138:
not restricted by any temporal constraints except that the crime must have been committed. A pardon is an expression of the president's forgiveness and ordinarily is granted in recognition of the applicant's acceptance of responsibility for the crime and established good conduct for a significant period of time after conviction or completion of sentence. It does not signify innocence. Its practical effect is the restoration of civil rights and statutory disabilities of (e.g., firearm rights, occupational licensing) associated with a past criminal conviction. In rarer cases, such as the
255:(1915), the court specifically said: "Circumstances may be made to bring innocence under the penalties of the law. If so brought, escape by confession of guilt implied in the acceptance of a pardon may be rejected, preferring to be the victim of the law rather than its acknowledged transgressor, preferring death even to such certain infamy." Commutations (reduction in prison sentence), unlike pardons (restoration of civil rights after prison sentence had been served) may not be refused. In
646:
371:, the president could declare himself unable to perform his duties and could appoint the vice president as acting president. The acting president could then pardon the president and "thereafter the president could either resign or resume the duties of his office." The informal Nixon memo only addressed the presidential self-pardon in 69 words with no citations and lacks legal analysis, and is thus not authoritative on the issue. The issue arose again in 1998, during the
674:
660:
2285:
402:"pardon" (because one cannot grant forgiveness to oneself), and the inadequacy of other safeguards such as political consequences. However, such arguments have been disputed, and since the Supreme Court has issued constitutional rulings that affirmed the president's "unlimited" pardon power, a constitutional amendment or a Supreme Court decision on a self-pardon would be required to settle the constitutionality of a self-pardon.
232:
United States which he, Richard Nixon, has committed or may have committed or taken part in during the period from
January 20, 1969 through August 9, 1974" is a notable example of a fixed-period federal pardon that came prior to any indictments being issued and that covered unspecified federal offenses that may or may not have been committed. The legal effectiveness of such a form of pardon has not been tested in court.
271: (1927), the subject of the commutation did not want to accept life in prison but wanted the death penalty restored. The Supreme Court said, "Just as the original punishment would be imposed without regard to the prisoner's consent and in the teeth of his will, whether he liked it or not, the public welfare, not his consent, determines what shall be done."
68:, 71 U.S. 333 (1866), the President’s authority to pardon is unlimited except in cases of impeachment, extending to every offense known to the law and able to be exercised either before legal proceedings are taken, or during their pendency, or after conviction and judgment. Pardons have been used for presumptive cases, such as when President
385:, "While all agree the U.S. President has the complete power to pardon, why think of that when only crime so far is LEAKS against us. FAKE NEWS", prompting a series of news article and online commentary regarding the president's ability to pardon relatives, aides, and possibly even himself in relation to the
231:
A federal pardon can be issued prior to the start of a legal case or inquiry, prior to any indictments being issued, for unspecified offenses, and prior to or after a conviction for a federal crime. Ford's broad federal pardon of former president
Richard M. Nixon in 1974 for "all offenses against the
415:
The power thus conferred is unlimited, with the exception stated. It extends to every offence known to the law, and may be exercised at any time after its commission, either before legal proceedings are taken, or during their pendency, or after conviction and judgment. This power of the
President is
137:
is an executive order granting clemency for a conviction. It may be granted "at any time" after the commission of the crime. As per
Justice Department regulations, convicted persons may only apply five or more years after their sentence has been completed. However, the president's power to pardon is
532:
pardoned former president
Richard Nixon on September 8, 1974, for official misconduct which gave rise to the Watergate scandal. Polls showed a majority of Americans disapproved of the pardon, and Ford's public-approval ratings tumbled afterward. Other publicly controversial uses of the pardon power
60:
The
Constitution grants the president the power to pardon "offenses against the United States". An offense that violates state law, but not federal law, is an offense against that state rather than an offense against the United States; however, the Supreme Court has never ruled on this matter or in
437:
he
President is invested with certain important political powers ... which he is to use his own discretion, and is accountable only to his country in his political character, and to his own conscience ... hatever opinion may be entertained of the manner in which executive discretion may be used,
235:
The
Justice Department normally requires that anyone filing a petition for a pardon wait five years after conviction or release prior to receiving a pardon. The constitutionality of open pardons, such as Ford's pardon of Nixon, has never been judicially tested in the Supreme Court and is open to
482:: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law." The OLC issued an opinion in 2000 that concluded that it is constitutional to indict and try a former President for the same offenses for which the President was
401:
Common arguments against self-pardons include the themes of self-judging and self-dealing, the unjust nature of the president being above the law, violations of the public trust, the inclusion of the word "grant" in the relevant clause (one cannot grant something to oneself), the definition of
324:, a law professor at Michigan State University, states that presidents sometimes (albeit rarely) grant pardons on the basis of innocence, and argues that if a president issues a pardon because they think an individual is innocent, then accepting that pardon would not be an admission of guilt.
332:
A presidential pardon restores various rights lost as a result of the pardoned offense and may lessen to some extent the stigma arising from a conviction, but it does not erase or expunge the record of the conviction itself. Therefore, a person who is granted a pardon must still disclose any
239:
While clemency may be granted without the filing of a formal request, in most cases the Office of the Pardon
Attorney will consider only petitions from persons who have completed their sentences and, in addition, have demonstrated their ability to lead a responsible and productive life for a
938:
The
Supreme Court never has been called upon to judge the validity of an open pardon like the Nixon pardon. If it must do so in the future and if it continues to view Article II, section 2 in light of the meaning the framers intended it to have, the evidence raises a reasonable doubt of the
502:
remembered examples of royal abuses of the pardon power in Europe, and warned that the same would happen in the new republic. Critics such as the Anti-Federalists have argued that pardons have been used more often for the sake of political expediency than to correct judicial error.
309:, but Wilson refused the pardon and the Supreme Court held that his rejection was valid and the court could not force a pardon upon him; and consequently the pardon must be introduced to the court by "plea, motion, or otherwise" to be considered as a point of fact and evidence.
279:
Federal pardons issued by the president apply only to federal offenses; they do not apply to state or local offenses or private civil offenses. Federal pardons also do not apply to cases of impeachment. Pardons for state crimes are handled by governors or a state pardon board.
602:. Flynn had pleaded guilty to one count of making false statements to the FBI, an offense which prompted Trump to fire Flynn as his national security advisor 23 days after taking office. On December 23, 2020, Trump pardoned 26 friends and allies, including his longtime ally
1086:
The power thus conferred is unlimited, with the exception stated. It extends to every offence known to the law, and may be exercised at any time after its commission, either before legal proceedings are taken or during their pendency or after conviction and
597:
was relatively unusual in being issued early in Trump's presidency. It was met with widespread criticism from political opponents. On November 25, 2020, Trump announced, via Twitter, that he had pardoned former General and Trump National Security Advisor
416:
not subject to legislative control. Congress can neither limit the effect of his pardon, nor exclude from its exercise any class of offenders. The benign prerogative of mercy reposed in him cannot be fettered by any legislative restrictions.
84:. Also, the ability of a president to pardon themselves (self-pardon) has never been tested in the courts, because, to date, no president has ever taken that action. There has also been speculation as to whether secret pardons are possible.
320:, who was pardoned by Bill Clinton), those who are relieved from penalties as a result of general amnesties, and those whose punishments are relieved via a commutation of sentence (which cannot be rejected in any sense of the language).
301:(1833), the U.S. Supreme Court held that a pardon can be rejected by the intended recipient and must be affirmatively accepted to be officially recognized by the courts. In that case, George Wilson was convicted of robbing the
2175:
52:
Under the Constitution, the president's clemency power extends to all federal criminal offenses, except in cases of impeachment. All requests for executive clemency for federal offenses are normally directed to the
2199:
687:
93:
455:
869:
367:(OLC) issued an opinion that concluded that a President may not self-pardon "nder the fundamental rule that no one may be a judge in his own case". The 1974 memo laid out a scenario in which, under the
3186:
2876:
216:
All federal pardon petitions are addressed to the president, who grants or denies the request. Typically, applications for pardons are referred for review and non-binding recommendation by the
1621:
116:
has interpreted the provision to include the power to grant pardons, conditional pardons, commutations of sentence, conditional commutations of sentence, remissions of fines and forfeitures,
2694:
3201:
2631:
3151:
193:
argued against ratification partly on the grounds that "the President ought not to have the power of pardoning, because he may frequently pardon crimes which were advised by himself."
2732:
463:
39:, remission of fine or restitution, and reprieve. A person may decide not to accept a pardon, in which case it does not take effect, according to a Supreme Court majority opinion in
2999:
1304:
478:. The Impeachment Disqualification Clause states "Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
2067:
316:, a pardon is "an imputation of guilt and acceptance of a confession of it." Federal courts have yet to make it clear how this logic applies to persons who are deceased (such as
3101:
2871:
2182:
80:, but the Supreme Court has never considered the legal effect of such pardons. There is disagreement about how the pardon power applies to cases involving obstructions of an
3818:
462:
and other legal scholars have suggested that self-pardons would be precluded by the requirement that the President "shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed" in
1799:
3833:
3171:
2704:
2588:
2388:
2320:
3156:
2574:
562:
3352:
2559:
2549:
2234:
2229:
831:
3191:
2569:
2564:
2554:
2544:
792:
368:
45:. In 2021, the 10th Circuit ruled that acceptance of a pardon does not constitute a legal confession of guilt, recognizing the Supreme Court's earlier language as
2524:
2015:
2534:
2529:
2498:
2493:
475:
208:
came to be used for regular White House business, pardons were prepared for the president by administrative staff requiring only that the president sign them.
2539:
2519:
2503:
1242:
772:
261:
287:." This means that the president cannot use a pardon to stop an officeholder from being impeached, or to undo the effects of an impeachment and conviction.
3096:
2470:
2289:
1152:
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2475:
2439:
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is the mitigation of the sentence of someone currently serving a sentence for a crime pursuant to a conviction, without cancelling the conviction itself.
3859:
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2444:
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convictions on any form where such information is required although the person may also disclose the fact that a pardon was received. Also, as most
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2378:
2358:
2313:
1189:
1647:
3762:
2368:
2363:
487:
338:
1926:
1751:
Whether a Former President May Be Indicted and Tried for the Same Offenses for Which He Was Impeached by the House and Acquitted by the Senate
3131:
2373:
2353:
2348:
2168:
3569:
2621:
2207:
546:
1099:
3282:
3081:
1450:
2817:
2343:
2306:
224:. The number of pardons and reprieves granted has varied from administration to administration. Fewer pardons have been granted since
3056:
3026:
2812:
2777:
2757:
2272:
2224:
623:
3864:
3061:
483:
284:
105:
81:
1907:
Proclamation 179 – Granting Full Pardon and Amnesty for the Offense of Treason Against the United States During the Late Civil War
3272:
2212:
1125:
785:
3362:
3031:
2909:
3046:
2129:
3584:
2674:
2669:
2596:
1734:
1700:
386:
372:
360:
104:
The President ... shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in Cases of
3797:
3317:
2042:
1562:
1909:
3693:
3312:
2904:
1996:
221:
61:
the President's power to grant a habeas corpus petition for a state offense where it has been denied by a federal court.
2147:
1476:
518:
2949:
1274:
427:
355:
The legal and constitutional ability of a president to pardon himself (self-pardon) is an unresolved issue. During the
1043:
Ruckman, P. S. Jr. (1997). "Executive Clemency in the United States: Origins, Development, and Analysis (1900–1993)".
714:
438:
still there exists, and can exist, no power to control that discretion ... he decision of the executive is conclusive.
341:
and hold state public office, are imposed by state rather than federal law, they may be removed only by state action.
3292:
2654:
2329:
2019:
1070:
3792:
3136:
1362:
925:
142:, a pardon can also halt criminal proceedings and prevent an indictment, though this has not been tested in court.
3141:
3126:
2217:
1499:
569:
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1337:
1162:
20:
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3262:
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1946:
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217:
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54:
3812:
3610:
3041:
2914:
2719:
2601:
2401:
2103:
952:
479:
312:
According to Associate Justice Joseph McKenna, writing the majority opinion in the U.S. Supreme Court case
57:
in the U.S. Department of Justice for investigation and review, but the president may bypass that office.
3826:
3730:
3688:
3683:
3086:
2772:
2737:
2262:
550:
1518:
393:
reported that during Trump's closing days in office he told aides he was considering pardoning himself.
3780:
3227:
3196:
2919:
2684:
2679:
1368:(Report). Vol. 1, Supplemental Opinions. Office of Legal Counsel. August 5, 1974. pp. 370–372
1025:
506:
In the 18th century, George Washington granted the first high-profile federal pardon to leaders of the
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2939:
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2639:
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1436:
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3367:
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2714:
767:
251:
41:
1961:
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3235:
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2989:
2866:
2861:
2797:
2767:
2709:
2267:
1392:"Please Allow Myself to Pardon . . . Myself: The Constitutionality of a Presidential Self-Pardon"
364:
297:
245:
139:
36:
3450:
2969:
2894:
2841:
2792:
2616:
1800:"'The President himself may be guilty': Why pardons were hotly debated by the Founding Fathers"
979:"Please Allow Myself to Pardon ... Myself: The Constitutionality of a Presidential Self-Pardon"
739:
554:
405:
Constitutional issues of the pardon power have been raised in multiple Supreme Court cases. In
1981:
1415:
3657:
3036:
3004:
2835:
2664:
2611:
1720:
1686:
1657:
1423:
1246:
776:
265:
174:
1756:(Report). Vol. 24, Opinions. Office of Legal Counsel. August 18, 2000. pp. 110–155
1188:
827:
793:"Ex-soldier's acceptance of Trump pardon didn't constitute confession of guilt, court rules"
779:
305:
and was sentenced to death. Due to his friends' influence, Wilson was pardoned by President
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3357:
3071:
3066:
3021:
2994:
2944:
2689:
2239:
1726:
1692:
651:
594:
317:
64:
The full extent of a president's power to pardon has not been fully tested. According to
8:
3785:
3574:
3302:
3166:
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2899:
2802:
2659:
1157:
631:
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on August 25, 2017; Arpaio had been convicted of criminal contempt in federal court. The
3487:
3471:
3332:
3146:
3121:
3106:
3016:
2984:
2974:
2934:
2924:
2160:
1940:
1931:
1863:
1776:
1536:
1403:
1333:
1249:
1238:
1052:
1006:
522:
467:
422:
389:, which ultimately concluded President Donald Trump could not be indicted at the time.
350:
334:
268:
257:
169:
113:
2084:
1129:
897:
76:, who had not been charged with anything, over any possible crimes connected with the
3807:
3553:
3538:
3518:
3392:
3267:
3246:
3218:
2822:
2649:
1969:
1881:
1855:
1850:
1833:
1807:
1730:
1696:
1661:
1652:
1570:
1411:
1407:
1270:
1010:
998:
583:
542:
507:
356:
197:
179:
97:
77:
24:
2298:
2068:
Former Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio found guilty of criminal contempt of court
870:"Most Trump clemency grants bypass Justice Dept. and go to well-connected offenders"
3854:
3429:
3176:
3051:
2979:
2964:
2699:
2644:
2606:
2128:
Brown, Pamela; LeBlanc, Paul; Polantz, Katelyn; Liptak, Kevin (December 24, 2020).
1845:
1716:
1682:
1395:
990:
407:
201:
1648:"Self-Pardons: The President Can't Pardon Himself, So Why Do People Think He Can?"
3714:
3662:
3543:
3502:
3413:
3337:
3241:
3223:
2959:
2929:
2787:
2102:
Herb, Jeremy; Polantz, Katelyn; Perez, Evan; Cohen, Marshall (December 1, 2017).
1913:
688:
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
665:
627:
611:
499:
447:
2130:"Trump issues 26 new pardons, including for Stone, Manafort and Charles Kushner"
150:
3652:
3631:
3615:
3579:
3523:
3492:
3307:
1906:
1195:
514:
459:
443:
306:
1217:
3848:
3757:
3678:
3636:
3605:
3533:
3455:
3327:
3297:
3213:
3116:
2827:
2782:
1859:
1811:
1574:
1002:
607:
599:
430:
321:
117:
73:
46:
32:
706:
1391:
558:
538:
534:
519:
pardons of thousands of former Confederate officials and military personnel
379:
225:
190:
830:. Department of Justice – Office of the Pardon Attorney. January 8, 2021.
3709:
3589:
1399:
994:
603:
589:
President Donald Trump issued his first pardon to former Arizona sheriff
573:
529:
283:
One limitation to the president's power to grant pardons is "in cases of
69:
2016:"First lady opposes presidential clemency for Puerto Rican Nationalists"
1867:
1595:
1056:
659:
3434:
1622:"Opinion: No, Trump can't pardon himself. The Constitution tells us so"
1451:"The President Can Self-Pardon, but It Would Be an Impeachable Offense"
1262:
679:
590:
451:
205:
3342:
1620:
Tribe, Laurence H.; Painter, Richard; Eisen, Norman (July 21, 2017).
579:
363:, Nixon's lawyer suggested that a self-pardon would be legal but the
978:
673:
204:'s first term (1885–1889) were hand written by the president. After
576:
454:
have suggested that presidential self-pardons are precluded by the
2104:"Flynn pleads guilty to lying to FBI, is cooperating with Mueller"
3377:
2807:
1935:. September 9, 1974. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013.
382:
302:
240:
significant period after conviction or release from confinement.
121:
2041:
Liptak, Kevin; Diaz, Daniella; Tatum, Sophie (August 27, 2017).
1596:"U.S. Reports: Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803)"
28:
1882:"Whiskey Rebellion | Definition, History, & Significance"
1563:"Why Trump's Pardon of Arpaio Follows Law, Yet Challenges It"
1100:"The Traditional Interpretation of the Pardon Power Is Wrong"
456:
Impeachment Disqualification Clause of Article I, Section III
35:. The other forms of the clemency power of the president are
1218:"28 C.F.R. § 1.2 Eligibility for filing petition for pardon"
2085:"Michael Flynn: Trump pardons ex-national security adviser"
926:"The President's Power to Pardon: A Constitutional History"
822:
820:
818:
816:
814:
812:
810:
808:
806:
953:"The President's Pardon Power May Be Weaker Than It Seems"
249:(1833) that a pardon could be rejected by the convict. In
2127:
1517:
Schmidt, Michael S.; Haberman, Maggie (January 7, 2021).
498:
The pardon power was controversial from the outset; many
2190:
1779:(Report). Congressional Research Service. pp. 14–15
1334:
Presidential Pardons: Overview and Selected Legal Issues
1296:
855:
US Department of Justice - Office of the Pardon Attorney
803:
480:
Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States
369:
Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
1927:"Ford Gives Pardon To Nixon, Who Regrets 'My Mistakes'"
1026:"Could Trump Have Issued Secret Presidential Pardons?"
553:
officials accused or convicted in connection with the
149:
is a temporary postponement of a punishment (refer to
2328:
2290:
Category: Recipients of American presidential pardons
2101:
641:
1519:"Trump Is Said to Have Discussed Pardoning Himself"
1363:
Presidential or Legislative Pardon of the President
1153:"Presidential Pardons by Administration, 1789–2001"
861:
396:
3752:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
1916:. presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
1834:"The Law: Presidential Misuse of the Pardon Power"
327:
1775:Cole, Jared P.; Garvey, Todd (December 6, 2023).
1619:
622:A symbolic use of the presidential pardon is the
3846:
2040:
1516:
634:and is allowed to live out its life on a farm.
541:on his second day in office, January 21, 1977;
3763:Bibliography of the United States Constitution
1500:"Trump Says He Has 'Complete Power' to Pardon"
561:'s commutation of sentences for 16 members of
290:
92:The pardon power of the president is based on
2314:
2176:
1182:
1180:
1126:"Federal Executive Clemency in United States"
898:"Presidential Pardons – ABA Legal Fact Check"
845:
843:
841:
740:"United States v. Wilson: 32 U.S. 150 (1833)"
1997:"Carter pardons draft dodgers Jan. 21, 1977"
762:
760:
337:arising from a criminal conviction, such as
2013:
1357:
1355:
1123:
970:
16:Power of the president of the United States
2321:
2307:
2183:
2169:
1774:
1177:
867:
838:
568:In the 21st century, Clinton's pardons of
3860:Clauses of the United States Constitution
2273:National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation
2043:"Trump pardons former Sheriff Joe Arpaio"
1849:
757:
624:National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation
484:impeached by the House of Representatives
433:wrote regarding the presidential powers:
3819:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution
1715:
1681:
1352:
1117:
2148:"Eight years of Obama's turkey pardons"
2060:
2007:
1797:
1645:
1477:"Can President Clinton Pardon Himself?"
1389:
1385:
1383:
1332:Foster, Michael A. (January 14, 2020).
1305:"Five myths about presidential pardons"
1269:. New York: Random House. p. 187.
1124:Ruckman Jr., P. S. (November 4, 1995).
1042:
1023:
976:
919:
917:
915:
834:from the original on November 28, 2017.
87:
3847:
1905:Johnson, Andrew. (December 25, 1868).
1831:
1560:
1331:
1327:
1325:
983:University of Detroit Mercy Law Review
951:Redish, Martin H. (December 5, 2019).
950:
939:constitutionality of the Nixon pardon.
2302:
2164:
1994:
1497:
923:
851:"Pardon Information and Instructions"
373:impeachment of President Bill Clinton
3798:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day
2192:Federal pardons in the United States
1959:
1380:
1261:
1186:
912:
892:
890:
734:
732:
717:from the original on January 5, 2015
570:140 people on his last day in office
493:
411:, the Supreme Court majority ruled:
3786:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom
3313:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
1390:Conklin, Michael (April 28, 2020).
1322:
1267:America's Constitution: A Biography
1150:
977:Conklin, Michael (April 28, 2020).
537:'s grant of amnesty to Vietnam-era
222:United States Department of Justice
196:Pardons granted by presidents from
13:
2877:Drafting and ratification timeline
2622:District of Columbia Voting Rights
1995:GLASS, ANDREW (January 21, 2008).
1960:Inc., Gallup (December 29, 2006).
630:is pardoned from being killed for
387:2017 Special Counsel investigation
14:
3876:
2330:Constitution of the United States
2014:Chris Black (September 5, 1999).
1832:Crouch, Jeffrey (December 2008).
1798:Trickey, Erick (April 21, 2019).
1646:Bobbitt, Philip (June 20, 2018).
1541:LII / Legal Information Institute
1075:LII / Legal Information Institute
1024:Ibrahim, Nur (January 20, 2021).
887:
729:
211:
2733:Convention to propose amendments
2284:
2283:
1851:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2008.02674.x
1777:Impeachment and the Constitution
1561:Liptak, Adam (August 26, 2017).
1302:
672:
658:
644:
517:controversially issued sweeping
397:Constitutionality of self-pardon
351:Rule of law in the United States
164:
3865:Presidency of the United States
2140:
2121:
2095:
2077:
2034:
1988:
1953:
1919:
1899:
1874:
1825:
1791:
1768:
1743:
1709:
1675:
1639:
1613:
1588:
1554:
1529:
1510:
1491:
1469:
1443:
1283:
1255:
1231:
1210:
1144:
1092:
1063:
1036:
1017:
944:
707:"Office of the Pardon Attorney"
617:
344:
328:Residual effects of convictions
94:Article II, Section 2, Clause 1
3348:Separation of church and state
1838:Presidential Studies Quarterly
1498:Baker, Peter (July 22, 2017).
1338:Congressional Research Service
1045:Presidential Studies Quarterly
868:Reinhard, Beth; Gearan, Anne.
699:
572:, January 20, 2001, including
274:
127:
21:president of the United States
1:
2852:Virginia Ratifying Convention
2258:Office of the Pardon Attorney
693:
218:Office of the Pardon Attorney
187:Virginia Ratifying Convention
172:defended the pardon power in
55:Office of the Pardon Attorney
3813:National Constitution Center
3611:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
2910:Assemble and Petition Clause
1187:Kalt, Brian (May 19, 2017).
828:"Frequently Asked Questions"
510:on his final day in office.
378:On July 22, 2017, President
7:
3684:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
2738:State ratifying conventions
2675:Equal Opportunity to Govern
2670:Electoral College abolition
2597:Congressional Apportionment
2263:Pardons for ex-Confederates
1962:"Gerald Ford Retrospective"
1190:"Can Trump Pardon Himself?"
637:
614:, his son-in-law's father.
606:, former campaign chairman
586:, were heavily criticized.
361:Richard Nixon's resignation
291:Acceptance by the recipient
243:The Supreme Court ruled in
10:
3881:
1912:November 22, 2017, at the
1695:. pp. 552, 559, 561.
924:Duker, William F. (1976).
900:. American Bar Association
582:and his own half-brother,
348:
3771:
3743:
3723:
3702:
3671:
3645:
3624:
3598:
3562:
3511:
3480:
3464:
3443:
3422:
3401:
3385:
3376:
3255:
3137:Privileges and Immunities
2950:Congressional enforcement
2885:
2872:Rhode Island ratification
2763:Articles of Confederation
2750:
2728:
2705:Parental Rights amendment
2630:
2587:
2512:
2484:
2463:
2400:
2396:
2387:
2336:
2281:
2250:
2198:
1945:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
339:loss of the right to vote
3368:Unitary executive theory
3142:Privileges or Immunities
2857:New York Circular Letter
2847:Massachusetts Compromise
768:Burdick v. United States
711:US Department of Justice
626:in November, in which a
314:Burdick v. United States
252:Burdick v. United States
42:Burdick v. United States
3288:Dormant Commerce Clause
3132:Presidential succession
2867:Fayetteville Convention
2862:Hillsborough Convention
2798:Three-fifths Compromise
2778:Philadelphia Convention
2768:Mount Vernon Conference
2655:Campaign finance reform
2268:Pardon of Richard Nixon
1886:Encyclopedia Britannica
1293:(C.C.A.) 10 F.(2d) 690)
488:acquitted by the Senate
464:Article II, Section III
365:Office of Legal Counsel
359:and shortly before the
298:United States v. Wilson
246:United States v. Wilson
151:pardon/related concepts
140:pardon of Richard Nixon
37:commutation of sentence
3451:William Samuel Johnson
3323:Nondelegation doctrine
2895:Admission to the Union
2842:Anti-Federalist Papers
2793:Connecticut Compromise
1431:Cite journal requires
440:
418:
110:
3658:Richard Dobbs Spaight
3127:Presidential Electors
3102:Original Jurisdiction
3042:Full Faith and Credit
2915:Assistance of Counsel
2836:The Federalist Papers
2665:Crittenden Compromise
2018:. CNN. Archived from
1722:The Federalist Papers
1688:The Federalist Papers
1658:Brookings Institution
930:Wm. & Mary L. Rev
799:. September 23, 2021.
551:Reagan administration
528:In the 20th century,
513:In the 19th century,
435:
413:
220:, an official of the
175:The Federalist Papers
102:
23:is authorized by the
3827:A More Perfect Union
3803:Constitution Gardens
3724:Convention Secretary
3386:Convention President
3358:Symmetric federalism
3353:Separation of powers
3087:Necessary and Proper
3082:Natural-born citizen
3027:Freedom of the Press
2965:Copyright and Patent
2955:Contingent Elections
2773:Annapolis Convention
2240:pardon of Joe Arpaio
2154:. November 23, 2016.
2091:. November 26, 2020.
2072:The Arizona Republic
1400:10.2139/ssrn.3587921
995:10.2139/ssrn.3587921
857:. November 23, 2018.
652:United States portal
547:pardons of 75 people
318:Henry Ossian Flipper
88:Constitutional basis
3834:Worldwide influence
3575:Gunning Bedford Jr.
3303:Executive privilege
3283:Criminal sentencing
3206:Title of Nobility (
3197:Taxing and Spending
3097:Oath or Affirmation
3057:House Apportionment
2920:Case or Controversy
2803:Committee of Detail
2695:"Liberty" amendment
2660:Christian amendment
1626:The Washington Post
1600:Library of Congress
1479:. December 30, 1998
1457:. December 15, 2020
1252: (1927), at 486
1158:Rock Valley College
1151:Ruckman, P. S. Jr.
874:The Washington Post
632:Thanksgiving dinner
468:Due Process Clauses
3488:William Livingston
3472:Alexander Hamilton
3278:Criminal procedure
3273:Constitutional law
3208:Foreign Emoluments
3172:State of the Union
3157:Self-Incrimination
3147:Recess appointment
2940:Compulsory Process
2602:Titles of Nobility
1980:has generic name (
1932:The New York Times
1567:The New York Times
1537:"Ex parte Garland"
1523:The New York Times
1239:Biddle v. Perovich
1071:"Ex Parte Garland"
957:The New York Times
555:Iran–Contra affair
523:American Civil War
423:Marbury v. Madison
391:The New York Times
335:civil disabilities
258:Biddle v. Perovich
178:, particularly in
170:Alexander Hamilton
114:U.S. Supreme Court
100:, which provides:
3842:
3841:
3808:Constitution Week
3793:Independence Mall
3781:National Archives
3739:
3738:
3554:Gouverneur Morris
3539:Thomas Fitzsimons
3519:Benjamin Franklin
3393:George Washington
3293:Enumerated powers
3268:Concurrent powers
3263:Balance of powers
3092:No Religious Test
3032:Freedom of Speech
2823:Independence Hall
2746:
2745:
2650:Bricker amendment
2583:
2582:
2296:
2295:
2208:George H. W. Bush
1736:978-0-451-52881-0
1717:Rossiter, Clinton
1702:978-0-451-52881-0
1683:Rossiter, Clinton
1394:. Rochester, NY.
1132:on March 26, 2011
713:. March 2, 2014.
543:George H. W. Bush
508:Whiskey Rebellion
494:Controversial use
357:Watergate scandal
198:George Washington
180:Federalist No. 74
98:U.S. Constitution
78:Watergate scandal
25:U.S. Constitution
3872:
3689:Charles Pinckney
3498:William Paterson
3430:Nathaniel Gorham
3383:
3382:
3162:Speech or Debate
2990:Equal Protection
2700:Ludlow amendment
2685:Flag Desecration
2680:Federal Marriage
2645:Blaine amendment
2607:Corwin Amendment
2398:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2323:
2316:
2309:
2300:
2299:
2287:
2286:
2185:
2178:
2171:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2081:
2075:
2074:(July 31, 2017).
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2022:on March 3, 2006
2011:
2005:
2004:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1979:
1975:
1973:
1965:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1944:
1936:
1923:
1917:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1853:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1755:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1434:
1429:
1427:
1419:
1387:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1367:
1359:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1340:. pp. 13–14
1329:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1300:
1294:
1291:Chapman v. Scott
1287:
1281:
1280:
1259:
1253:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1192:
1184:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1165:on March 3, 2016
1161:. Archived from
1148:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1128:. Archived from
1121:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1083:
1081:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1021:
1015:
1014:
974:
968:
967:
965:
963:
948:
942:
941:
921:
910:
909:
907:
905:
894:
885:
884:
882:
880:
865:
859:
858:
847:
836:
835:
824:
801:
800:
789:
783:
764:
755:
754:
752:
750:
736:
727:
726:
724:
722:
703:
682:
677:
676:
668:
663:
662:
654:
649:
648:
647:
595:pardon of Arpaio
549:, including six
500:Anti-Federalists
408:Ex parte Garland
202:Grover Cleveland
66:Ex Parte Garland
3880:
3879:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3845:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3773:
3767:
3735:
3731:William Jackson
3719:
3715:Abraham Baldwin
3698:
3667:
3663:Hugh Williamson
3641:
3620:
3594:
3585:Richard Bassett
3558:
3544:Jared Ingersoll
3507:
3503:Jonathan Dayton
3476:
3460:
3439:
3418:
3414:Nicholas Gilman
3397:
3372:
3338:Reserved powers
3318:Judicial review
3251:
3047:General Welfare
2970:Double Jeopardy
2881:
2808:List of Framers
2788:New Jersey Plan
2742:
2724:
2720:Victims' Rights
2640:Balanced budget
2626:
2579:
2508:
2480:
2459:
2383:
2332:
2327:
2297:
2292:
2277:
2246:
2194:
2189:
2159:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2126:
2122:
2112:
2110:
2100:
2096:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2066:Megan Cassidy,
2065:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2023:
2012:
2008:
1993:
1989:
1977:
1976:
1967:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1938:
1937:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1914:Wayback Machine
1904:
1900:
1890:
1888:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1830:
1826:
1816:
1814:
1804:Washington Post
1796:
1792:
1782:
1780:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1729:. p. 544.
1727:Signet Classics
1719:, ed. (2003) .
1714:
1710:
1703:
1693:Signet Classics
1685:, ed. (2003) .
1680:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1602:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1579:
1577:
1559:
1555:
1545:
1543:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1515:
1511:
1496:
1492:
1482:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1460:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1432:
1430:
1421:
1420:
1388:
1381:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1353:
1343:
1341:
1330:
1323:
1313:
1311:
1309:Washington Post
1301:
1297:
1288:
1284:
1277:
1260:
1256:
1236:
1232:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1199:
1185:
1178:
1168:
1166:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1133:
1122:
1118:
1108:
1106:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1079:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1041:
1037:
1022:
1018:
975:
971:
961:
959:
949:
945:
922:
913:
903:
901:
896:
895:
888:
878:
876:
866:
862:
849:
848:
839:
826:
825:
804:
791:
790:
786:
765:
758:
748:
746:
738:
737:
730:
720:
718:
705:
704:
700:
696:
678:
671:
666:Politics portal
664:
657:
650:
645:
643:
640:
628:domestic turkey
620:
612:Charles Kushner
496:
448:Richard Painter
399:
353:
347:
330:
293:
277:
214:
189:, the delegate
167:
130:
90:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3878:
3868:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3823:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3777:
3775:
3769:
3768:
3766:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3747:
3745:
3741:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3727:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3706:
3704:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3675:
3673:
3672:South Carolina
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3653:William Blount
3649:
3647:
3646:North Carolina
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3616:Daniel Carroll
3613:
3608:
3602:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3580:John Dickinson
3577:
3572:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3524:Thomas Mifflin
3521:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3493:David Brearley
3490:
3484:
3482:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3389:
3387:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3363:Taxation power
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3308:Implied powers
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3256:Interpretation
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3152:Recommendation
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3037:Fugitive Slave
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3007:
3005:Excessive Bail
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2905:Appropriations
2902:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2715:Single subject
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2636:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2593:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2488:
2486:Reconstruction
2482:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2406:
2404:
2402:Bill of Rights
2391:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2333:
2326:
2325:
2318:
2311:
2303:
2294:
2293:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2232:
2227:
2225:George W. Bush
2222:
2221:
2220:
2210:
2204:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2188:
2187:
2180:
2173:
2165:
2158:
2157:
2139:
2120:
2094:
2076:
2059:
2033:
2006:
1987:
1952:
1918:
1898:
1873:
1844:(4): 722–734.
1824:
1790:
1767:
1742:
1735:
1708:
1701:
1674:
1638:
1612:
1587:
1553:
1528:
1509:
1504:New York Times
1490:
1468:
1455:Cato Institute
1442:
1433:|journal=
1379:
1351:
1321:
1295:
1282:
1276:978-0812972726
1275:
1254:
1230:
1209:
1196:Foreign Policy
1176:
1143:
1116:
1091:
1062:
1051:(2): 251–271.
1035:
1016:
969:
943:
911:
886:
860:
837:
802:
784:
756:
728:
697:
695:
692:
691:
690:
684:
683:
669:
655:
639:
636:
619:
616:
515:Andrew Johnson
495:
492:
476:14th Amendment
460:Philip Bobbitt
444:Laurence Tribe
398:
395:
346:
343:
329:
326:
307:Andrew Jackson
292:
289:
276:
273:
213:
212:Modern process
210:
166:
163:
162:
161:
154:
143:
129:
126:
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3758:Jacob Shallus
3756:
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3692:
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3679:John Rutledge
3677:
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3635:
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3607:
3606:James McHenry
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3534:George Clymer
3532:
3530:
3529:Robert Morris
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3456:Roger Sherman
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3448:
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3423:Massachusetts
3421:
3415:
3412:
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3407:
3406:
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3402:New Hampshire
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3328:Plenary power
3326:
3324:
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3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
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3301:
3299:
3298:Equal footing
3296:
3294:
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3222:
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3219:Trial by Jury
3217:
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3072:Ineligibility
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3067:Import-Export
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3025:
3023:
3022:Free Exercise
3020:
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3011:Ex Post Facto
3008:
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2998:
2996:
2995:Establishment
2993:
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2983:
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2945:Confrontation
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2783:Virginia Plan
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2710:School Prayer
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2010:
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1983:
1971:
1963:
1956:
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605:
601:
600:Michael Flynn
596:
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584:Roger Clinton
581:
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571:
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560:
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539:draft dodgers
536:
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473:
472:5th Amendment
469:
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453:
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431:John Marshall
429:
428:Chief Justice
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165:Early history
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71:
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33:federal crime
30:
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3750:
3549:James Wilson
3512:Pennsylvania
3409:John Langdon
3167:Speedy Trial
3111:
3009:
2900:Appointments
2834:
2617:Equal Rights
2513:20th century
2235:Donald Trump
2230:Barack Obama
2213:Bill Clinton
2200:By president
2191:
2151:
2142:
2133:
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2113:February 18,
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2107:
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2020:the original
2009:
2000:
1990:
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1930:
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1885:
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1817:November 28,
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1803:
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1493:
1483:December 25,
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1471:
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1454:
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1424:cite journal
1370:. Retrieved
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1312:. Retrieved
1308:
1298:
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1266:
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1223:September 5,
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1212:
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1194:
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1163:the original
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1130:the original
1119:
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1104:The Atlantic
1103:
1094:
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873:
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743:
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710:
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621:
618:Symbolic use
588:
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559:Bill Clinton
535:Jimmy Carter
527:
512:
505:
497:
441:
436:
421:
419:
414:
406:
404:
400:
390:
380:Donald Trump
377:
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345:Self-pardons
331:
313:
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296:
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256:
250:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:World War II
215:
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191:George Mason
184:
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3710:William Few
3590:Jacob Broom
3570:George Read
3444:Connecticut
3378:Signatories
3228:Legislative
3202:Territorial
3122:Presentment
3107:Origination
3062:Impeachment
3017:Extradition
2985:Engagements
2975:Due Process
2925:Citizenship
2612:Child Labor
2218:controversy
1978:|last=
1605:January 18,
1580:January 18,
1546:January 18,
1461:January 18,
1263:Amar, Akhil
1080:February 6,
936:: 475–537.
782: (1915)
721:January 12,
604:Roger Stone
574:billionaire
530:Gerald Ford
285:impeachment
275:Limitations
206:typewriters
158:commutation
128:Definitions
106:impeachment
82:impeachment
70:Gerald Ford
27:to grant a
3849:Categories
3822:(painting)
3774:and legacy
3632:John Blair
3481:New Jersey
3435:Rufus King
3333:Preemption
3247:War Powers
3182:Suspension
3000:Exceptions
2690:Human Life
2589:Unratified
2389:Amendments
2052:August 27,
1760:January 3,
1667:January 4,
1631:January 4,
1372:January 3,
1344:January 3,
1336:(Report).
1202:August 27,
904:August 30,
744:Justia.com
694:References
680:law portal
591:Joe Arpaio
521:after the
466:or by the
452:Norm Eisen
349:See also:
322:Brian Kalt
236:question.
3343:Saxbe fix
3232:Executive
3187:Take Care
3177:Supremacy
3052:Guarantee
2980:Elections
2751:Formation
2464:1795–1804
1941:cite news
1860:0360-4918
1812:0190-8286
1575:0362-4331
1408:225891854
1136:March 19,
1087:judgment.
1011:225891854
1003:1556-5068
780:79, 89-90
580:Marc Rich
565:in 1999.
442:However,
122:amnesties
72:pardoned
3625:Virginia
3599:Maryland
3563:Delaware
3465:New York
3242:Vicinage
3236:Judicial
2960:Contract
2930:Commerce
2818:Printing
2632:Proposed
2344:Preamble
2337:Articles
2089:BBC News
2001:POLITICO
1970:cite web
1910:Archived
1868:41219712
1314:April 2,
1265:(2005).
1169:July 22,
1109:July 13,
1057:27551729
832:Archived
749:July 24,
715:Archived
638:See also
577:fugitive
533:include
474:and the
458:, while
147:reprieve
118:respites
3855:Pardons
3772:Display
3744:Related
3703:Georgia
3224:Vesting
3192:Takings
3077:Militia
2935:Compact
2887:Clauses
2813:Signing
2758:History
2152:Reuters
2026:June 9,
1662:Lawfare
1653:Lawfare
1416:3587921
797:Reuters
470:of the
383:tweeted
303:US Mail
185:At the
96:of the
3830:(film)
3214:Treaty
3117:Postal
3112:Pardon
2288:
2251:Topics
1866:
1858:
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610:, and
557:; and
450:, and
200:until
135:pardon
31:for a
29:pardon
1864:JSTOR
1754:(PDF)
1404:S2CID
1366:(PDF)
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1053:JSTOR
1007:S2CID
775:
264:
2115:2019
2054:2017
2028:2007
1982:help
1947:link
1893:2017
1856:ISSN
1819:2020
1808:ISSN
1785:2023
1762:2024
1731:ISBN
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1346:2024
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1289:see
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1138:2011
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999:ISSN
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881:2020
777:U.S.
751:2017
723:2021
563:FALN
486:and
266:U.S.
120:and
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2379:VII
2359:III
2134:CNN
2108:CNN
2047:CNN
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