2781:
2768:
2764:
2739:
2735:
2718:
2711:
2702:
2700:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2654:10.2307/1118709
2634:
2630:
2621:
2617:
2586:
2579:
2564:10.2307/1121988
2548:
2539:
2530:
2528:
2520:
2519:
2512:
2497:10.2307/3330348
2478:
2471:
2464:
2449:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2428:Newman, Roger.
2427:
2423:
2414:
2410:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2372:
2350:
2346:
2323:10.2307/2127194
2307:
2303:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2271:
2269:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2244:
2242:
2227:10.2307/3477928
2207:
2203:
2189:
2187:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2155:
2153:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2121:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2076:Social equality
2071:Racial equality
2016:
1989:Clarence Thomas
1876:
1870:
1727:
1614:
1534:
1528:
1482:strict scrutiny
1434:
1432:Tiered scrutiny
1386:Fifth Amendment
1382:
1289:In response to
1195:
1189:
1015:
971:
918:Roscoe Conkling
913:
751:
679:
670:
616:
580:white Unionists
449:
431:
415:Fifth Amendment
359:
344:
150:Judicial branch
76:Judicial review
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10048:
10038:
10037:
10032:
10027:
10022:
10020:Egalitarianism
10017:
10000:
9999:
9996:
9995:
9993:
9992:
9984:
9975:
9972:
9971:
9961:
9960:
9957:
9956:
9954:
9953:
9945:
9937:
9929:
9921:
9913:
9905:
9897:
9889:
9881:
9873:
9865:
9857:
9848:
9845:
9844:
9832:
9831:
9828:
9827:
9824:
9823:
9821:
9820:
9812:
9804:
9800:Vacco v. Quill
9796:
9788:
9780:
9776:Clark v. Jeter
9772:
9764:
9756:
9748:
9740:
9732:
9724:
9716:
9708:
9700:
9692:
9684:
9676:
9668:
9660:
9652:
9644:
9636:
9632:Oyler v. Boles
9628:
9620:
9612:
9604:
9596:
9588:
9579:
9577:
9573:
9572:
9570:
9569:
9561:
9553:
9544:
9542:
9538:
9537:
9535:
9534:
9526:
9518:
9510:
9502:
9494:
9486:
9478:
9470:
9462:
9454:
9446:
9438:
9430:
9422:
9414:
9406:
9398:
9390:
9386:Heim v. McCall
9382:
9378:Truax v. Raich
9374:
9365:
9363:
9359:
9358:
9356:
9355:
9347:
9343:Romer v. Evans
9339:
9330:
9328:
9324:
9323:
9321:
9320:
9312:
9304:
9296:
9288:
9280:
9272:
9264:
9256:
9248:
9240:
9232:
9224:
9220:Craig v. Boren
9216:
9208:
9200:
9192:
9188:Kahn v. Shevin
9184:
9176:
9168:
9160:
9151:
9149:
9145:
9144:
9142:
9141:
9133:
9125:
9117:
9109:
9101:
9093:
9085:
9077:
9069:
9061:
9053:
9045:
9037:
9029:
9021:
9013:
9005:
8997:
8989:
8981:
8973:
8965:
8957:
8949:
8941:
8933:
8925:
8917:
8909:
8901:
8893:
8885:
8877:
8869:
8861:
8853:
8845:
8837:
8829:
8821:
8813:
8805:
8797:
8789:
8781:
8780:
8779:
8772:
8765:
8750:
8742:
8734:
8730:Perez v. Sharp
8726:
8718:
8710:
8702:
8694:
8690:Smith v. Texas
8686:
8678:
8670:
8662:
8654:
8645:
8643:
8635:
8634:
8622:
8621:
8618:
8617:
8614:
8613:
8611:
8610:
8602:
8594:
8586:
8578:
8570:
8562:
8554:
8546:
8538:
8530:
8522:
8514:
8506:
8498:
8490:
8486:Parham v. J.R.
8482:
8474:
8466:
8458:
8450:
8442:
8434:
8426:
8418:
8410:
8402:
8398:Oyler v. Boles
8394:
8386:
8378:
8370:
8362:
8354:
8346:
8337:
8335:
8331:
8330:
8328:
8327:
8319:
8311:
8303:
8295:
8287:
8279:
8271:
8263:
8255:
8247:
8239:
8233:
8225:
8217:
8209:
8201:
8195:
8189:
8183:
8180:Pierson v. Ray
8177:
8171:
8167:Monroe v. Pape
8162:
8160:
8151:
8150:
8148:
8147:
8139:
8131:
8123:
8115:
8107:
8099:
8091:
8083:
8075:
8067:
8059:
8051:
8043:
8035:
8027:
8019:
8011:
8003:
7995:
7987:
7979:
7971:
7963:
7955:
7946:
7944:
7938:
7937:
7935:
7934:
7926:
7918:
7910:
7902:
7894:
7886:
7878:
7870:
7862:
7854:
7845:
7843:
7837:
7836:
7834:
7833:
7825:
7817:
7809:
7801:
7793:
7785:
7777:
7769:
7761:
7752:
7750:
7738:
7737:
7725:
7724:
7721:
7720:
7718:
7717:
7709:
7701:
7693:
7685:
7677:
7673:Elk v. Wilkins
7669:
7661:
7652:
7649:
7648:
7636:
7635:
7627:
7626:
7619:
7612:
7604:
7595:
7594:
7592:
7591:
7586:
7581:
7576:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7546:
7541:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7521:
7516:
7515:
7514:
7504:
7499:
7493:
7491:
7487:
7486:
7484:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7466:Freedom Summer
7463:
7456:
7455:
7454:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7432:Suffrage Hikes
7429:
7424:
7419:
7413:
7411:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7403:
7398:
7393:
7388:
7386:Guam residents
7383:
7378:
7373:
7368:
7363:
7358:
7353:
7348:
7343:
7338:
7332:
7330:
7326:
7325:
7322:
7321:
7319:
7318:
7313:
7308:
7306:Gerrymandering
7303:
7297:
7295:
7291:
7290:
7288:
7287:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7251:
7249:
7245:
7244:
7242:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7200:
7198:
7191:
7187:
7186:
7184:
7183:
7182:
7181:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7160:
7159:
7154:
7144:
7139:
7138:
7137:
7132:
7122:
7117:
7112:
7111:
7110:
7105:
7095:
7094:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7073:
7067:
7065:
7059:
7058:
7056:
7055:
7053:26th Amendment
7050:
7048:24th Amendment
7045:
7043:23rd Amendment
7040:
7038:19th Amendment
7035:
7033:17th Amendment
7030:
7028:15th Amendment
7025:
7024:
7023:
7018:
7011:14th Amendment
7008:
7003:
7002:
7001:
6996:
6985:
6983:
6980:Constitutional
6977:
6976:
6969:
6968:
6961:
6954:
6946:
6937:
6936:
6933:
6932:
6930:
6929:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6906:
6898:
6890:
6882:
6874:
6866:
6858:
6850:
6842:
6834:
6826:
6818:
6810:
6802:
6794:
6786:
6778:
6774:Powers v. Ohio
6770:
6764:
6760:Teague v. Lane
6756:
6748:
6739:
6737:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6727:
6721:
6715:
6707:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6678:
6676:
6672:
6671:
6669:
6668:
6660:
6654:
6648:
6640:
6634:
6628:
6622:
6616:
6613:Smith v. Texas
6610:
6602:
6594:
6586:
6578:
6572:
6566:
6560:
6554:
6548:
6542:
6536:
6530:
6521:
6519:
6515:
6514:
6512:
6511:
6506:
6500:
6498:
6490:
6489:
6486:jury selection
6476:
6475:
6472:
6471:
6469:
6468:
6460:
6452:
6443:
6440:
6439:
6427:
6426:
6416:United States
6413:
6412:
6405:
6398:
6390:
6381:
6380:
6378:
6377:
6372:
6364:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6330:
6329:
6318:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6288:
6286:
6282:
6281:
6278:
6277:
6275:
6274:
6268:
6266:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6258:
6253:
6247:
6245:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6216:
6214:
6213:South Carolina
6210:
6209:
6207:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6194:William Blount
6190:
6188:
6187:North Carolina
6184:
6183:
6181:
6180:
6175:
6169:
6167:
6163:
6162:
6160:
6159:
6157:Daniel Carroll
6154:
6149:
6143:
6141:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6133:
6128:
6123:
6121:John Dickinson
6118:
6113:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6100:
6098:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6065:Thomas Mifflin
6062:
6056:
6054:
6050:
6049:
6047:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6034:David Brearley
6031:
6025:
6023:
6019:
6018:
6016:
6015:
6009:
6007:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5999:
5994:
5988:
5986:
5982:
5981:
5979:
5978:
5973:
5967:
5965:
5961:
5960:
5958:
5957:
5952:
5946:
5944:
5940:
5939:
5937:
5936:
5930:
5928:
5921:
5915:
5914:
5912:
5911:
5906:
5904:Taxation power
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5849:Implied powers
5846:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5800:
5798:
5797:Interpretation
5794:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5693:Recommendation
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5578:Fugitive Slave
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5548:
5546:Excessive Bail
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5446:Appropriations
5443:
5438:
5432:
5430:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5373:
5372:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5295:
5293:
5289:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5281:
5276:
5270:
5267:
5266:
5264:
5263:
5258:
5256:Single subject
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5177:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5132:
5126:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5057:
5055:
5051:
5050:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5031:
5029:
5027:Reconstruction
5023:
5022:
5020:
5019:
5014:
5008:
5006:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4947:
4945:
4943:Bill of Rights
4932:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4874:
4867:
4866:
4859:
4852:
4844:
4838:
4837:
4825:
4824:
4818:
4812:
4806:
4781:
4770:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4750:
4739:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:External links
4719:
4717:
4716:
4703:10.2307/796412
4697:(3): 420–447.
4630:
4627:on 2005-09-09.
4602:
4583:(5): 753–798.
4559:
4537:
4516:
4490:
4475:
4473:627 F.2d 1088
4436:
4415:Romer v. Evans
4374:
4361:
4313:
4309:Craig v. Boren
4301:
4286:
4273:
4266:
4250:Sunstein, Cass
4241:
4218:
4205:
4194:(3): 671–732.
4178:
4150:
4131:(3): 661–753.
4111:
4082:(2): 317–388.
4025:
3977:
3954:
3948:Domino, John.
3941:
3928:
3923:Romer v. Evans
3913:
3893:
3878:
3863:
3837:
3820:
3796:
3775:
3752:
3742:
3722:
3701:
3675:(1): 120–141.
3655:
3618:
3596:
3583:
3544:
3522:
3502:
3475:
3454:
3442:
3429:
3422:
3413:Simple Justice
3397:
3370:
3363:
3351:See generally
3344:
3331:
3312:(2): 504–555.
3291:
3282:
3257:
3230:Morrison Waite
3205:
3196:
3187:
3125:
3116:
3076:
3069:
3043:
3021:
2998:
2983:
2968:
2953:
2940:
2923:
2901:
2883:
2870:
2857:
2842:
2833:
2816:
2794:
2779:
2762:
2733:
2709:
2685:
2667:
2648:(2): 131–169.
2628:
2615:
2602:10.2307/272626
2577:
2537:
2510:
2469:
2462:
2443:
2434:
2421:
2408:
2395:
2388:
2370:
2344:
2317:(2): 167–183.
2301:
2278:
2251:
2221:(3): 362–377.
2201:
2197:circumstances.
2167:
2133:
2119:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2026:Egalitarianism
2023:
2017:
2015:
2012:
1891:Reconstruction
1869:
1866:
1773:Romer v. Evans
1746:Craig v. Boren
1726:
1723:
1660:John M. Harlan
1613:
1610:
1602:Stop and Frisk
1578:equal outcomes
1566:The result in
1530:Main article:
1527:
1524:
1519:Antonin Scalia
1494:Craig v. Boren
1433:
1430:
1381:
1378:
1188:
1182:
1114:Fred M. Vinson
1014:
1004:
970:
967:
912:
909:
872:Henry B. Brown
765:all-white jury
750:
743:
727:Reconstruction
704:Burns v. State
678:
675:
646:Robert S. Hale
625:Charles Sumner
615:
612:
592:Charles Sumner
448:
445:
430:
427:
346:
345:
343:
342:
335:
328:
320:
317:
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114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
86:
85:
81:
80:
79:
78:
73:
67:
66:
61:
53:
52:
48:
47:
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10047:
10036:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10026:
10023:
10021:
10018:
10016:
10013:
10012:
10010:
9990:
9989:
9985:
9982:
9981:
9977:
9976:
9973:
9966:
9962:
9951:
9950:
9946:
9943:
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9938:
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9934:
9930:
9927:
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9918:
9914:
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9906:
9903:
9902:
9898:
9895:
9894:
9890:
9887:
9886:
9882:
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9878:
9874:
9871:
9870:
9866:
9863:
9862:
9858:
9855:
9854:
9850:
9849:
9846:
9842:
9837:
9833:
9818:
9817:
9813:
9810:
9809:
9805:
9802:
9801:
9797:
9794:
9793:
9789:
9786:
9785:
9781:
9778:
9777:
9773:
9770:
9769:
9765:
9762:
9761:
9757:
9754:
9753:
9749:
9746:
9745:
9741:
9738:
9737:
9733:
9730:
9729:
9725:
9722:
9721:
9717:
9714:
9713:
9709:
9706:
9705:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9693:
9690:
9689:
9685:
9682:
9681:
9677:
9674:
9673:
9669:
9666:
9665:
9661:
9658:
9657:
9653:
9650:
9649:
9645:
9642:
9641:
9637:
9634:
9633:
9629:
9626:
9625:
9621:
9618:
9617:
9613:
9610:
9609:
9605:
9602:
9601:
9597:
9594:
9593:
9589:
9586:
9585:
9581:
9580:
9578:
9574:
9567:
9566:
9562:
9559:
9558:
9554:
9551:
9550:
9546:
9545:
9543:
9539:
9532:
9531:
9527:
9524:
9523:
9522:Plyler v. Doe
9519:
9516:
9515:
9511:
9508:
9507:
9503:
9500:
9499:
9495:
9492:
9491:
9487:
9484:
9483:
9479:
9476:
9475:
9471:
9468:
9467:
9463:
9460:
9459:
9455:
9452:
9451:
9447:
9444:
9443:
9439:
9436:
9435:
9431:
9428:
9427:
9426:Frick v. Webb
9423:
9420:
9419:
9415:
9412:
9411:
9407:
9404:
9403:
9399:
9396:
9395:
9391:
9388:
9387:
9383:
9380:
9379:
9375:
9372:
9371:
9367:
9366:
9364:
9360:
9353:
9352:
9348:
9345:
9344:
9340:
9337:
9336:
9332:
9331:
9329:
9325:
9318:
9317:
9313:
9310:
9309:
9305:
9302:
9301:
9297:
9294:
9293:
9289:
9286:
9285:
9281:
9278:
9277:
9273:
9270:
9269:
9265:
9262:
9261:
9257:
9254:
9253:
9249:
9246:
9245:
9241:
9238:
9237:
9233:
9230:
9229:
9225:
9222:
9221:
9217:
9214:
9213:
9209:
9206:
9205:
9201:
9198:
9197:
9193:
9190:
9189:
9185:
9182:
9181:
9177:
9174:
9173:
9169:
9166:
9165:
9161:
9158:
9157:
9153:
9152:
9150:
9146:
9139:
9138:
9134:
9131:
9130:
9126:
9123:
9122:
9118:
9115:
9114:
9110:
9107:
9106:
9102:
9099:
9098:
9094:
9091:
9090:
9086:
9083:
9082:
9078:
9075:
9074:
9070:
9067:
9066:
9062:
9059:
9058:
9054:
9051:
9050:
9046:
9043:
9042:
9038:
9035:
9034:
9030:
9027:
9026:
9022:
9019:
9018:
9014:
9011:
9010:
9006:
9003:
9002:
8998:
8995:
8994:
8990:
8987:
8986:
8982:
8979:
8978:
8974:
8971:
8970:
8966:
8963:
8962:
8958:
8955:
8954:
8950:
8947:
8946:
8942:
8939:
8938:
8934:
8931:
8930:
8926:
8923:
8922:
8918:
8915:
8914:
8913:Coit v. Green
8910:
8907:
8906:
8902:
8899:
8898:
8894:
8891:
8890:
8886:
8883:
8882:
8878:
8875:
8874:
8870:
8867:
8866:
8862:
8859:
8858:
8854:
8851:
8850:
8846:
8843:
8842:
8838:
8835:
8834:
8830:
8827:
8826:
8822:
8819:
8818:
8814:
8811:
8810:
8806:
8803:
8802:
8798:
8795:
8794:
8790:
8787:
8786:
8785:Lucy v. Adams
8782:
8778:
8777:
8773:
8771:
8770:
8766:
8764:
8763:
8759:
8758:
8756:
8755:
8751:
8748:
8747:
8743:
8740:
8739:
8735:
8732:
8731:
8727:
8724:
8723:
8719:
8716:
8715:
8711:
8708:
8707:
8703:
8700:
8699:
8695:
8692:
8691:
8687:
8684:
8683:
8679:
8676:
8675:
8671:
8668:
8667:
8663:
8660:
8659:
8655:
8652:
8651:
8647:
8646:
8644:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8627:
8623:
8608:
8607:
8603:
8600:
8599:
8595:
8592:
8591:
8587:
8584:
8583:
8579:
8576:
8575:
8571:
8568:
8567:
8563:
8560:
8559:
8555:
8552:
8551:
8547:
8544:
8543:
8539:
8536:
8535:
8531:
8528:
8527:
8523:
8520:
8519:
8515:
8512:
8511:
8507:
8504:
8503:
8499:
8496:
8495:
8491:
8488:
8487:
8483:
8480:
8479:
8475:
8472:
8471:
8467:
8464:
8463:
8459:
8456:
8455:
8454:Goss v. Lopez
8451:
8448:
8447:
8443:
8440:
8439:
8435:
8432:
8431:
8427:
8424:
8423:
8422:In re Winship
8419:
8416:
8415:
8411:
8408:
8407:
8403:
8400:
8399:
8395:
8392:
8391:
8387:
8384:
8383:
8379:
8376:
8375:
8371:
8368:
8367:
8363:
8360:
8359:
8355:
8352:
8351:
8350:Zucht v. King
8347:
8344:
8343:
8339:
8338:
8336:
8332:
8325:
8324:
8320:
8317:
8316:
8312:
8309:
8308:
8304:
8301:
8300:
8296:
8293:
8292:
8288:
8285:
8284:
8280:
8277:
8276:
8272:
8269:
8268:
8264:
8261:
8260:
8256:
8253:
8252:
8248:
8245:
8244:
8240:
8237:
8234:
8231:
8230:
8226:
8223:
8222:
8218:
8215:
8214:
8213:Paul v. Davis
8210:
8207:
8206:
8202:
8199:
8196:
8193:
8190:
8187:
8184:
8181:
8178:
8175:
8172:
8169:
8168:
8164:
8163:
8161:
8159:
8152:
8145:
8144:
8140:
8137:
8136:
8132:
8129:
8128:
8124:
8121:
8120:
8119:Azar v. Garza
8116:
8113:
8112:
8108:
8105:
8104:
8100:
8097:
8096:
8092:
8089:
8088:
8084:
8081:
8080:
8076:
8073:
8072:
8068:
8065:
8064:
8060:
8057:
8056:
8052:
8049:
8048:
8044:
8041:
8040:
8036:
8033:
8032:
8028:
8025:
8024:
8020:
8017:
8016:
8012:
8009:
8008:
8004:
8001:
8000:
7996:
7993:
7992:
7988:
7985:
7984:
7980:
7977:
7976:
7972:
7969:
7968:
7967:Doe v. Bolton
7964:
7961:
7960:
7956:
7953:
7952:
7948:
7947:
7945:
7943:
7939:
7932:
7931:
7927:
7924:
7923:
7919:
7916:
7915:
7911:
7908:
7907:
7903:
7900:
7899:
7895:
7892:
7891:
7887:
7884:
7883:
7882:Doe v. Bolton
7879:
7876:
7875:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7863:
7860:
7859:
7855:
7852:
7851:
7847:
7846:
7844:
7842:
7838:
7831:
7830:
7826:
7823:
7822:
7818:
7815:
7814:
7810:
7807:
7806:
7802:
7799:
7798:
7794:
7791:
7790:
7786:
7783:
7782:
7778:
7775:
7774:
7770:
7767:
7766:
7762:
7759:
7758:
7754:
7753:
7751:
7749:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7730:
7726:
7715:
7714:
7710:
7707:
7706:
7702:
7699:
7698:
7694:
7691:
7690:
7686:
7683:
7682:
7678:
7675:
7674:
7670:
7667:
7666:
7662:
7659:
7658:
7654:
7653:
7650:
7646:
7641:
7637:
7632:
7625:
7620:
7618:
7613:
7611:
7606:
7605:
7602:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7574:Secret ballot
7572:
7570:
7569:Redistricting
7567:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7513:
7510:
7509:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7497:Ballot access
7495:
7494:
7492:
7488:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7450:
7449:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7414:
7412:
7408:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7333:
7331:
7327:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7294:Vote dilution
7292:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7280:Voter ID laws
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7265:Literacy test
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7246:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7222:
7220:
7219:Postal voting
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7205:
7202:
7201:
7199:
7195:
7192:
7188:
7180:
7177:
7176:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7149:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7127:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7100:
7099:
7096:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7078:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7068:
7066:
7060:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7013:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7006:1st Amendment
7004:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6990:
6987:
6986:
6984:
6978:
6974:
6967:
6962:
6960:
6955:
6953:
6948:
6947:
6944:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6914:
6904:
6903:
6899:
6896:
6895:
6891:
6888:
6887:
6883:
6880:
6879:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6867:
6864:
6863:
6859:
6856:
6855:
6851:
6848:
6847:
6843:
6840:
6839:
6835:
6832:
6831:
6827:
6824:
6823:
6819:
6816:
6815:
6811:
6808:
6807:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6795:
6792:
6791:
6787:
6784:
6783:
6779:
6776:
6775:
6771:
6768:
6765:
6762:
6761:
6757:
6754:
6753:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6741:
6740:
6738:
6736:
6732:
6725:
6722:
6719:
6716:
6713:
6712:
6708:
6705:
6704:
6700:
6697:
6694:
6691:
6688:
6685:
6684:
6680:
6679:
6677:
6673:
6666:
6665:
6661:
6658:
6655:
6652:
6649:
6646:
6645:
6641:
6638:
6635:
6632:
6629:
6626:
6623:
6620:
6619:Hill v. Texas
6617:
6614:
6611:
6608:
6607:
6603:
6600:
6599:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6587:
6584:
6583:
6579:
6576:
6573:
6570:
6567:
6564:
6561:
6558:
6555:
6552:
6549:
6546:
6543:
6540:
6537:
6534:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6516:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6501:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6481:
6477:
6466:
6465:
6461:
6458:
6457:
6453:
6450:
6449:
6445:
6444:
6441:
6437:
6432:
6428:
6423:
6419:
6411:
6406:
6404:
6399:
6397:
6392:
6391:
6388:
6376:
6373:
6370:
6369:
6365:
6362:
6361:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6328:
6325:
6324:
6323:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6311:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6299:Jacob Shallus
6297:
6295:
6294:
6290:
6289:
6287:
6283:
6273:
6270:
6269:
6267:
6263:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6246:
6242:
6236:
6235:Pierce Butler
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6220:John Rutledge
6218:
6217:
6215:
6211:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6189:
6185:
6179:
6178:James Madison
6176:
6174:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6164:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6147:James McHenry
6145:
6144:
6142:
6138:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6108:
6106:
6102:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6075:George Clymer
6073:
6071:
6070:Robert Morris
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6051:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6026:
6024:
6020:
6014:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6004:
5998:
5997:Roger Sherman
5995:
5993:
5990:
5989:
5987:
5983:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5968:
5966:
5964:Massachusetts
5962:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5947:
5945:
5943:New Hampshire
5941:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5916:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5869:Plenary power
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5839:Equal footing
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5795:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5760:Trial by Jury
5758:
5756:
5753:
5750:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5613:Ineligibility
5611:
5609:
5608:Import-Export
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5563:Free Exercise
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5553:
5552:Ex Post Facto
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5536:Establishment
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5486:Confrontation
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5433:
5431:
5429:
5425:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5369:Syng inkstand
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5324:Virginia Plan
5322:
5321:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5271:
5268:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5251:School Prayer
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5174:
5170:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5052:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5028:
5024:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5003:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4927:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4865:
4860:
4858:
4853:
4851:
4846:
4845:
4842:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4819:
4816:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4804:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4751:
4741:
4740:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4682:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4647:
4641:
4634:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4616:
4606:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4571:
4563:
4547:
4541:
4534:
4533:
4529:
4526:
4520:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4503:
4500:
4494:
4487:
4486:
4479:
4472:
4468:
4467:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4440:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4378:
4371:
4365:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4317:
4310:
4305:
4298:
4297:
4290:
4283:
4277:
4269:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4222:
4215:
4209:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4182:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4115:
4107:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4069:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4038:
4029:
4022:
4021:
4016:
4015:
4010:
4009:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3958:
3951:
3945:
3938:
3932:
3925:
3924:
3917:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3898:
3890:
3889:
3882:
3875:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3834:
3830:
3824:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3800:
3793:
3792:0-674-19637-6
3789:
3785:
3779:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3756:
3746:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3726:
3711:
3705:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3659:
3645:on 2007-06-28
3641:
3637:
3630:
3622:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3605:
3604:Minow, Martha
3600:
3593:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3547:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3525:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3505:
3499:
3494:
3493:
3485:
3479:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3451:
3446:
3439:
3433:
3425:
3419:
3415:
3414:
3407:
3401:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3348:
3341:
3335:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3295:
3286:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3209:
3200:
3191:
3177:on 2007-02-06
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3080:
3072:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3031:
3025:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3002:
2995:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2979:
2972:
2965:
2964:
2957:
2950:
2944:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2880:
2874:
2867:
2861:
2854:
2853:
2846:
2837:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2772:
2766:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2716:
2714:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2625:
2619:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2584:
2582:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2515:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2474:
2465:
2459:
2455:
2447:
2438:
2431:
2425:
2418:
2412:
2405:
2399:
2391:
2385:
2381:
2376:, as well as
2373:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2256:
2241:on 2019-10-13
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2198:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2171:
2164:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2003:
2002:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1855:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1774:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1741:
1735:
1733:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1648:voting rights
1644:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1634:
1633:Baker v. Carr
1629:
1628:
1618:
1612:Voting rights
1609:
1605:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1580:, but rather
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1345:
1340:
1339:Richard Nixon
1335:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1232:school boards
1229:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1212:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:Chief Justice
1107:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:, one of the
1046:
1042:
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1019:
1013:
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803:
799:
798:
790:
785:
781:
778:
773:
770:
769:West Virginia
767:challenged a
766:
762:
761:
756:
748:
742:
740:
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732:
728:
722:
717:
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589:
585:
581:
575:
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569:
568:
563:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
539:real property
536:
532:
528:
524:
521:
517:
513:
509:
504:
499:
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492:
491:
486:
481:
479:
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458:
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443:
441:
434:
426:
424:
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416:
412:
408:
407:
401:
399:
398:
393:
389:
388:Supreme Court
385:
384:
379:
374:
372:
368:
363:
357:
353:
341:
336:
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329:
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257:
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252:
249:
247:
246:Voting rights
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
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148:
147:
144:
141:
139:
136:
135:
134:
133:
129:
128:
123:
120:
118:
117:Equal footing
115:
113:
112:Republicanism
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
89:
88:
87:
83:
82:
77:
74:
72:
69:
68:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
55:
54:
50:
49:
45:
41:
40:
37:
32:
31:
19:
9986:
9978:
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9931:
9923:
9915:
9907:
9899:
9891:
9883:
9875:
9867:
9859:
9851:
9814:
9808:Bush v. Gore
9806:
9798:
9790:
9782:
9774:
9766:
9758:
9750:
9742:
9734:
9726:
9718:
9710:
9702:
9694:
9686:
9678:
9670:
9662:
9654:
9646:
9638:
9630:
9622:
9614:
9606:
9598:
9590:
9582:
9563:
9555:
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9520:
9512:
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9496:
9488:
9480:
9472:
9464:
9456:
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9440:
9432:
9424:
9416:
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9400:
9392:
9384:
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9368:
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9333:
9314:
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9298:
9290:
9282:
9274:
9266:
9258:
9250:
9242:
9234:
9226:
9218:
9210:
9202:
9194:
9186:
9178:
9172:Reed v. Reed
9170:
9162:
9154:
9135:
9127:
9119:
9111:
9103:
9095:
9087:
9079:
9071:
9063:
9055:
9047:
9039:
9031:
9023:
9015:
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8991:
8983:
8975:
8967:
8959:
8951:
8943:
8935:
8927:
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8903:
8895:
8887:
8879:
8871:
8863:
8855:
8847:
8839:
8831:
8823:
8815:
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8799:
8791:
8783:
8774:
8767:
8760:
8752:
8744:
8736:
8728:
8720:
8712:
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8696:
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8680:
8672:
8664:
8656:
8648:
8630:
8604:
8596:
8588:
8580:
8572:
8564:
8556:
8548:
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8532:
8524:
8516:
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8492:
8484:
8476:
8468:
8460:
8452:
8444:
8436:
8428:
8420:
8412:
8404:
8396:
8388:
8380:
8372:
8364:
8358:Buck v. Bell
8356:
8348:
8340:
8321:
8313:
8305:
8297:
8289:
8281:
8273:
8265:
8257:
8249:
8241:
8235:
8227:
8219:
8211:
8203:
8197:
8191:
8185:
8179:
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8109:
8101:
8093:
8085:
8077:
8069:
8061:
8053:
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7989:
7981:
7973:
7965:
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7949:
7928:
7920:
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7896:
7888:
7880:
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7864:
7856:
7848:
7827:
7819:
7811:
7803:
7795:
7787:
7779:
7771:
7763:
7755:
7713:Saenz v. Roe
7711:
7703:
7695:
7687:
7679:
7671:
7663:
7655:
7534:Election law
7452:Publications
7361:Young adults
7275:Voter caging
7209:Early voting
7197:Voter access
7064:and agencies
7062:Federal laws
7015:
6925:
6921:
6917:
6900:
6892:
6884:
6876:
6868:
6860:
6852:
6844:
6836:
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6766:
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6723:
6717:
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6689:
6681:
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6636:
6630:
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6574:
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6556:
6550:
6544:
6538:
6532:
6524:
6462:
6454:
6446:
6417:
6366:
6358:
6291:
6090:James Wilson
6053:Pennsylvania
5950:John Langdon
5708:Speedy Trial
5550:
5530:
5441:Appointments
5375:
5158:Equal Rights
5054:20th century
4833:
4694:
4688:
4657:
4651:
4645:
4633:
4625:the original
4620:
4614:
4605:
4580:
4576:
4562:
4550:. Retrieved
4540:
4523:
4519:
4509:
4493:
4483:
4478:
4470:
4464:
4450:
4446:
4439:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4405:
4401:
4399:
4390:: 225, 240.
4387:
4383:
4377:
4369:
4364:
4347:
4343:
4327:
4323:
4316:
4308:
4304:
4294:
4289:
4281:
4276:
4257:
4232:
4229:, edited by
4226:
4221:
4213:
4208:
4191:
4187:
4181:
4172:
4168:
4128:
4124:
4114:
4079:
4075:
4041:
4035:
4028:
4018:
4012:
4011:(2001), and
4006:
4000:
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3980:
3971:
3967:
3957:
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3936:
3931:
3921:
3916:
3908:
3886:
3881:
3871:
3866:
3858:
3854:
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3848:
3844:
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3832:
3823:
3815:
3799:
3783:
3778:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3745:
3725:
3714:. Retrieved
3704:
3692:. Retrieved
3672:
3668:
3658:
3647:. Retrieved
3640:the original
3635:
3621:
3613:
3607:
3599:
3591:
3586:
3564:(1): 7–150.
3561:
3557:
3553:
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3491:
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3462:
3457:
3449:
3445:
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3432:
3412:
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3383:
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3373:
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3339:
3334:
3309:
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3277:
3273:
3260:
3250:
3242:
3234:
3212:
3208:
3199:
3190:
3179:. Retrieved
3175:the original
3162:
3158:
3137:
3128:
3119:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3060:
3051:
3046:
3034:. Retrieved
3024:
3019: (1886).
3005:
3001:
2991:
2986:
2976:
2971:
2961:
2956:
2948:
2943:
2935:
2926:
2916:
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2886:
2878:
2873:
2865:
2860:
2850:
2845:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2809:February 24,
2807:. Retrieved
2797:
2787:
2782:
2774:
2765:
2754:
2748:
2736:
2728:
2724:
2701:. Retrieved
2697:
2688:
2679:
2670:
2645:
2641:
2631:
2618:
2596:(1): 77–86.
2593:
2589:
2555:
2551:
2529:. Retrieved
2525:
2491:(2): 69–91.
2488:
2484:
2453:
2446:
2437:
2429:
2424:
2416:
2411:
2403:
2398:
2379:
2359:
2347:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2287:
2281:
2270:. Retrieved
2266:
2243:. Retrieved
2239:the original
2218:
2214:
2204:
2195:
2188:. Retrieved
2184:the original
2170:
2161:
2154:. Retrieved
2150:the original
2145:
2136:
2128:
2125:the original
2110:
2100:
2006:
2005:
1999:
1997:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1951:process. In
1944:
1942:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1894:
1888:
1877:
1858:
1856:
1841:
1835:
1831:
1822:
1818:
1815:heterosexual
1814:
1810:
1793:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1771:
1769:
1757:
1751:
1744:
1740:Reed v. Reed
1738:
1736:
1728:
1697:Bush v. Gore
1695:
1693:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1669:
1663:
1645:
1631:
1625:
1623:
1606:
1599:
1592:
1590:
1585:
1571:
1567:
1565:
1557:Lewis Powell
1538:
1535:
1515:
1503:
1492:
1490:
1479:
1474:
1466:
1456:
1449:
1446:Harlan Stone
1441:
1437:
1435:
1415:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1383:
1371:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1357:has put it.
1355:Martha Minow
1348:
1342:
1333:
1331:
1325:
1324:a district.
1321:
1314:
1308:
1298:
1290:
1288:
1283:
1273:
1265:
1255:
1250:
1239:
1236:trial courts
1225:
1219:
1214:
1203:
1196:
1184:
1177:
1141:
1139:
1134:
1126:
1124:
1119:
1101:
1095:
1089:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1067:
1065:
1060:
1041:Lloyd Gaines
1034:
1032:
1011:
1007:
994:
990:
988:
983:
978:
974:
972:
964:
960:
956:
952:
938:
936:
930:
925:
914:
905:World War II
894:
885:
876:civil rights
860:Jim Crow law
850:
848:
844:legal aliens
841:
836:
828:
826:
821:
795:
793:
788:
758:
752:
746:
735:
724:
719:
713:
707:
703:
692:
680:
663:
658:
653:Jacob Howard
650:
642:
629:
621:
617:
614:Ratification
600:
588:John Bingham
576:
565:
559:
537:, including
500:
495:abolitionism
488:
485:not enslaved
482:
470:slave states
466:
457:John Bingham
455:Congressman
439:
436:
432:
404:
402:
395:
386:(1954), the
381:
375:
364:
351:
349:
235:
8733:(Cal. 1948)
8682:Lum v. Rice
7959:Roe v. Wade
7874:Roe v. Wade
7748:due process
7507:Citizenship
7248:Vote denial
6251:William Few
6131:Jacob Broom
6111:George Read
5985:Connecticut
5919:Signatories
5769:Legislative
5743:Territorial
5663:Presentment
5648:Origination
5603:Impeachment
5558:Extradition
5526:Engagements
5516:Due Process
5466:Citizenship
5153:Child Labor
4463:; see also
4097:10125/65975
4059:10125/66110
3278:Santa Clara
3274:Santa Clara
3268:, owner of
3036:23 November
2891:Foner, Eric
2354:Foner, Eric
1912:(1995) and
1904:contractors
1561:evidentiary
1390:due process
1268:but to the
1262:integration
1234:and to the
1200:Earl Warren
1131:law schools
1083:enforcement
864:segregation
543:real estate
531:Black Codes
527:Confederate
297:Purposivism
277:Originalism
241:Citizenship
231:Due process
102:Rule of law
10009:Categories
9228:Orr v. Orr
7351:Foreigners
7190:State laws
7130:amendments
6982:provisions
6363:(painting)
6315:and legacy
6173:John Blair
6022:New Jersey
5976:Rufus King
5874:Preemption
5788:War Powers
5723:Suspension
5541:Exceptions
5231:Human Life
5130:Unratified
4930:Amendments
4784:Audio help
4775:2006-04-09
3991:Left2Right
3716:2012-08-13
3694:28 October
3649:2008-07-16
3239:Hugo Black
3181:2007-02-24
2758:transcript
2703:2018-11-10
2698:Justia Law
2531:2018-11-30
2526:Justia Law
2402:See Brest
2272:2018-11-10
2267:Justia Law
2245:2019-07-08
2093:References
1949:admissions
1872:See also:
1848:federalism
1811:homosexual
1800:homosexual
1476:treatment.
1209:Republican
1191:See also:
755:Gilded Age
520:abolishing
472:until the
447:Background
302:Textualism
107:Federalism
84:Principles
64:Amendments
9541:Residency
6989:Article I
5884:Saxbe fix
5773:Executive
5728:Take Care
5718:Supremacy
5593:Guarantee
5521:Elections
5292:Formation
5005:1795–1804
4459:0028-7881
4431:0019-6665
4396:0017-8039
4356:0040-4411
4336:0019-6665
3855:Korematsu
3689:144814662
3171:0017-8322
3103:0021-0552
2339:154345582
1638:Tennessee
1318:districts
1303:approved
1174:appellate
1148:. It was
931:San Mateo
868:railroads
857:Louisiana
551:contracts
541:(such as
371:Civil War
9362:Alienage
7633:case law
7579:Suffrage
7529:Election
7417:Timeline
7329:By group
7270:Poll tax
6926:Edmonson
6785:(1991)**
6692:(1946)**
6424:case law
6166:Virginia
6140:Maryland
6104:Delaware
6006:New York
5783:Vicinage
5777:Judicial
5501:Contract
5471:Commerce
5359:Printing
5173:Proposed
4885:Preamble
4878:Articles
4799:Archived
4786: ·
4683:(1988).
4642:(2004).
4552:April 6,
4528:Archived
4502:Archived
4406:Cleburne
4256:(2001).
4200:24758720
4005:(1997),
3808:Archived
3484:American
3467:Milliken
3465:through
3392:20684748
3059:(2001).
2356:(1988).
2296:25073625
2190:July 24,
2156:July 24,
2014:See also
1899:(2023).
1778:Colorado
1749:(1976).
1664:Reynolds
1654:and the
1424:and the
1363:de facto
1326:Milliken
1227:Brown II
1102:McLaurin
1053:Missouri
1039:(1938),
1006:Between
1000:New Deal
775:allowed
749:decision
603:Southern
535:property
516:ratified
59:Articles
51:Overview
8757:(1954)
7490:Related
7410:History
6918:Glasser
6686:(1942)*
6497:History
6313:Display
6285:Related
6244:Georgia
5765:Vesting
5733:Takings
5618:Militia
5476:Compact
5428:Clauses
5354:Signing
5299:History
4773: (
4735:minutes
4674:4093259
4615:Grutter
4597:1073012
4471:vacated
4453:: 197.
4425:: 357.
4330:: 779.
4145:1143133
4106:1228797
4068:1229191
4023:(2009).
3891:(1996).
3859:Skinner
3578:1073592
3326:1599798
3165:: 577.
3111:1121505
3097:: 151.
2881:(2012).
2662:1118709
2572:1121988
2505:3330348
2485:Publius
2331:2127194
2235:3477928
1993:Grutter
1981:Grutter
1953:Grutter
1889:During
1702:Florida
1672:federal
1549:re-zone
1545:Chicago
1406:Bolling
1315:between
1074:Shelley
814:Justice
772:statute
523:slavery
413:of the
71:History
9991:(2024)
9983:(1935)
9952:(2013)
9944:(2006)
9936:(2004)
9928:(2003)
9920:(2001)
9912:(2000)
9904:(2000)
9896:(1999)
9888:(1997)
9880:(1989)
9872:(1976)
9864:(1966)
9856:(1883)
9819:(2012)
9811:(2000)
9803:(1997)
9795:(1991)
9787:(1988)
9779:(1988)
9771:(1985)
9763:(1982)
9755:(1979)
9747:(1978)
9739:(1977)
9731:(1976)
9723:(1974)
9715:(1974)
9707:(1973)
9699:(1973)
9691:(1972)
9683:(1971)
9675:(1970)
9667:(1968)
9659:(1968)
9651:(1966)
9643:(1966)
9635:(1962)
9627:(1948)
9619:(1942)
9611:(1937)
9603:(1928)
9595:(1886)
9587:(1876)
9568:(1985)
9560:(1977)
9552:(1969)
9533:(1984)
9525:(1982)
9517:(1982)
9509:(1979)
9501:(1978)
9493:(1977)
9485:(1976)
9477:(1973)
9469:(1973)
9461:(1971)
9453:(1954)
9445:(1948)
9437:(1927)
9429:(1923)
9421:(1923)
9413:(1923)
9405:(1923)
9397:(1915)
9389:(1915)
9381:(1915)
9373:(1914)
9354:(2015)
9346:(1996)
9338:(1986)
9319:(2024)
9311:(1996)
9303:(1994)
9295:(1983)
9287:(1982)
9279:(1981)
9271:(1981)
9263:(1980)
9255:(1979)
9247:(1979)
9239:(1979)
9231:(1979)
9223:(1976)
9215:(1975)
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8685:(1927)
8677:(1899)
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8393:(1961)
8385:(1958)
8377:(1950)
8369:(1932)
8361:(1927)
8353:(1922)
8345:(1905)
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8018:(1983)
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8002:(1979)
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7925:(2016)
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7909:(1992)
7901:(1989)
7893:(1986)
7885:(1973)
7877:(1973)
7869:(1965)
7861:(1925)
7853:(1923)
7832:(1937)
7824:(1931)
7816:(1917)
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7800:(1915)
7792:(1908)
7784:(1905)
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7768:(1897)
7760:(1887)
7716:(1999)
7708:(1971)
7700:(1967)
7692:(1958)
7684:(1898)
7676:(1884)
7668:(1875)
7660:(1873)
7589:Voting
7346:Felons
6905:(2019)
6897:(2015)
6889:(2011)
6881:(2010)
6873:(2009)
6865:(2008)
6857:(2006)
6849:(2005)
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