626:. Two images were used to describe it: either as a dome, or as a tent; the latter inspired from biblical references, though the latter is without an evident precedent. As for its composition, just as in cuneiform literature the rabbinic texts describe that the firmament was made out of a solid form of water, not just the conventional liquid water known on the Earth. A different tradition makes an analogy between the creation of the firmament and the curdling of milk into cheese. Another tradition is that a combination of fire and water makes up the heavens. This is somewhat similar to a view attributed to Anaximander, whereby the firmament is made of a mixture of hot and cold (or fire and moisture). Yet another dispute concerned how thick the firmament was. A view attributed to R. Joshua b. R. Nehemiah was that it was extremely thin, no thicker than two or three fingers. Some rabbis compared it to a leaf. On the other hand, some rabbis viewed it as immensely thick. Estimates that it was as thick as a 50 year journey or a 500 year journey were made. Debates on the thickness of the firmament also impacted debates on the path of the sun in its journey as it passes through the firmament through passageways called the "doors" or "windows" of heaven. The number of heavens or firmaments was often given as more than one: sometimes two, but much more commonly, seven. It is unclear whether the notion of the seven heavens is related to earlier near eastern cosmology or the Greek notion of the surrounding of the Earth by seven concentric spheres: one for the sun, one for the moon, and one for each of the five other (known) planets. A range of additional discussions in rabbinic texts surrounding the firmament included those on the upper waters, the movements of the heavenly bodies and the phenomena of precipitation, and more.
456:
673:. Another commonality between the two is in describing the firmament as being decorated by stars. The heavens are analogized to a roof, structure, and edifice without crack or fissure. It is extremely broad and stretched, but it is also constantly broadening. Though there has been some dispute over the exact shape of the Quranic firmament (primarily over whether it is flat or domed), the most recent study by Tabatabaʾi and Mirsadri favors a flat firmament. In addition, there are seven heavens or firmaments and they were made from smoke during the creation week, resembling the view of
390:(the earth god) lay outstretched between the arms and feet of Nut. Nut consumes the celestial bodies from the west and gives birth to them again in the following morning. The stars are inscribed across the belly of Nut and one needs to identify with one of them, or a constellation, in order to join them after death. The fourth model was a flat (or slightly convex) celestial plane which, depending on the text, was thought to be supported in various ways: by pillars, staves, scepters, or mountains at the extreme ends of the Earth. The four supports give rise to the motif of the "
30:
122:
2211:
2496:
300:
2556:
2568:
2508:
366:
Egyptian texts particularly, these gates also served as conduits between the earthly and heavenly realms for which righteous people could ascend. The gateways could be blocked by gates to prevent entry by the deceased as well. As such, funerary texts included prayers enlisting the help of the gods to enable the safe ascent of the dead. Ascent to the celestial realm could also be done by a celestial ladder made by the gods.
622:, though the conception is rooted deeply in the tradition of near eastern cosmology recorded in Hebrew, Akkadian, and Sumerian sources, combined with some additional influences in the newer Greek ideas about the structure of the cosmos and the heavens in particular. The rabbis viewed the heavens to be a solid object spread over the Earth, which was described with the biblical Hebrew word for the firmament,
2520:
2544:
499:, who proposed a distinction between the material and eternal creations but does not appear to have associated matter or materiality with evil. Under Origen's influence the waters above became associated with the spiritual plane of Christian contemplative exercise and the waters below with the demonic and infernal. The firmament is the boundary between the physical and spiritual worlds.
2532:
705:
proposed a cosmology without a firmament: an infinite universe in which the stars are actually suns with their own planetary systems. After
Galileo began using a telescope to examine the sky it became harder to argue that the heavens were perfect, as Aristotelian philosophy required, and by 1630 the
369:
Four different
Egyptian models of the firmament and/or the heavenly realm are known. One model was that it was the shape of a bird: the firmament above represented the underside of a flying falcon, with the sun and moon representing its eyes, and its flapping causing the wind that humans experience.
342:
The two primary structural representations of the firmament was that it was flat and hovering over the Earth, or that it was a dome and entirely enclosed the Earth's surface. Beyond the firmament is the upper waters, above which further still is the divine abode. The gap between heaven and Earth was
552:
struggled with understanding how the waters above the firmament could be held up given the spherical nature of the cosmos: the solution was to be sought in God's dominion over the cosmos, in the same way that God held up the Earth in the middle of the cosmos though it has no support. About this
365:
texts, and from texts across the near east generally, the firmament was described as having special doors or gateways on the eastern and western horizons to allow for the passage of heavenly bodies during their daily journeys. These were known as the windows of heaven or the gates of heaven. In
564:. It made no sense under the explanations of the natural world proposed by Aristotle, recalling the statement from Augustine's literal commentary on Genesis: "Our business now, after all, is to inquire how God's Scriptures say he established things according to their proper natures."
637:
composed around 300 BC. In this text, the sun rises from one of six gates from the east. It crosses the sky and sets into a window through the firmament in the west. The sun then travels behind the firmament back to the other end of the Earth, from whence it could rise again. In the
587:
Whether the firmament was hard/firm or soft/fluid was also up for debate: the notion of a soft or fluid firmament was held until it was challenged in the 13th century by the introduction of the
Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmos, a trend that would only culminate in the 16th century.
642:, the heavens are conceived in a tripartite structure and demons are portrayed as being capable of flying up to and past the firmament in order to eavesdrop on the decisions of God. Another example of Jewish literature describing the firmament can be found in
382:. The cow consumed the sun in the evening and rebirthed it in the next morning. The third is a celestial woman, also represented by Nut. The heavenly bodies would travel across her body from east to west. The midriff of Nut was supported by
416:
in the 6th century BC, the early Greek conception of cosmology was closely related to that of near eastern cosmology and envisioned a flat Earth with a solid firmament above the Earth supported by pillars. However, the work of
664:
describes a concrete firmament above the Earth, built by God and lifted up: the firmament is maintained not by any pillars but by God directly maintaining it, in a description resembling that of the Syriac theologian
251:)" and distinguish two main uses: 1. "(flat) expanse (as if of ice), as base, support", and 2. "the vault of heaven, or 'firmament,' regarded by Hebrews as solid and supporting 'waters' above it." A related noun,
689:
placed the Sun at the center of the system he included an outer sphere that held the stars (and by having the earth rotate daily on its axis it allowed the firmament to be completely stationary).
536:
would distinguish between the waters below the firmament and the waters above the firmament. This involved the spiritual interpretation of the upper waters. In this, he was followed by
546:(perhaps his least studied work) Augustine wrote: "only God knows how and why are there, but we cannot deny the authority of Holy Scripture which is greater than our understanding".
521:
the firmament is depicted as spherical or domed with a flat underside that formed a pocket or membrane in which the waters were held. Not all of the Church fathers followed Origen.
339:. Between these two main sources, there is a fundamental agreement in the cosmological models pronounced: this included a flat and likely disk-shaped world with a solid firmament.
347:
and these supported stairways that allowed gods to descend into the Earth from the heavenly realm. A Babylonian clay tablet from the 6th century BC illustrates a world map.
1613:"Maintenir le ciel en l'air " sans colonnes visibles " et quelques autres motifs de la creatio continua selon le Coran en dialogue avec les homélies de Jacques de Saroug"
871:
437:
ushered in the notions of a spherical Earth and an Earth floating in the center of the cosmos as opposed to resting on a body of water. This picture was
1195:
The
Reception and Interpretation of the Bible in Late Antiquity: Proceedings of the Montréal Colloquium in Honour of Charles Kannengiesser
502:
Origen's model of two heavens was followed by later writers who kept the concept of a spiritual and immaterial heaven of the first day (
141:
2603:
2608:
830:
270:
means that which is firmly hammered, stamped (a word of the same root in
Phoenecian means "tin dish"!). The meaning of the verb
103:
2593:
2111:
2088:
2031:
2009:
1987:
1968:
1937:
1813:
1783:
1764:
1649:
174:
2618:
2156:
2314:
2128:
517:, including that it had been made out of air, out of the four elements, or out of a yet-distinct fifth element. In the
2069:
701:
were the first major challenges to the idea that orbs existed as solid, incorruptible, material objects, and in 1584
685:
The model established by
Aristotle became the dominant model in the Classical and Medieval world-view, and even when
863:
629:
The firmament also appears in non-rabbinic Jewish literature, such as in the cosmogonic views represented in the
259:), found in Numbers 16.38 (Hebrew numbering 17.3), refers to the process of hammering metal into sheets.
1797:
518:
312:
154:
150:
50:
146:
2598:
670:
274:
concerns the hammering of the vault of heaven into firmness (Isa. 42.5; Ps.136.6). The
Vulgate translates
2258:
2103:
1598:
576:(who offered that the location of the waters as recorded by Moses could only be explained by a miracle),
244:
2062:
Ancient Near
Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible
1208:
Lemay, Helen
Rodnite (1977). "Science and Theology at Chartres: The Case of the Supracelestial Waters".
2588:
2486:
2270:
1585:
409:
328:
88:
1870:
Tabatabaʾi, Mohammad Ali; Mirsadri, Saida (2016). "The Qurʾānic
Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself".
2613:
2370:
391:
455:
2473:
2406:
600:) in the midst of the waters so should be interpreted as having the firmness of crystalline stone (
371:
1166:
2307:
2287:
2149:
1720:
1603:
1593:
2253:
1801:
20:
2019:
1833:
2292:
1948:
1754:
581:
542:
464:
422:
403:
1156:
2466:
1589:
639:
537:
492:
29:
8:
2512:
2455:
2297:
2239:
619:
577:
496:
2548:
2385:
2142:
1925:
1698:
573:
569:
533:
532:
Appealing to a Platonic division between base matter and heavenly or spiritual matter,
383:
356:
62:
1630:
Creation and Contemplation The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background
736: – Pseudoscientific attempt to reconcile geology with the Genesis flood narrative
2320:
2107:
2084:
2065:
2027:
2005:
1983:
1964:
1933:
1809:
1779:
1760:
1645:
826:
763:
739:
674:
655:
618:
A distinctive collection of ideas about the cosmos were drawn up and recorded in the
568:
engaged in the pursuit of applying natural science to illuminate the sacred included
526:
426:
219:
99:
2524:
2450:
2326:
1952:
1879:
1732:
1690:
1217:
1162:
721:
613:
522:
438:
33:
An artist's depiction of the early Hebrew conception of the cosmos. The firmament (
159:
2560:
2302:
2165:
2041:
1891:
1793:
666:
320:
260:
206:
121:
66:
2572:
2234:
2057:
1980:
Heaven and Earth in Ancient Greek Cosmology: From Thales to Heraclides Ponticus
745:
702:
694:
592:
reasoned that the waters might be held in place if they were frozen solid: the
560:
The debate about the waters being located above the heavens continued into the
514:
468:
336:
1883:
1221:
2582:
1736:
751:
733:
698:
634:
565:
375:
362:
98:
The concept was adopted into the subsequent Classical and Medieval models of
243:), meaning "to beat or spread out thinly". The Hebrew lexicographers
2536:
2500:
2460:
2422:
2399:
2392:
2377:
1930:
Creation, Un-Creation, Re-Creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1–11
1637:
1578:
The Heavenlies in Ephesians: A Lexical, Exegetical, and Conceptual Analysis
727:
1834:""The Heavens Proclaim the Glory of God..." A Study in Rabbinic Cosmology"
557:
wrote: "Wise men of the world say that water cannot be over the heavens".
2279:
2247:
2210:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
1997:
690:
561:
418:
2081:
The Lost World of Adam and Eve: Genesis 2-3 and the Human Origins Debate
1825:
In the Path of the Moon: Babylonian Celestial Divination and Its Legacy
1702:
1678:
754: – Outermost moving sphere in the geocentric model of the universe
748: – Ancient Egyptian personification of the primordial watery abyss
686:
643:
476:
450:
299:
217:), used for example in Genesis 1.6, where it is contrasted with
192:
139:
In English, the word "firmament" is recorded as early as 1250, in the
2049:
1899:
1489:
757:
630:
430:
316:
180:
1694:
1612:
1455:
1453:
513:
Various views on the materiality of the firmament emerged among the
471:
and the Latin inscription "Where God divides waters from the waters"
2555:
344:
2567:
890:
888:
463:
between the waters above and below, anthropomorphic depictions of
303:
The sun, planets and angels and the firmament. Woodcut dated 1475.
61:
that separated the heavenly waters above from the Earth below. In
2507:
1450:
554:
549:
434:
413:
374:. The cosmos is a giant celestial cow represented by the goddess
164:
95:
into upper and lower portions so that the dry land could appear.
2339:
2229:
885:
844:
488:
379:
332:
228:
195:, the Greek translation made by Jewish scholars around 200 BC.
168:
114:
1679:"The Sun at Night and the Doors of Heaven in Babylonian Texts"
1378:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1330:
1318:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1059:
941:
939:
479:
interpreters was in understanding the distinction between the
247:
gloss the noun with "extended surface, (solid) expanse (as if
2344:
1525:
1501:
1438:
661:
324:
92:
42:
38:
2134:
2024:
When the Gods Were Born: Greek Cosmogonies and the Near East
2002:
Creation and Cosmology: A Historical and Comparative Inquiry
2427:
1721:"The enigma of the five heavens and early Jewish cosmology"
1306:
1294:
1228:
1181:
The Making of Orthodoxy: Essays in Honour of Henry Chadwick
1131:
1071:
987:
936:
715:
589:
80:
2531:
1083:
975:
2432:
2349:
2225:
1426:
1390:
387:
108:
84:
1841:
Bekhol Derakhekha Daehu–Journal of Torah and Scholarship
1642:
Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687
1477:
1288:
The Unmaking of the Medieval Christian Cosmos, 1500–1760
1267:
1119:
1095:
1542:
1540:
1107:
1047:
951:
795:
742: – Dwelling place of God and other heavenly beings
1465:
1414:
1035:
924:
783:
2484:
1949:"Creatio ex Nihilo in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible"
1513:
1402:
1023:
1011:
807:
529:'s "strong tone of criticism" of Origen's teaching.
1537:
999:
963:
900:
441:
and represented the cosmos as a whole as spherical.
104:
advances in astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries
1183:. Cambridge University Press. 2002. pp. 69–70.
912:
408:Prior to the systematic study of the cosmos by the
1869:
1495:
1459:
1158:Journey Back to God: Origen on the Problem of Evil
1599:A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament
1584:
894:
850:
429:, followed by classical Greek theoreticians like
307:
186:
185:), also meaning a solid or firm structure (Greek
172:
2580:
724: – Chinese theological conception of Heaven
596:(heaven of the celestial bodies) was made firm (
319:literature such as the Babylonian creation myth
1961:: Origins, Development, Contemporary Challenges
1661:First Century Gnosticism: Its Origin and Motifs
1261:Philosophy and Theology in the Late Middle Ages
459:Panel from the Tapís de la Creació showing the
1854:Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary
1210:The British Journal for the History of Science
718: – Primeval sea in Mesopotamian mythology
706:concept of solid orbs was no longer dominant.
2150:
1831:
1658:
1384:
1372:
1360:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1300:
1077:
1065:
945:
1562:(On the Infinite Universe and Worlds), 1584.
768: – The primordial in Chinese philosophy
1806:Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament
1725:Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha
2278:
2157:
2143:
1860:
1752:
1627:
1610:
1531:
1507:
1471:
1444:
930:
864:"Lexicon Results Strong's H7549 – raqiya'"
801:
331:as well as some passing references in the
142:Middle English Story of Genesis and Exodus
1982:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1773:
1756:Heaven and earth in the Gospel of Matthew
1273:
1167:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199841141.003.0004
1125:
1101:
1089:
827:"Online Etymology Dictionary – Firmament"
1822:
1792:
1709:
1234:
1142:
1113:
918:
813:
789:
454:
397:
298:
120:
28:
1890:
1676:
1575:
1420:
1285:
981:
906:
2581:
1906:
1743:
1667:
1519:
1432:
1408:
1396:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1005:
993:
957:
444:
282:, and that remains the best rendering.
2138:
1851:
1718:
1670:The Globe: How the Earth Became Round
1636:
1546:
1483:
1207:
1154:
969:
760: – Deity associated with the sky
350:
106:. Today it is known as a synonym for
16:Solid dome dividing the primal waters
649:
2100:Creation Stories of the Middle East
680:
607:
70:
13:
1917:
1863:The Hebrew Conception of the World
495:of the Hellenistic Jewish scholar
14:
2630:
2122:
483:created on the first day and the
370:The second was a cow, as per the
167:(4th century). This in turn is a
2566:
2554:
2542:
2530:
2518:
2506:
2494:
2209:
1932:. T&T Clarke International.
1753:Pennington, Jonathan T. (2007).
633:. A prominent example is in the
2604:Vulgate Latin words and phrases
1552:
1279:
1253:
1240:
1201:
1187:
1173:
1148:
895:Brown, Driver & Briggs 1906
874:from the original on 2011-11-03
851:Brown, Driver & Briggs 1906
833:from the original on 2012-10-18
519:Hexaemeron of Basil of Caesarea
191:= rigid), which appears in the
2609:Ancient near eastern cosmology
1861:Stadelmann, Luis I.J. (1970).
1744:Lieber, Laura Suzanne (2022).
1644:. Cambridge University Press.
1560:De l'infinito universo e mondi
1496:Tabatabaʾi & Mirsadri 2016
1460:Tabatabaʾi & Mirsadri 2016
1248:The Waters Above the Firmament
856:
819:
308:Ancient near eastern cosmology
205:These words all translate the
51:ancient near eastern cosmology
1:
2164:
1856:. Princeton University Press.
1832:Simon-Shoshan, Moshe (2008).
1712:Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography
1263:. Brill. 2011. p. 44-46.
772:
506:) and the corporeal/sidereal
163:(a firm object), used in the
2594:Obsolete scientific theories
2026:. Harvard University Press.
1963:. University of Notre Dame.
1947:Clifford, Richard J (2017).
1823:Rochberg, Francesca (2010).
1683:Journal of Cuneiform Studies
777:
181:
149:. The same word is found in
134:
129:
7:
2104:Jessica Kingsley Publishers
1909:The Early History of Heaven
1865:. Biblical Institute Press.
1804:; Ringgren, Helmer (eds.).
1628:Decharneux, Julien (2023).
1611:Decharneux, Julien (2019).
1197:. Brill. 2008. p. 512.
709:
487:created in the second day.
145:. It later appeared in the
10:
2635:
2619:Genesis creation narrative
1911:. Oxford University Press.
1907:Wright, Edward J. (2000).
1746:Classical Samaritan Poetry
1677:Heimpel, Wolfgang (1986).
1568:
1286:Randles, W. G. L. (1999).
1155:Scott, Mark S. M. (2012).
730: – Mythological motif
653:
611:
448:
401:
354:
329:Genesis creation narrative
294:
187:
173:
89:Genesis creation narrative
18:
2443:
2415:
2363:
2269:
2218:
2207:
2173:
1978:Couprie, Dirk L. (2011).
1884:10.1163/15700585-12341398
1719:Kulik, Alexander (2019).
1659:van Groningen, G (1967).
1576:Brannon, M. Jeff (2011).
1222:10.1017/S0007087400015673
392:four corners of the world
256:
240:
227:), translated as "
224:
214:
155:German Bible translations
71:
2474:Apollo 8 Genesis reading
2407:Be fruitful and multiply
2315:Framework interpretation
2098:Wasilewska, Ewa (2000).
2079:Walton, John H. (2015).
1951:. In Anderson, Gary A.;
1774:Rasmussen, Adam (2019).
1737:10.1177/0951820719861900
1710:Horowitz, Wayne (1998).
1580:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
372:Book of the Heavenly Cow
315:is primarily known from
245:Brown, Driver and Briggs
198:
19:For the video game, see
2308:Progressive creationism
2288:Young Earth creationism
1852:Sinai, Nicolai (2023).
1802:Botterweck, G. Johannes
1604:Oxford University Press
102:, but was dropped with
2381:(original translation)
2083:. InterVarsity Press.
1668:Hannam, James (2023).
566:Scholastic theologians
472:
313:Near eastern cosmology
304:
292:
235:derives from the root
126:
46:
2393:According to its kind
2293:Old Earth creationism
2046:Genesis: A Commentary
1896:Genesis: A Commentary
582:Philip the Chancellor
543:De Genesi ad litteram
458:
449:Further information:
404:Early Greek cosmology
398:Early Greek cosmology
327:: in particular, the
302:
265:
124:
32:
2259:Christian conception
2240:Christian conception
2020:López-Ruiz, Carolina
996:, p. 19, 33–34.
640:Testament of Solomon
538:John Scotus Eriugena
493:cosmological dualism
79:) is the vast solid
2599:Christian cosmology
2298:Day-age creationism
2129:The Vault of Heaven
1926:Blenkinsopp, Joseph
1161:. Oxford Academic.
620:rabbinic literature
602:cristallini Iapidis
578:William of Auvergne
497:Philo of Alexandria
445:Patristic cosmology
125:Firmament cosmology
2386:Let there be light
2064:. Baker Academic.
1776:Genesis and Cosmos
1617:Oriens Christianus
1594:Briggs, Charles A.
1534:, p. 128–129.
1510:, p. 185–193.
1498:, p. 218–233.
1486:, p. 413–414.
1447:, p. 180–185.
1435:, p. 137–138.
1399:, p. 150–151.
1385:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1373:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1361:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1349:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1337:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1325:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1313:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1301:Simon-Shoshan 2008
1237:, p. 349–350.
1145:, p. 350–353.
1078:van Groningen 1967
1066:Simon-Shoshan 2008
984:, p. 132–140.
946:Simon-Shoshan 2008
693:'s studies of the
574:William of Auxerre
570:Alexander of Hales
534:Augustine of Hippo
473:
386:(the air god) and
357:Egyptian cosmology
351:Egyptian cosmology
305:
231:" in Genesis 1.1.
127:
63:biblical cosmology
47:
2589:Ancient astronomy
2482:
2481:
2456:Parashat Bereshit
2335:
2334:
2321:Creatio ex nihilo
2254:Jewish conception
2235:Jewish conception
2113:978-1-85302-681-2
2090:978-0-8308-9771-1
2033:978-0-674-04946-8
2011:978-90-04-37807-0
1989:978-1-4419-8116-5
1970:978-0-268-10256-2
1953:Bockmuehl, Markus
1939:978-0-567-57455-8
1815:978-0-8028-2330-4
1785:978-90-04-39693-7
1766:978-90-04-16205-1
1672:. Reaktion Books.
1651:978-0-521-56509-7
1246:Boccaletti Dino,
868:Blue Letter Bible
740:Heaven in Judaism
675:Basil of Caesarea
656:Quranic cosmology
650:Quranic cosmology
527:Basil of Caesarea
157:, all from Latin
65:, the firmament (
59:celestial barrier
2626:
2614:Jewish cosmology
2571:
2570:
2559:
2558:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2535:
2534:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2511:
2510:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2490:
2451:Primeval history
2371:In the beginning
2327:Special creation
2276:
2275:
2213:
2159:
2152:
2145:
2136:
2135:
2117:
2094:
2075:
2053:
2042:von Rad, Gerhard
2037:
2015:
1993:
1974:
1943:
1912:
1903:
1892:von Rad, Gerhard
1887:
1878:(3–4): 201–234.
1866:
1857:
1848:
1838:
1828:
1819:
1794:Ringgren, Helmer
1789:
1770:
1749:
1740:
1715:
1706:
1673:
1664:
1655:
1633:
1624:
1607:
1581:
1563:
1558:Giordano Bruno,
1556:
1550:
1544:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1387:, p. 88–96.
1382:
1376:
1375:, p. 81–88.
1370:
1364:
1363:, p. 80–81.
1358:
1352:
1351:, p. 77–80.
1346:
1340:
1339:, p. 75–77.
1334:
1328:
1327:, p. 72–75.
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1251:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1092:, p. 118-9.
1087:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1068:, p. 70–71.
1063:
1057:
1056:, p. 10–16.
1051:
1045:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1003:
997:
991:
985:
979:
973:
967:
961:
960:, p. 19–20.
955:
949:
943:
934:
928:
922:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
883:
882:
880:
879:
860:
854:
848:
842:
841:
839:
838:
823:
817:
811:
805:
799:
793:
787:
722:Chinese theology
681:Modern cosmology
614:Jewish cosmology
608:Jewish cosmology
523:Manlio Simonetti
475:One problem for
363:ancient Egyptian
290:
287:Gerhard von Rad
258:
242:
226:
216:
190:
189:
184:
178:
177:
147:King James Bible
100:heavenly spheres
91:to separate the
75:
73:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2565:
2553:
2543:
2541:
2529:
2519:
2517:
2505:
2495:
2493:
2485:
2483:
2478:
2439:
2411:
2359:
2331:
2303:Gap creationism
2265:
2214:
2205:
2169:
2163:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2097:
2091:
2078:
2072:
2058:Walton, John H.
2056:
2040:
2034:
2018:
2012:
1996:
1990:
1977:
1971:
1946:
1940:
1924:
1920:
1918:Further reading
1915:
1836:
1816:
1786:
1767:
1695:10.2307/1359796
1652:
1571:
1566:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1538:
1532:Decharneux 2023
1530:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1508:Decharneux 2023
1506:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1472:Decharneux 2019
1470:
1466:
1458:
1451:
1445:Decharneux 2023
1443:
1439:
1431:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1371:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1206:
1202:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1064:
1060:
1052:
1048:
1044:, p. 8–10.
1040:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1004:
1000:
992:
988:
980:
976:
968:
964:
956:
952:
944:
937:
931:Stadelmann 1970
929:
925:
917:
913:
905:
901:
893:
886:
877:
875:
862:
861:
857:
849:
845:
836:
834:
825:
824:
820:
812:
808:
802:Pennington 2007
800:
796:
788:
784:
780:
775:
712:
683:
667:Jacob of Serugh
658:
652:
616:
610:
453:
447:
412:in the city of
406:
400:
359:
353:
310:
297:
291:
286:
261:Gerhard von Rad
207:Biblical Hebrew
203:
137:
132:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2632:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2576:
2575:
2563:
2551:
2539:
2527:
2515:
2503:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2403:
2396:
2389:
2382:
2374:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2324:
2317:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2290:
2284:
2282:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2222:
2220:
2219:Divine figures
2216:
2215:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2170:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2147:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2124:
2123:External links
2121:
2119:
2118:
2112:
2095:
2089:
2076:
2070:
2054:
2038:
2032:
2016:
2010:
1994:
1988:
1975:
1969:
1944:
1938:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1913:
1904:
1888:
1867:
1858:
1849:
1829:
1820:
1814:
1790:
1784:
1771:
1765:
1750:
1748:. Eisenbrauns.
1741:
1731:(4): 239–266.
1716:
1714:. Eisenbrauns.
1707:
1689:(2): 127–151.
1674:
1665:
1656:
1650:
1634:
1625:
1608:
1586:Brown, Francis
1582:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1551:
1549:, p. 349.
1536:
1524:
1522:, p. 184.
1512:
1500:
1488:
1476:
1464:
1462:, p. 209.
1449:
1437:
1425:
1423:, p. 196.
1413:
1411:, p. 149.
1401:
1389:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1329:
1317:
1305:
1293:
1278:
1276:, p. 119.
1274:Rasmussen 2019
1266:
1252:
1239:
1227:
1216:(3): 226–236.
1200:
1186:
1172:
1147:
1130:
1128:, p. 120.
1126:Rasmussen 2019
1118:
1116:, p. 349.
1106:
1104:, p. 121.
1102:Rasmussen 2019
1094:
1090:Rasmussen 2019
1082:
1070:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1032:, p. 7–8.
1022:
1020:, p. 6–7.
1010:
998:
986:
974:
972:, p. 243.
962:
950:
935:
923:
911:
899:
897:, p. 956.
884:
855:
853:, p. 955.
843:
818:
806:
794:
792:, p. 344.
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
770:
769:
761:
755:
749:
743:
737:
731:
725:
719:
711:
708:
703:Giordano Bruno
682:
679:
671:his Hexaemeron
654:Main article:
651:
648:
612:Main article:
609:
606:
594:siderum caelum
515:Church Fathers
446:
443:
402:Main article:
399:
396:
355:Main article:
352:
349:
337:Book of Isaiah
309:
306:
296:
293:
284:
202:
197:
136:
133:
131:
128:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2631:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2550:
2540:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2526:
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2509:
2504:
2502:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2475:
2472:
2469:
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2414:
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2401:
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2368:
2366:
2362:
2356:
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2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2248:Spirit of God
2245:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2146:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2115:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2071:0-8010-2750-0
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1922:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:Grant, Edward
1635:
1632:. De Gruyter.
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1573:
1561:
1555:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1533:
1528:
1521:
1516:
1509:
1504:
1497:
1492:
1485:
1480:
1473:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1446:
1441:
1434:
1429:
1422:
1417:
1410:
1405:
1398:
1393:
1386:
1381:
1374:
1369:
1362:
1357:
1350:
1345:
1338:
1333:
1326:
1321:
1315:, p. 72.
1314:
1309:
1303:, p. 69.
1302:
1297:
1289:
1282:
1275:
1270:
1262:
1256:
1249:
1243:
1236:
1235:Rochberg 2010
1231:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1196:
1190:
1182:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1151:
1144:
1143:Rochberg 2010
1139:
1137:
1135:
1127:
1122:
1115:
1114:Rochberg 2010
1110:
1103:
1098:
1091:
1086:
1080:, p. 67.
1079:
1074:
1067:
1062:
1055:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1019:
1014:
1008:, p. 22.
1007:
1002:
995:
990:
983:
978:
971:
966:
959:
954:
948:, p. 70.
947:
942:
940:
932:
927:
920:
919:Horowitz 1998
915:
909:, p. 53.
908:
903:
896:
891:
889:
873:
869:
865:
859:
852:
847:
832:
828:
822:
816:, p. 92.
815:
814:Ringgren 1990
810:
804:, p. 42.
803:
798:
791:
790:Rochberg 2010
786:
782:
767:
766:
762:
759:
756:
753:
752:Primum Mobile
750:
747:
744:
741:
738:
735:
734:Flood geology
732:
729:
726:
723:
720:
717:
714:
713:
707:
704:
700:
699:Comet of 1577
696:
692:
688:
678:
676:
672:
668:
663:
657:
647:
645:
641:
636:
635:Book of Enoch
632:
627:
625:
621:
615:
605:
603:
599:
595:
591:
585:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
558:
556:
551:
547:
545:
544:
539:
535:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
509:
505:
500:
498:
494:
491:followed the
490:
486:
482:
478:
470:
466:
462:
457:
452:
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
415:
411:
410:Ionian School
405:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
367:
364:
358:
348:
346:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
301:
289:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
264:
262:
254:
250:
246:
238:
234:
230:
222:
221:
212:
208:
201:
196:
194:
183:
176:
171:of the Greek
170:
166:
162:
161:
156:
152:
148:
144:
143:
123:
119:
117:
116:
111:
110:
105:
101:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:are depicted.
44:
40:
36:
31:
25:
23:
2513:Christianity
2467:The Creation
2465:
2461:Cosmic ocean
2423:Adam and Eve
2400:Image of God
2378:Tohu wa-bohu
2376:
2354:
2319:
2174:Noted verses
2099:
2080:
2061:
2045:
2023:
2001:
1979:
1960:
1956:
1929:
1908:
1895:
1875:
1871:
1862:
1853:
1844:
1840:
1824:
1808:. Eerdmans.
1805:
1775:
1755:
1745:
1728:
1724:
1711:
1686:
1682:
1669:
1660:
1641:
1629:
1620:
1616:
1597:
1590:Driver, S.R.
1577:
1559:
1554:
1527:
1515:
1503:
1491:
1479:
1467:
1440:
1428:
1421:Brannon 2011
1416:
1404:
1392:
1380:
1368:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1296:
1290:. Routledge.
1287:
1281:
1269:
1260:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1230:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1194:
1189:
1180:
1175:
1157:
1150:
1121:
1109:
1097:
1085:
1073:
1061:
1049:
1037:
1025:
1013:
1001:
989:
982:Heimpel 1986
977:
965:
953:
926:
914:
907:von Rad 1961
902:
876:. Retrieved
867:
858:
846:
835:. Retrieved
821:
809:
797:
785:
764:
728:Cosmic ocean
695:nova of 1572
684:
659:
628:
623:
617:
601:
597:
593:
586:
559:
548:
541:
531:
512:
507:
503:
501:
484:
480:
474:
460:
407:
368:
360:
341:
311:
288:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:
252:
248:
236:
232:
218:
210:
204:
199:
158:
140:
138:
113:
107:
97:
76:
58:
54:
48:
34:
24:(video game)
21:
2549:Outer space
2280:Creationism
2181:Genesis 1:1
1998:James, E.O.
1520:Hannam 2023
1433:Lieber 2022
1409:Hannam 2023
1397:Hannam 2023
1250:, p.36 2020
1054:Wright 2000
1042:Wright 2000
1030:Wright 2000
1018:Wright 2000
1006:Wright 2000
994:Wright 2000
958:Hannam 2023
691:Tycho Brahe
562:Middle Ages
508:firmamentum
461:firmamentum
419:Anaximander
343:bridged by
280:firmamentum
160:firmamentum
87:during the
83:created by
2583:Categories
2416:Characters
2048:. London:
1898:. London:
1623:: 237–267.
1602:. Oxford:
1547:Grant 1996
1484:Sinai 2023
970:Kulik 2019
878:2009-12-04
837:2010-10-25
773:References
687:Copernicus
451:Hexaemeron
439:geocentric
423:Anaximenes
321:Enūma Eliš
263:explains:
249:beaten out
193:Septuagint
93:primal sea
2525:Astronomy
2355:Firmament
2050:SCM Press
2004:. Brill.
1959:ex nihilo
1957:Creation
1900:SCM Press
1778:. Brill.
1759:. Brill.
778:Citations
758:Sky deity
646:poetry.
644:Samaritan
631:apocrypha
485:firmament
477:Christian
431:Aristotle
345:ziggurats
317:cuneiform
229:heaven(s)
135:Firmament
130:Etymology
55:firmament
22:Firmament
2561:Language
2271:Creation
2060:(2006).
2044:(1961).
2022:(2010).
2000:(1969).
1955:(eds.).
1928:(2011).
1894:(1961).
1847:: 67–96.
1827:. Brill.
1796:(1990).
1663:. Brill.
1640:(1996).
1596:(1906).
872:Archived
831:Archived
710:See also
697:and the
598:firmatum
335:and the
323:and the
285:—
257:רִקּוּעַ
225:שָׁמַיִם
220:shamayim
215:רָקִ֫יעַ
182:steréōma
175:στερέωμᾰ
72:רָקִ֫יעַ
57:means a
2573:Society
2487:Portals
2444:Related
2364:Phrases
2166:Genesis
1872:Arabica
1703:1359796
1569:Sources
555:Ambrose
550:Ambrose
435:Ptolemy
414:Miletus
295:History
253:riqquaʿ
188:στερεός
165:Vulgate
74:
2340:Heaven
2230:Elohim
2110:
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2008:
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1967:
1936:
1812:
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624:raki’a
580:, and
525:noted
504:caelum
489:Origen
481:heaven
427:Thales
425:, and
380:Hathor
333:Psalms
276:rāqīaʿ
268:Rāqīaʿ
233:Rāqīaʿ
211:rāqīaʿ
169:calque
151:French
115:heaven
77:rāqīaʿ
67:Hebrew
53:, the
41:, and
2537:Stars
2501:Bible
2470:(art)
2345:Tehom
1837:(PDF)
1800:. In
1798:"Yam"
1699:JSTOR
662:Quran
540:. In
325:Bible
278:with
241:רָקַע
209:word
200:Raqia
43:Tehom
39:Sheol
35:raqia
2428:Adam
2108:ISBN
2085:ISBN
2066:ISBN
2028:ISBN
2006:ISBN
1984:ISBN
1965:ISBN
1934:ISBN
1810:ISBN
1780:ISBN
1761:ISBN
1646:ISBN
765:Wuji
716:Abzu
660:The
590:Bede
469:Luna
467:and
433:and
153:and
81:dome
2433:Eve
2350:Yom
2226:God
1880:doi
1733:doi
1691:doi
1621:102
1218:doi
1163:doi
669:in
604:).
510:.
465:Sol
394:".
388:Geb
384:Shu
378:or
376:Nut
361:In
272:rqʿ
237:rqʿ
112:or
109:sky
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