Phoenicia - Knowledge

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harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.

11889: 11755: 10914: 10847: 10716: 10099: 9701: 2542: 1859: 1565:—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in 2383: 2109:. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles. Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia. 1682: 2277: 1743: 8048: 833:, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC". Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world". 2644: 2792:

Phoenicians were predominantly seafaring people, it is speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. 'The plan of the building, the chisel-dressed masonry, and the various decorative motifs are all clearly of Phoenician inspiration, as we now know.'

2206: 13414: 13448: 1483:(157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC. The Seleucid Kingdom was seized by 1986: 13431: 1100:(887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts. 1242:. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. The Phoenician city-states fell under his rule, forced to pay heavy tribute in money, goods, and natural resources. Initially, they were not annexed outright—they remained in a state of vassalage, subordinate to the Assyrians but allowed a certain degree of freedom. This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of 2118: 1041:

interests through overseas colonization, and enjoyed economic prosperity. The period is sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance". The Phoenician city-states filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse and created a vast mercantile network. The city-states during this time were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Aradus, Beirut, and Tripoli.

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foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough to raise an army of conquest. Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.

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the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek. However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appear to have been very limited.

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Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger. A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period. Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.

814:, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC). 2517: 2702:

23:10 and 17:17. Later scholarship differs. William Dever writes that it is out of "prejudices, ancient and modern", that the "myth of "cult prostitution"" arose. He comments that "other texts in addition to II Kings 23:10 unhesitatingly describe child sacrifice among the Israelites", and points to I

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To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only

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As mercantile city-states concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed

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severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including the Egyptians and Hittites. The Phoenicians were able to survive and navigate the challenges of the crisis, and by 1230 BC city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, maintained political independence, asserted their maritime

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Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on

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After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing

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Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries. The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion,

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in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were well-regarded, the techniques

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The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions. Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed

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Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states. At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures:

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As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main

2056:, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre. The first example of 2325:

As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful. The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on

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The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were

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escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre. The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered

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policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenisation was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented through the founding of new cities,

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The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other empire areas, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in

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The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels. Hundreds of figurines and fragments have been recovered from the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels. Since the

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The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They became the leading source of glassware in antiquity, shipping thousands of flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean. Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used the

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Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music. In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always

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was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal

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and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. The significant output of these metals

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Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were

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wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use. The

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The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an

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By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" to the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and prosperous. Byblos was the

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Haber, Marc; Doumet-Serhal, Claude; Scheib, Christiana; Xue, Yali; Danecek, Petr; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Youhanna, Sonia; Martiniano, Rui; Prado-Martinez, Javier; Szpak, Michał; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth; Schutkowski, Holger; Mikulski, Richard; Zalloua, Pierre; Kivisild, Toomas; Tyler-Smith, Chris

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may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's

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Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage, which was exercised directly through

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BC. However, most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.

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In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander. When the

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The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.

1393:, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians. The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great. 2294:

decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.

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social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other civilizations.

1960:, serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice. An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market. To prevent 1476:, coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC. The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance. 1896:

marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC. The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in

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The Phoenicians, known for their prowess in trade, seafaring and navigation, dominated commerce across classical antiquity and developed an expansive maritime trade network lasting over a millennium. This network facilitated cultural exchanges among major

576:. After reaching its zenith in the ninth century BC, the Phoenician civilization in the eastern Mediterranean gradually declined due to external influences and conquests. Yet, their presence persisted in the central and western Mediterranean until the 2474:

excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian styles were most reflected in ivory work.

2252:. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre. 1908:

The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It soon became a

611:. The Phoenicians are also credited with innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural foundations of 2510:

Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests. They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.

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that did not correspond precisely to a cohesive culture or society as it would have been understood natively. Therefore, the division between Canaanites and Phoenicians around 1200 BC is regarded as a modern and artificial division.

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during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation strongly implied large scale mining operations. The Carthaginians are documented to have relied on slave labor for mining, though it is unknown if the Phoenicians as a whole did so.

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to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.

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Being a society of independent city states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole; instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city an individual hailed from (e.g.,

1336:, took Babylon. As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of " themselves to the Persians". Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single 4592:

Haber, Marc; Nassar, Joyce; Almarri, Mohamed A.; Saupe, Tina; Saag, Lehti; Griffith, Samuel J.; Doumet-Serhal, Claude; Chanteau, Julien; Saghieh-Beydoun, Muntaha; Xue, Yali; Scheib, Christiana L.; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2020).

1716:(1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece. Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians. 2675:. Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices. The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost. 75: 2446:

The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but the process of commercial exchange. The legendary Phoenician hero

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maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from

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nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors. In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, the

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were largely indistinguishable before that time. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.

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19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.

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The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state. Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was

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integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area of modern Lebanon.

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The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time.

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suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks. Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved

688:, the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant. As an 1246:. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, were annexed; only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control. 1366:

The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation; they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the

1192:. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the 1044:

The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.

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without interruption. It is believed that they self-identified as Canaanites and referred to their land as Canaan, indicating a continuous cultural and geographical association. The name

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One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous

1261:, who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the 10694: 2244:

Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of

568:. Each city-state was politically independent, and there is no evidence the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality. While most city-states were governed by some form of 2236:. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the 821:. Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks; archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that " 6644: 3876:

History, Captivating (2019). "The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World".

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Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power". In the sixth century BC, during the period of

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in at least the third millennium BC. Phoenicians did not refer themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning '

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Kings 16:34. Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians. Biblical traditions state that the

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period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population (63%–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient

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with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the

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and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece. Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian King following his defeat at the

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and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed. The

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as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship". The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.

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were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.

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beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi) west of

1051:, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on 1700: 8037: 2623:, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage. 583:

The Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, and only since the mid-20th century have historians and

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island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.

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Zarins, Juris (1992). "Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record—A Case Study". In Bar-Yosef, O.; Khazanov, A. (eds.).

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The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World

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Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A.; Gosling, Anna L.; Boocock, James; Kardailsky, Olga; Kurumilian, Yara; Roudesli-Chebbi, Sihem; et al. (25 May 2016).

2690:" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in 13565: 10898: 7600: 6630: 8633: 2045:, around 700 BC. An Assyrian account describes Phoenicians evading capture with these ships. The Phoenicians are also credited with inventing the 8674: 6063: 3148:

Niemeyer, Hans G. (2004). "The Phoenicians and the Birth of a Multinational Mediterranean Society". In Rollinger, Robert; Ulf, Christoph (eds.).

11247: 11109: 10422: 10370: 2821: 12275: 2049:, which was regarded as the most advanced and powerful vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, and was eventually adopted by the Greeks. 8030: 4486:"Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences" 3695:"Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences" 2575:

Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

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who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from the

1409:. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly 1464:

When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the

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was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources. In the

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Silva, Diógenes. "La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones", PhD Thesis, Madrid - 2016. Available in

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dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.

11657: 11637: 4537: 1013:. Sidon and Tyre also commanded interest among Egyptian officials, beginning a pattern of rivalry that would span the next millennium. 9573: 13535: 11725: 10770: 6438: 2493:

in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC". The

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The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain, and may have taught

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BC). In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, which resisted for thirteen years, but ultimately capitulated under "favorable terms".

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Tomàs, Carme (2006). "Differential maternal and paternal contributions to the genetic pool of Ibiza Island, Balearic Archipelago".

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The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the

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By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of

11313: 10807: 8023: 2785: 13630: 13625: 11647: 4705:"Addressing the controversial origin of the marble source used in the Phoenician anthropoid sarcophagi of Gadir (Cadiz, Spain)" 1750:

found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon. Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.

985:, 'carpenters', such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the 1180:

BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians. Legend, including

483:. The territory of the Phoenicians expanded and contracted throughout history, with the core of their culture stretching from 13620: 13228: 12610: 11174: 10893: 7593: 6506: 6360: 6318: 6273: 6185: 6105: 5577: 5401: 5378: 5344: 5310: 5276: 5242: 5208: 5174: 5140: 5106: 4678: 4296: 4258: 3528: 3001: 2971: 2946: 2856: 2015: 2966:. Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Vol. 469. Germany: Ugarit-Verlag – Buch- und Medienhandel Münster. pp. 23–24. 13610: 11595: 6113: 5024: 1421:

and a puppet ruler was installed. The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.

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Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably initially as a station in the metal trade with the southern

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BC). The expertise of Phoenician artisans sent by Hiram I of Tyre in significant construction projects during the reign of

541:, such as Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. The Phoenicians established colonies and trading posts across the Mediterranean; 13134: 2485:, such as terracotta masks. Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles. In the 13402: 11642: 11546: 10785: 7656: 7290: 4567: 2451:

is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece. However, it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to

1424: 4320: 3236: 2297: 13615: 13280: 12280: 7567: 6608: 6250: 5720:"Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree, c. 9th–8th century B.C." 5075: 4863: 4343: 1631: 1593: 640:, etc.) If the Phoenicians had an endonym to denote the land overall, some scholars believe that they would have used " 8015: 2919: 2259:, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the 1704:

Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.

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economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.

1214: 495:. The Phoenicians extended their cultural influence through trade and colonization throughout the Mediterranean, from 13575: 11924: 11652: 11042: 6536: 6487: 6462: 6138: 5455: 4170: 3885: 3676: 3646: 3618: 3564: 3494: 3439: 3405: 2936: 1936:

The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean. The

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It is debated whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as

5502:(238 (Spring, 1980)). The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research: 1–20. 2225:

was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC,

1348:

power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their coins.

1257:

suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by

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Map of Phoenician (yellow labels) and Greek (red labels) colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend)

1643: 1500: 465: 13466: 2585: 12906: 11404: 10755: 10380: 9522: 9168: 8859: 6552: 2256: 1817:

theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.

1209: 12068: 9443: 4693:

A. B. Freijeiro, R. Corzo Sánchez, Der neue anthropoide Sarkophag von Cadiz. In: Madrider Mitteilungen 22, 1981.

4118: 11394: 10801: 10780: 6310: 2188:

appointed magistrates. Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.

2106: 1413:, during which many of its citizens fled to Carthage. Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to 1308: 852:, rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities. 11695: 7792: 13344: 11738: 11720: 11368: 10400: 8047: 6654: 5050: 4194: 1600:-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the 1205: 13420: 1708:

Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the

1569:". Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of 545:, a settlement in northwest Africa, became a major civilization in its own right in the seventh century BC. 13605: 13339: 13223: 11662: 11259: 10878: 10817: 10647: 10457: 7990: 6387:, in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203–214 4595:"A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years" 2721:

does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called

2172:. The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on 2030:

As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships. During the Bronze Age, they developed the

1842:. Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets. The 1272:

in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian King,

6622: 13454: 13349: 12386: 11715: 11092: 10995: 10534: 10293: 7511: 7285: 4425:"A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa" 2353: 1417:, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were 1406: 811: 2667:

The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicians were generally common to those of their neighbors in

1114:, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods. 13590: 13510: 11571: 10834: 10677: 10549: 10439: 9197: 9161: 6666: 6384: 5628: 4199: 3058: 2904: 2548: 1806: 31: 17: 5911:"New Evidence from Dor for the First Appearance of the Phoenicians along the Northern Coast of Israel" 5887: 2060:

also appears in the Levant. The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.

1774:

by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe (

734:. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not denote a group of people. The name 13645: 13560: 13307: 12455: 12019: 11804: 11733: 11308: 11164: 11097: 10323: 10266: 8051: 6576: 5494:

Cross, Frank Moore (1980). "Newly Found Inscriptions in Old Canaanite and Early Phoenician Scripts".

2672: 2391: 2080: 2064: 11225: 2097:

Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta (modern

13600: 13580: 13265: 13240: 13090: 12749: 12744: 11845: 11565: 11350: 11057: 10584: 10579: 10385: 10116: 9666: 9319: 9184: 8909: 1037: 1001:

leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary terminus of precious goods such as

993:). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant stocks of the region's 902: 869: 587:

been able to reveal a complex and influential civilization. Their best known legacy is the world's

514: 11452: 6374: 3552:"Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue" 1940:

may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from

1735:

produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought

13650: 13585: 13550: 13545: 13530: 13525: 13520: 13515: 13437: 13332: 13213: 12754: 12707: 12650: 12349: 12293: 12041: 11794: 11667: 11323: 11271: 10974: 10765: 10672: 10559: 10194: 9545: 7741: 6769: 6566: 6391: 6348: 4671:

Sea routes: From Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th c. BC

4339:"Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean" 2994:

Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome

2899: 2532: 2008: 1351: 898: 577: 11710: 10134: 6513:, for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K. 6422: 5564:

Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999).

4971:

Haggi, Arad (2010). "Report on Underwater Excavation at the Phoenician Harbour, Atlit, Israel".

2504: 1923:

concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles of

1831: 1798:, whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula. 13555: 13354: 13255: 13250: 12938: 12886: 12806: 12739: 12643: 12628: 12521: 12288: 12242: 12083: 11970: 11832: 11700: 11345: 11154: 11149: 11079: 10969: 10812: 10684: 10417: 9847: 9798: 9741: 9686: 9540: 8744: 6443: 6148: 4049: 2730: 2464: 1810: 1659: 1480: 1433: 1410: 538: 80:

Map showing Phoenician maritime expansions across the Mediterranean starting from around 800 BC

6093: 5336:

Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History

4248: 4180: 4152: 3756:

Stieglitz, Robert (1990). "The Geopolitics of the Phoenician Littoral in the Early Iron Age".

3606: 3354: 2678:

Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as

2085: 13540: 13285: 13245: 13058: 12933: 11997: 11987: 11946: 11917: 11823: 11705: 11379: 11355: 11210: 10689: 10574: 10472: 10447: 10039: 9918: 9872: 9803: 9768: 8618: 8065: 7908: 7315: 7263: 6912: 6304: 6128: 4284: 3666: 2411: 2285:

Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.

1863: 1269: 592: 476: 13173: 10004: 9512: 6878: 3017: 13378: 13208: 13178: 13053: 12984: 12955: 12874: 12208: 12046: 12036: 11799: 11672: 11612: 11465: 11399: 11242: 11230: 11074: 10883: 10642: 10637: 10539: 10499: 10303: 10199: 10189: 10182: 9736: 8854: 8684: 8559: 8215: 8124: 7387: 7381: 6927: 6794: 6614: 6471: 6429:

Cioffi, Robert L., "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn,

4438: 3668:

Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing : Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224

2232:

At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantly

1952:. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the 1676: 1634:, researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the 1577: 1341: 1303: 910: 805: 645: 513:, continuing their cultural traditions following the decline of most major cultures in the 13158: 10829: 8874: 2563:

Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

1540: 1452:

The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts.

956:

have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the

8: 13070: 12950: 12916: 12818: 12638: 12633: 12445: 12164: 12100: 11975: 11960: 11861: 11789: 11617: 11607: 11578: 11446: 11279: 11220: 10790: 10699: 10599: 10589: 10529: 10524: 10519: 10509: 10504: 10489: 10484: 10405: 10261: 10139: 10084: 10009: 9433: 9397: 8409: 7944: 7889: 7803: 7710: 7688: 7450: 7412: 7258: 5719: 2806: 2679: 2490: 2439: 2431: 2399: 2377: 2349: 2345: 2335: 1957: 1887: 1886:, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the 1858: 1709: 1429: 1402: 1243: 1170: 1131: 957: 926: 886: 664: 656: 612: 588: 233: 108: 12786: 12776: 4990:. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press. pp. 300, 51, 323–325, 332. 4442: 3778:

Bentley, Jerry H. (1999). "Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historical Analysis".

3429: 2744:

for 'lord'. Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.

2382: 2038:

joints proved effective enough to serve as a standard until late into the Roman Empire.

1511:'. Phoenicians specifically identified themselves with the city they hailed from (e.g., 13505: 13183: 13163: 13146: 13097: 12962: 12771: 12722: 12655: 12573: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12460: 12430: 12322: 12220: 12088: 12063: 11558: 11215: 11015: 11000: 10795: 10750: 10745: 10594: 10144: 9756: 8798: 8429: 8045: 7652: 7501: 6215:

Gaster, Theodor H. (1965). "The Religion of the Canaanites". In Ferm, Vergilius (ed.).

5926: 5677: 5669: 5519: 5511: 5461: 4791: 4724: 4619: 4594: 4538:"The DNA of ancient Canaanites lives on in modern-day Lebanese, genetic analysis shows" 4510: 4485: 4461: 4424: 4365: 4338: 4232:(2010). "Before Athens: Early Popular Government in Phoenician and Greek City States". 4176: 4000: 3992: 3845: 3837: 3791: 3721: 3694: 3374: 2718: 2668: 2632: 2365: 2245: 1794:

states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the

1554: 1484: 1367: 1317: 979:(1479–1425 BC). The Egyptians targeted coastal cities which they wrote belonged to the 906: 529: 195: 122: 6819: 5868: 1604:. More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the 1437: 13292: 13188: 13124: 13119: 13048: 12945: 12660: 12588: 12583: 12425: 12354: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12127: 12078: 11478: 11139: 11087: 11069: 11010: 10632: 10569: 10564: 10494: 10390: 10350: 10345: 10328: 10298: 9964: 9908: 9902: 9751: 9728: 9550: 9480: 9438: 9045: 8928: 8348: 8256: 8220: 7935: 7925: 7516: 7491: 7199: 6674: 6532: 6525: 6502: 6483: 6458: 6434: 6356: 6314: 6269: 6246: 6181: 6134: 6101: 5695: 5681: 5573: 5566: 5523: 5451: 5374: 5340: 5306: 5272: 5238: 5204: 5170: 5136: 5102: 4859: 4728: 4674: 4624: 4515: 4466: 4405: 4370: 4292: 4254: 4166: 4004: 3881: 3849: 3726: 3672: 3642: 3614: 3560: 3551: 3524: 3490: 3435: 3401: 3378: 3226:, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51796-6, p. 345. 2997: 2967: 2942: 2887: 2852: 2760:(𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, 'place of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty. 2715:

gave Phoenicia full political autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.

2035: 1839: 1763: 1550: 1469: 1457: 1379: 1333: 1277: 1141: 845: 608: 500: 219: 134: 4947: 3319: 3180: 644:" and therefore referred to themselves as "Canaanites". Krahmalkov reconstructs the 13141: 12928: 12923: 12879: 12866: 12796: 12764: 12759: 12623: 12618: 12600: 12561: 12494: 12477: 12418: 12408: 12403: 12344: 12300: 12270: 12230: 12213: 12196: 12159: 11910: 11784: 11519: 11235: 10979: 10888: 10609: 10604: 10412: 10355: 10338: 10308: 10239: 10014: 9793: 9671: 9598: 9418: 9294: 9016: 8965: 8889: 8500: 8140: 7985: 7526: 7496: 7470: 7300: 7078: 7041: 6370: 5918: 5888:"Identities and Peoples in History: Speculating on Ancient Mediterranean Mysteries" 5661: 5546: 5503: 5443: 4716: 4614: 4606: 4505: 4497: 4456: 4446: 4397: 4360: 4352: 4162: 4158: 3984: 3829: 3787: 3716: 3706: 3366: 2766:

held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite

2357: 2276: 2181: 2153: 1827: 1713: 1655: 1609: 1605: 1127: 1060: 890: 837: 542: 407: 11471: 11340: 6601: 5550: 2422:. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to 1742: 1662:, typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age. 788:, a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a 13359: 13327: 13200: 13168: 13151: 13107: 13102: 13080: 13075: 13033: 13026: 13001: 12861: 12856: 12697: 12578: 12472: 12467: 12435: 12260: 12250: 12144: 12137: 12132: 12117: 12073: 11955: 11941: 11200: 10554: 10514: 10452: 9555: 9490: 9344: 8458: 8368: 8333: 8002: 7971: 7966: 7956: 7666: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7481: 6841: 6732: 6452: 5368: 5334: 5300: 5266: 5232: 5198: 5164: 5130: 5094: 4451: 2846: 2683: 2601:

portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.

2435: 2419: 2415: 2273:), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms. 1771: 1617: 1329: 1239: 849: 727: 365: 295: 12781: 11252: 6571: 6329: 6230: 2503:'s wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of 1681: 13302: 13297: 13260: 13235: 13218: 13129: 13114: 13085: 13043: 12891: 12851: 12846: 12801: 12727: 12687: 12677: 12667: 12482: 12361: 12255: 12122: 12004: 11506: 11440: 11195: 10954: 10822: 10627: 10622: 10333: 10286: 10204: 10149: 9877: 9783: 9746: 9593: 9455: 9289: 9111: 8793: 8729: 8679: 8643: 8589: 8399: 8261: 7940: 7562: 7462: 7295: 7052: 6962: 6922: 6902: 6754: 6694: 6265: 6152: 5623: 4610: 4501: 4356: 4334: 3711: 3394: 3370: 2704: 2698: 2528: 2468: 2361: 2024:

Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels

1937: 1647: 1546: 1536: 1390: 1313: 1145: 1017: 975:

The first known account of the Phoenicians relates to the conquests of Pharaoh

937: 604: 600: 553: 351: 112: 59: 8199: 6613:

Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College,

5465: 3820:

Chamorro, Javier G. (1987). "Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos".

2964:

Phoenician Identity in Context: Material Cultural Koiné in the Iron Age Levant

1754:

From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being

1222:

palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of

1071:, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Phoenician 13499: 13481: 13468: 13383: 13270: 13065: 13038: 13011: 12989: 12967: 12734: 12717: 12702: 12546: 12499: 12487: 12413: 12305: 12179: 12174: 12149: 12031: 11854: 11539: 11499: 11485: 11144: 10959: 10734: 10281: 10276: 10249: 10177: 10074: 9608: 9530: 9279: 9259: 9222: 9056: 8819: 8550: 8530: 8389: 8364: 7848: 7844: 7677: 7367: 7211: 6977: 6836: 4312: 3197: 2811: 2643: 2638: 2486: 2226: 2057: 1941: 1910: 1883: 1728: 1524: 1445: 1262: 1223: 1199: 1105: 994: 990: 986: 874:

The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed

766: 711: 637: 596: 595:, and which was transmitted across the Mediterranean and used to develop the 557: 526: 256: 98: 12811: 12791: 11492: 9815: 6967: 6586: 4646:. Translated by Reynolds, Sian. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 112–113. 3175:

Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. "The Phoenicians (1500–300 BC)". In

2489:, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary 981: 676: 13275: 13016: 13006: 12972: 12901: 12896: 12823: 12613: 12595: 12556: 12551: 12531: 12526: 12398: 12391: 12381: 12376: 12371: 12265: 12203: 12184: 12169: 12105: 11600: 11290: 11284: 11190: 11185: 11124: 11005: 10360: 10234: 10209: 10161: 10154: 10079: 9994: 9630: 9565: 9423: 9361: 9284: 9242: 9051: 9041: 8924: 8759: 8579: 8575: 8338: 8313: 8241: 8080: 7981: 7466: 7458: 7179: 7173: 7047: 7030: 7006: 6937: 6873: 6684: 6652: 6494: 6283: 5447: 4628: 4519: 4470: 4409: 4374: 3942: 3730: 3224:

Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs

2816: 2477:

Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of

2260: 1834:

metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.

1795: 1783: 1375: 1359: 1344:, which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya. 1273: 1006: 976: 953: 921:

is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, even though the

882: 492: 11525: 7768: 7578: 5420: 3509:

Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998), "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past)

3053: 1161:, means 'New City'. There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as 12994: 12979: 12828: 12541: 12450: 12440: 12366: 12014: 12009: 11839: 11422: 11361: 11180: 11134: 11119: 11047: 10775: 10254: 10059: 9954: 9761: 9497: 9428: 9334: 9252: 9237: 9011: 8823: 8444: 8434: 8180: 8164: 8160: 7810: 7698: 7648: 7610: 7330: 7241: 7231: 7087: 7016: 6947: 6942: 6774: 6053: 5759: 5302:

West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives

2430:

is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because

1953: 1945: 1814: 1747: 1558: 1473: 1418: 1362:

of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King

1254: 1010: 584: 573: 378: 156: 11877: 9934: 8780: 8648: 5937: 4813:. Translated by Hiller, Catherine. New York: William Morrow. p. 80. 4795: 4779: 4704: 4703:

Lapuente, P.; Rodà, I.; Gutiérrez Garcia-M, A.; Brilli, M. (June 2021).

13021: 12838: 12712: 12672: 12605: 11374: 11205: 11064: 11052: 10964: 10873: 10462: 10214: 9882: 9857: 9836: 9778: 9640: 9613: 9329: 9209: 9021: 8985: 8980: 8718: 8323: 8175: 8074: 7486: 7418: 7399: 7216: 6984: 6892: 6814: 6724: 6679: 6058: 6056: 5930: 5910: 5673: 5653: 5515: 4720: 4401: 3996: 3972: 3276: 3210: 2767: 2478: 2237: 1968: 1875: 1635: 1624: 1613: 1601: 1508: 1355: 1258: 1249:

Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC,

1193: 1166: 1135: 1097: 1072: 879: 830: 549: 507: 337: 152: 144: 11129: 6385:

Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East

3841: 3166:", Comparative Civilizations Review: Vol. 78 : No. 78, Article 4. 1964:, vessels were sealed with a layer of olive oil, pinewood, and resin. 1850:

shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs.

1719:

To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums, and

970: 12911: 12682: 12566: 12536: 12317: 11982: 11384: 11297: 10271: 10244: 10054: 9999: 9983: 9841: 9681: 9635: 9560: 9535: 9502: 9356: 9299: 9274: 9142: 9137: 9127: 9036: 8934: 8913: 8764: 8724: 8669: 8449: 8277: 8135: 8105: 8070: 7860: 7546: 7476: 7404: 7335: 7310: 7246: 7226: 7221: 7092: 7063: 6917: 6779: 6499:

The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of England series No.:8)

6123:, edited by Sabatino Moscati, 38–45. Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Fabbri. 6064:"Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult" 4422: 3906: 3237:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, φοῖνιξ" 2801: 2733: 2403: 2205: 1961: 1949: 1787: 1465: 1250: 1162: 933: 726:

used it with each of these meanings. The word is already attested in

719: 9153: 8919: 8878: 8374: 7135: 7111: 5922: 5665: 5507: 5162: 4702: 3988: 2169: 12312: 12095: 12053: 11992: 11532: 10034: 10029: 9897: 9852: 9773: 9661: 9656: 9625: 9382: 9339: 9304: 9269: 9217: 9101: 8904: 8843: 8839: 8739: 8699: 8664: 8612: 8595: 8413: 8404: 8184: 8154: 8145: 8095: 7854: 7839: 7835: 7819: 7785: 7773: 7761: 7736: 7433: 7393: 7205: 7191: 7035: 6995: 6989: 6743: 6737: 6689: 5099:

A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation

4429: 3833: 3400:. British Museum People of the Past. University of Oklahoma Press. 2722: 2692: 2648: 2482: 2423: 2233: 2214: 2177: 2157: 1847: 1779: 1775: 1759: 1724: 1651: 1639: 1453: 1371: 1123: 1056: 1048: 1025: 1021: 949: 922: 894: 826: 784: 659:) as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling it 518: 468: 273: 164: 160: 148: 9979: 8869: 8849: 8195: 2364:. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. 2165: 1985: 12225: 12154: 12110: 11965: 11817: 11264: 10760: 10652: 10049: 10019: 9974: 9959: 9944: 9939: 9892: 9862: 9585: 9392: 9387: 9324: 9264: 9227: 9105: 9096: 9081: 9071: 9031: 9006: 8960: 8898: 8894: 8754: 8734: 8708: 8694: 8688: 8540: 8520: 8510: 8505: 8469: 8464: 8419: 8383: 8379: 8318: 8250: 8205: 8150: 8114: 8110: 8089: 8085: 7913: 7878: 7872: 7866: 7756: 7724: 7703: 7521: 7320: 7152: 7121: 7059: 7011: 6932: 6868: 6804: 6799: 6759: 6749: 5783: 3213:" Iraq, vol. 6, no. 2, 1939, pp. 104–108 see p.106-107, number 8. 2748: 2737: 2712: 2606: 2524: 2390:, which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. 2270: 2210: 2149: 2102: 2053: 2052:

The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The

2046: 1992: 1902: 1898: 1732: 1586: 1566: 1488: 1414: 1219: 1090: 1079: 945: 865: 715: 480: 260: 207: 129: 12026: 6609:"Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors" 6517: 5095:"Conclusion: The Impact of City-State Cultures on World History" 4289:

The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period

2402:. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all 12058: 11933: 11868: 11513: 11334: 10318: 10224: 10069: 10024: 9969: 9929: 9913: 9887: 9831: 9676: 9603: 9507: 9475: 9465: 9413: 9314: 9247: 9132: 9086: 9076: 9060: 9025: 8990: 8975: 8970: 8884: 8802: 8788: 8749: 8704: 8638: 8525: 8514: 8485: 8308: 8287: 8246: 8225: 8209: 8190: 8170: 8130: 7506: 7438: 7428: 7423: 7362: 7357: 7269: 7236: 7162: 7116: 7097: 7025: 6952: 6897: 6887: 6883: 6853: 6847: 6824: 6714: 6709: 6699: 6658: 5845:. United States of America: Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 97. 4669:

Stager, L. E. (2003). "Phoenician shipwrecks in the deep sea".

2741: 2687: 2660: 2652: 2619: 2614: 2448: 2398:

Around 1050 BC, the Phoenicians developed a script for writing

2387: 2249: 2173: 2161: 2141: 2140:

The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on

2126: 2098: 2042: 1924: 1822: 1821:

Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than its

1791: 1767: 1755: 1597: 1582: 1562: 1504: 1386: 1337: 1185: 1181: 1064: 1052: 941: 918: 914: 861: 841: 818: 689: 671: 641: 565: 510: 496: 472: 291: 94: 4585: 2609:, portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and 1165:, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the 446: 13396: 12692: 10229: 10219: 10064: 10044: 9989: 9949: 9923: 9867: 9366: 9090: 9066: 8955: 8950: 8863: 8833: 8829: 8622: 8545: 8490: 8454: 8439: 8424: 8393: 8342: 8328: 8292: 8120: 8099: 7719: 7372: 7352: 7347: 7325: 7275: 7251: 7157: 7145: 7140: 7105: 7082: 7001: 6972: 6907: 6863: 6809: 6789: 5956: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4892: 2708: 2671:, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the 2613:, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In 2500: 2495: 2452: 2407: 2339: 2301: 2222: 2184:. Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas. 2145: 2130: 2122: 2117: 1892: 1736: 1638:

interrupted by three significant admixture events during the

1570: 1516: 1227: 1110: 1068: 822: 789: 776: 769: 739: 723: 704: 697: 629: 561: 488: 484: 90: 45: 5990: 1596:, present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a 1382:, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence. 13641:

States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC

13636:

States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC

9826: 9485: 9470: 9450: 9351: 9232: 8714: 8628: 8554: 8535: 8495: 8282: 7715: 7305: 7280: 7129: 7073: 7068: 6858: 6831: 6784: 6764: 6704: 5807: 5438:

Crawley Quinn, Josephine (2018). "A New Phoenician World".

5402:"All at sea: The maritime lives of the ancient Phoenicians" 5163:

David Sacks; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (1 January 2009).

5128: 4828:. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press. p. 85. 4119:"LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XVI Chapters 40‑65" 3943:"Lebanon – Assyrian and Babylonian domination of Phoenicia" 3807:

Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel

3691: 2726: 2610: 2068: 2031: 1720: 1189: 889:, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral 569: 452: 437: 428: 413: 277: 11902: 6100:. Translated by Turton, Mary. Cambridge University Press. 6098:

The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade

6029: 4889: 4285:"The Jews in Carthage and Western North Africa, 66-235 CE" 1491:

in 82 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the Levant.

1468:. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the 1200:

Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

1031: 449: 425: 9460: 8585: 7167: 5978: 5966: 5607:

The Archaic Greece: The Greek city-states 700–500 BC

5018:

Between east and west – The Phoenician shipwreck off Gozo

4754:

Hawkes, Christopher (1977). "Britain and Julius Caesar".

4650: 2041:

The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the

1002: 572:, merchant families probably exercised influence through 422: 5333:

Garnsey, P. D. A.; Whittaker, C. R. (15 February 2007).

5101:. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 601–602. 4988:

Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant

4879: 4877: 4875: 3334: 3320:"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World" 3113: 3111: 3072: 2848:

Traditions & Encounters: From the Beginnings to 1500

2659:

site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast.

2651:

with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancient

2547:

Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm;

1956:

period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part in

1882:

The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with

1608:

in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five

1401:

Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by

6243:

Phoenician Secrets: Exploring the Ancient Mediterranean

6041: 5849: 5819: 5795: 4591: 3918: 3600: 3598: 3192:

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Phoenicia".

3084: 2751:, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects. 1253:

besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor

792:

term for 'Phoenicians', which may be reconstructed as *

6017: 5771: 5563: 5537:

Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet".

5132:

Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam

4157:. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 32–50. 3894: 3737: 3164:

The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World

2865: 2523:

Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and

9717: 5915:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

5658:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

5496:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

5326: 5268:

North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present

4872: 4735: 4568:"Ancient Phoenician life was mixed and multicultural" 3758:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

3632: 3630: 3152:. Stuttgart: Franz Stiener Verlag. pp. 246, 250. 3141: 3108: 2996:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 189–190. 1826:

Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as

1340:(province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 840:

is largely unknown. The two most important sites are

471:

civilization originating in the coastal strip of the

443: 434: 419: 410: 6482:, foreword by Guy Gay-Para, H & D, Paris, 2005, 6147: 5955:

Here, Baal was used instead of the storm god's name

5747: 5735: 5586: 5299:

Swartz, B. K.; Dumett, Raymond E. (1 January 1980).

4904:"2,600-year-old wine 'factory' unearthed in Lebanon" 4154:

The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hellenisation

3912: 3660: 3658: 3595: 1499:

The people now known as Phoenicians were a group of

997:. There was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland. 944:

reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad (

6523:Soren, David; Khader, Aicha B.; Slim, Hedi (1990). 3973:"Tyre in the Early Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E.)" 3966: 3964: 3962: 3607:"Tylos and Tyre. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World" 3521:

The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia

3253: 3179:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. 3096: 3034: 1238:The Assyrian conquest of Phoenicia began with King 1196:(264–146 BC) before being rebuilt as a Roman city. 971:

Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

940:around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer 936:claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the 810:Since little has survived of Phoenician records or 440: 416: 6524: 6493: 6447:, vol. 41, no. 1 (3 January 2019), pp. 15–16. 6229: 5618: 5616: 5565: 4778:Markoe, Glenn; McGovern, Patrick E. (March 1990). 3627: 3550: 3393: 3150:Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World 2736:. Other gods were called by royal titles, such as 1396: 1093:, the King of Israel, is documented in the Bible. 5292: 5190: 4234:Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3655: 3181:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm 1712:on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the 13497: 5647: 5645: 5442:. Princeton University Press. pp. 153–175. 5332: 5076:"2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered" 5051:"2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered" 4151:Millar, Fergus (2006). "The Phoenician Cities". 3959: 3211:The Phoenician Inscriptions of the Cyprus Museum 2778: 2771: 2761: 2755: 2074: 1370:of the late fifth century BC. Phoenicians under 1149: 6522: 6119:Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History". In 5613: 5479:Pritchard, James B.; Edey, Maitland A. (1974). 5156: 5122: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4767: 4765: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3773: 3771: 3604: 3128: 3126: 2845:Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2000). 1324:in 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C. Weatherstone). 259:becomes dominant city-state under the reign of 6596:The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon 5836: 5834: 5129:Eric H. Cline; Mark W. Graham (27 June 2011). 5005:. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 84. 4777: 4213: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 3930: 3671:. American Philosophical Society. p. 48. 3609:. In Khalifa, Haya Ali; Rice, Michael (eds.). 2844: 2822:Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas 2410:). It is believed to be a continuation of the 1991:Warship with two rows of oars, in relief from 1297: 1020:report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring 885:culture. Ghassulian itself developed from the 11918: 9169: 8031: 7594: 6638: 6178:The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems 5642: 5478: 5437: 5360: 5023:(Report). University of Malta. Archived from 4973:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 3636: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3468: 3466: 3453: 3451: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 710:, which meant variably 'Phoenician person', ' 13375:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 6476: 6205: 6159: 5298: 5196: 4762: 4673:. Museum of Cycladic Art. pp. 233–248. 4327: 3856: 3768: 3664: 3123: 2987: 2985: 2983: 1553:(J2)—thought to have originated between the 1188:, assigns the founding of the city to Queen 7608: 5831: 5258: 4135: 3970: 3685: 3275:, vol. 51, no. 1, 2001, pp. 113–15. JSTOR, 3018:"Who Were The Phoenicians? | History Today" 2838: 2455:, whence it gradually diffused northwards. 2308:4th century BC). National Museum of Beirut. 2264: 1592:According to a 2017 study published by the 759: 751: 743: 51: 11925: 11911: 11711:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle 11658:International Congress of Maritime Museums 11638:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology 10930: 9176: 9162: 8038: 8024: 7645:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 7601: 7587: 6645: 6631: 6407:. Penguin (original ed.:Robert Hale 1960). 6402: 6217:(Original ed.: Philosophical Library 1950) 6197:Europe Between the Oceans; 9000 BC-AD 1000 6035: 6013:. New York: Quill Books. pp. 311–333. 5487: 5366: 5339:. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. 5224: 5135:. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. 4823: 4531: 4529: 4291:. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. 4276: 4047: 3900: 3809:. Atlanta: Scholars Press. pp. 29–55. 3611:Bahrain Through The Ages – the Archaeology 3537: 3463: 3448: 3359:Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 3294: 3198:https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenicia 2961: 2707:lived amongst local Phoenicians, and that 2412:Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script 2200: 2112: 1873:BC) depicting a man wearing an all-purple 74: 11771: 11726:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology 6369: 6133:. New York City: Charles Scribner's Son. 5271:. University of Texas Press. p. 25. 4985: 4934:Planet of the Grapes: A Geography of Wine 4883: 4838: 4618: 4509: 4460: 4450: 4390:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4364: 4228: 3755: 3720: 3710: 2980: 2934: 2288: 2164:, as well as on the European mainland in 1117: 464:, or the Phoenician city-states, were an 13566:Ancient history of the Iberian Peninsula 6259: 6194: 5265:Naylor, Phillip Chiviges (1 July 2009). 5197:Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). 4843:. London: John Murray. pp. 162–164. 4656: 3819: 3523:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3472: 3457: 3288: 3203: 3147: 2642: 2584: 2381: 2356:. Its descendant language spoken in the 2304:from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions ( 2296: 2275: 2204: 2121:Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city of 2116: 2084: 1857: 1805: 1741: 1699: 1680: 1423: 1389:of Sidon led a failed rebellion against 1350: 1307: 1213: 901:(PPNB) farming cultures, practicing the 730:Linear B from the 2nd millennium BC, as 13199: 11696:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology 6606: 6426:, PhD Thesis, 2008, Strasbourg, France. 6396:Lectures on the Religion of the Semites 6338: 6327: 6292:. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992) 6199:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 6175: 6126: 6008: 5996: 5984: 5972: 5960: 5943: 5855: 5825: 5813: 5765: 5604: 5592: 5536: 5483:. New York: Time-Life Books. p. 7. 5166:Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World 5073: 5000: 4853: 4641: 4526: 4333: 4246: 3875: 3777: 3572: 3518: 3385: 3132: 3102: 2729:(𐤁𐤏𐤋, 'master', 'lord'), a powerful 2229:rose to become the most powerful city. 2063:In 2014, a 12 metres (39 ft) long 1914:and specific descriptions are unknown. 1036:Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the 1032:Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC) 887:Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex 506:The Phoenicians directly succeeded the 14: 13498: 11648:European Association of Archaeologists 6531:. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. 6302: 6282: 6227: 6214: 6023: 5801: 5789: 5651: 5568:World History: Patterns of Interaction 5264: 5092: 5015: 4753: 4741: 4668: 4282: 4150: 4050:"A History of Phoenician Civilization" 3924: 3804: 3743: 3484: 3117: 3090: 2754:Religious institutions in Tyre called 2191: 1407:military campaigns across western Asia 952:). Some archaeologists working on the 932:The fourth-century BC Greek historian 11906: 11770: 10929: 10904:Pompey's campaign against the pirates 10862: 10732: 10731: 10114: 9716: 9195: 9183: 9157: 8019: 8001: 7980: 7970: 7888: 7859: 7791: 7767: 7582: 6626: 6450: 6390: 6347: 6343:. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. 6240: 6236:. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. 6092: 6047: 5908: 5885: 5840: 5777: 5753: 5741: 5493: 5230: 4970: 4484:Harb, Marc; et al. (July 2017). 4387: 4102: 4087: 4072: 4032: 4017: 3548: 3352: 3340: 3317: 3259: 3078: 3040: 2991: 2917: 2871: 2426:, North Africa, and Europe. The name 696:was evidently borrowed into Greek as 27:Ancient Semitic maritime civilization 13403: 5203:. Infobase Publishing. p. 586. 5074:Lorenzi, Rossella (28 August 2014). 4931: 4808: 4535: 4483: 4195:"Alexander's Siege of Tyre, 332 BCE" 3503: 3427: 3391: 3277:http://www.jstor.org/stable/27926965 2148:, gradually moving westward towards 591:, whose origin was connected to the 11643:Archaeological Institute of America 6262:The Phoenicians: Lost Civilizations 6223:]. New York City: Citadel Pres. 5609:. Ernest Benn Ltd & Tonnbridge. 5169:. Infobase Publishing. p. 76. 4858:. Captivating History. p. 60. 4323:from the original on June 28, 2023. 3639:The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf 2921:A Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature 1658:(12%–37%). The results show that a 1385:In the mid-fourth century BC, King 24: 7568:Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions 6653:Ancient states and regions in the 6414: 6130:Dictionary of Comparative Religion 5572:. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. 5305:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 236. 5231:Smith, Richard L. (31 July 2008). 5003:Ancient Phoenicia: An Introduction 4824:Moore, Karl; Lewis, David (1999). 4756:Proceedings of the British Academy 4599:American Journal of Human Genetics 4490:American Journal of Human Genetics 4344:American Journal of Human Genetics 4287:. In Davies, William David (ed.). 3792:10.1111/j.1931-0846.1999.tb00214.x 3699:American Journal of Human Genetics 2499:mentions the embroidered robes of 1632:American Journal of Human Genetics 1594:American Journal of Human Genetics 1530: 1332:, king and founder of the Persian 548:The Phoenicians were organized in 25: 13662: 11653:Institute of Nautical Archaeology 11043:Coastal defence and fortification 10418:Roman circumnavigation of Britain 9718:Navigation, and ports and harbors 6591:: The Phoenicians (audio archive) 6546: 5696:"The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)" 5654:"The Emergence of Phoenician Art" 5048: 3555:. In Miller; et al. (eds.). 3177:Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History 2740:, meaning 'king of the city', or 2725:(𐤀𐤋, 'god'). The son of El was 1685:Major Phoenician trade networks ( 1630:In a 2020 study published in the 1322:second Persian invasion of Greece 674:contain references to a "land of 556:, of which the most notable were 13536:6th-century BC disestablishments 13446: 13429: 13412: 11887: 11753: 11678:Society for American Archaeology 10912: 10845: 10714: 10097: 9699: 8046: 6423:Les ports phéniciens et puniques 6306:Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians 6241:Holst, Sanford (30 April 2011). 6171:]. New York City: Taplinger. 6002: 5949: 5902: 5879: 5861: 5712: 5688: 5652:Markoe, Glenn E. (August 1990). 5598: 5557: 5530: 5472: 5431: 5418: 5412: 5394: 5234:Premodern Trade in World History 5200:Encyclopedia of European Peoples 4548:from the original on Aug 9, 2021 3913:Charles-Picard & Picard 1968 3324:Comparative Civilizations Review 2568: 2556: 2540: 2516: 2007: 1984: 1853: 1501:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 1173:, a Greek historian from Sicily 406: 383: 358: 344: 330: 172:Major kings of Phoenician cities 13571:Ancient history of North Africa 11110:Phoenician discovery of America 8680:Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir) 5898:(2) – via Boston College. 5481:Introduction to The Sea Traders 5086: 5067: 5042: 5009: 4994: 4979: 4964: 4940: 4925: 4847: 4832: 4817: 4802: 4747: 4696: 4687: 4662: 4635: 4560: 4477: 4416: 4381: 4305: 4267: 4240: 4187: 4111: 4096: 4081: 4066: 4041: 4026: 4011: 3822:American Journal of Archaeology 3813: 3798: 3749: 3578: 3512: 3478: 3421: 3346: 3282: 3265: 3229: 3216: 3186: 3169: 3156: 3046: 2596:BC). National Museum of Beirut. 1975: 1541:Lebanese people § Genetics 1494: 1472:of Egypt during the forty-year 1456:recounts how the Seleucid King 1397:Hellenistic period (332–152 BC) 1210:Phoenicia under Babylonian rule 917:. The Late Bronze Age state of 294:conquers Phoenicia and rest of 10802:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 8052:Phoenician cities and colonies 6454:Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic 6355:. Princeton University Press. 6334:. London, England: Elek Books. 6311:University of California Press 6169:The Life and Death of Carthage 6068:The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com 5093:Hansen, Mogens Herman (2000). 5016:Gambin, Timmy (October 2017). 4250:Studies in Hellenistic Judaism 4181:10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8 4163:10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8 3588:1.1, 2.44 & 7.89; Strabo, 3133:Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). 3010: 2955: 2928: 2911: 2893: 2884:Carthage and the Carthaginians 2877: 1931: 1616:(the other 7 percent was of a 1096:During the rule of the priest 613:Classical Western civilization 580:in the mid-second century BC. 479:, primarily located in modern 276:founded (in Roman accounts by 215:• 820 – 774 BC 203:• 969 – 936 BC 13: 1: 13631:Former countries in West Asia 13626:History of Palestine (region) 11721:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa 10396:Phoenician maritime expansion 6518:https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/ 6403:Warmington, Brian H. (1964). 6398:. New York: Meridian Library. 6331:Ancient Semitic Civilizations 6127:Brandon, S.G.F., ed. (1970). 5551:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978 5367:P. Roberts (1 October 2004). 4854:History, Captivating (2019). 3613:. Routledge. pp. 401–2. 3489:. Madison: Prehistory Press. 3137:. Reaktion Books. p. 90. 2827: 2719:Canaanite religious mythology 2590: 2305: 2075:Important cities and colonies 1996: 1867: 1770:"may have been acquired from 1686: 1537:Canaan § Genetic studies 1288: 1281: 1230:(859–824 BC). British Museum. 1218:Two bronze fragments from an 1206:Phoenicia under Assyrian rule 1174: 1083: 960: 649: 186: 13621:History of the Mediterranean 11663:Nautical Archaeology Society 6820:Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia 6577:Resources in other libraries 6457:. Harvard University Press. 6433:, Princeton, 2017, 360 pp., 6431:In Search of the Phoenicians 6353:In Search of the Phoenicians 6341:The World of the Phoenicians 5440:In Search of the Phoenicians 5373:. Pascal Press. p. 64. 4910:. 2020-09-14. Archived from 4452:10.1371/journal.pone.0155046 3355:"Canaanites and Philistines" 2832: 2589:Female figurines from Tyre ( 2213:, located in the village of 2016:Timber Transportation relief 1549:found that six subclades of 1150: 777: 705: 618: 7: 13611:Iron Age cultures of Africa 11932: 11716:Museum of Ancient Seafaring 11093:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion 10899:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar 10756:Indus–Mesopotamia relations 10115: 9196: 6260:Jigoulov, Vadim S. (2021). 4986:Wachsmann, Shelley (1998). 4536:Abed, Mira (27 July 2017). 3971:Katzenstein, Jacob (1979). 3805:Barnes, William H. (1991). 3434:. Oxford University Press. 3392:Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998). 2795: 2626: 2371: 2354:Northwest Semitic languages 2329: 2320: 1801: 1727:, Israel. Pottery kilns at 1298:Persian period (539–332 BC) 89:None; dominant cities were 10: 13667: 11572:Phoenician Ship Expedition 10863: 10413:Pytheas' voyage to Britain 10406:Circumnavigation of Africa 9032:Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte) 6598:(archived 10 January 2009) 6501:. Harlow, Essex: Longman. 6339:Moscati, Sabatino (1965). 6328:Moscati, Sabatino (1957). 6116:, University of Liverpool. 6084: 5792:, pp. 113–143, 114–5. 5629:World History Encyclopedia 5425:World History Encyclopedia 4841:The Secret Lives of Colour 4839:St. Clair, Kassia (2016). 4826:Birth of the Multinational 4611:10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008 4502:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013 4357:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012 4247:Feldman, Louis H. (1996). 4200:World History Encyclopedia 3977:The Biblical Archaeologist 3712:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013 3557:Ancient Israelite Religion 3431:Ancient Israel's Neighbors 3371:10.1177/030908929802308104 3273:Israel Exploration Journal 3200:. Accessed 9 January 2022. 3059:World History Encyclopedia 2905:Collins English Dictionary 2686:. Special sites known as " 2636: 2630: 2549:Metropolitan Museum of Art 2481:conventions well into the 2462: 2375: 2333: 2078: 1674: 1665: 1534: 1301: 1276:(626–605 BC), and his son 1203: 1121: 859: 855: 803: 799: 770: 698: 151:, with varying degrees of 46: 32:Phoenicia (disambiguation) 29: 13616:Iron Age cultures of Asia 13368: 13320: 12837: 12241: 11940: 11885: 11777: 11766: 11751: 11686: 11628: 11431: 11415: 11163: 11098:Samothrace temple complex 11033: 10988: 10947: 10940: 10936: 10925: 10910: 10869: 10858: 10843: 10741: 10727: 10712: 10665: 10618: 10471: 10438: 10431: 10369: 10170: 10127: 10123: 10110: 10095: 9814: 9727: 9723: 9712: 9697: 9649: 9584: 9521: 9406: 9375: 9208: 9204: 9191: 9120: 8999: 8943: 8812: 8785:Portus Magonis (Portimão) 8773: 8657: 8604: 8568: 8478: 8357: 8349:Strato's Tower (Caesarea) 8301: 8270: 8234: 8058: 7998: 7977: 7965: 7962: 7955: 7952: 7934: 7924: 7907: 7900: 7898: 7864: 7852: 7843: 7834: 7829: 7801: 7784: 7755: 7740: 7735: 7714: 7709: 7697: 7687: 7675: 7665: 7647: 7644: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7617: 7555: 7449: 7190: 6723: 6665: 6572:Resources in your library 6497:; Andrew Fleming (1987). 6303:Markoe, Glenn E. (2000). 6298:]. Oxford: Blackwell. 6288:(Original ed. in French: 6176:Coulmas, Florian (1996). 6009:Carlyon, Richard (1981). 5886:Nisan, Mordechai (2015). 5237:. Routledge. p. 65. 4642:Braudel, Fernand (2001). 4048:MAMcIntosh (2018-08-29). 3641:. Routledge. p. 20. 3487:Pastoralism in the Levant 2924:. Adan and Charles Black. 2406:(and is thus strictly an 2392:National Museum of Beirut 2081:List of Phoenician cities 1917: 1444:Alexander's empire had a 1156: 684:being the plural form of 309: 305: 288: 270: 253: 243: 239: 229: 225: 213: 201: 183: 179: 171: 140: 128: 118: 104: 85: 73: 68: 39: 13576:Ancient Israel and Judah 10386:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 8531:Ornithon (Tell el-Burak) 7626:Northwestern Mesopotamia 6451:Cross, Frank M. (1973). 6376:The History of Phoenicia 6349:Quinn, Josephine Crawley 6195:Cunliffe, Barry (2008). 5768:, e.g., p. 40 & 113. 4644:Memory and Mediterranean 4283:Selzer, Claudia (1984). 4105:The Histories, Book VIII 3605:Bowersock, G.W. (1986). 3279:. Accessed 27 Aug. 2022. 2580: 1944:via trade routes across 1670: 1038:Late Bronze Age collapse 903:domestication of animals 870:Prehistory of the Levant 589:oldest verified alphabet 515:Late Bronze Age collapse 13596:Axial Age civilizations 11668:RPM Nautical Foundation 11405:Surviving ancient ships 11324:Marsala Punic shipwreck 6228:Harden, Donald (1962). 6207:Histoire de la Phénicie 6161:Vie et mort de Carthage 6149:Charles-Picard, Gilbert 5963:, pp. 315, 28, 124 5841:Dever, William (2008). 5605:Jeffery, L. H. (1976). 4952:Encyclopædia Britannica 4090:The Histories, Book VII 4035:The Histories, Book III 4020:The Histories, Book III 3947:Encyclopedia Britannica 3880:. Captivating History. 3519:Woodard, Roger (2008). 3428:Doak, Brian R. (2020). 3194:Encyclopedia Britannica 3162:Scott, John C. (2018) " 2992:Gates, Charles (2011). 2941:. Infobase Publishing. 2935:Malaspina, Ann (2009). 2779: 2772: 2762: 2756: 2533:Cleveland Museum of Art 2201:Politics and government 2113:Phoenician colonization 2105:, Botrys, Sarepta, and 2065:Phoenician trading ship 1656:South-Eastern Europeans 925:does not belong to the 899:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B 578:destruction of Carthage 539:cradles of civilization 69:2500 BC–64 BC 11701:Giza Solar boat museum 11155:Underwater exploration 11150:Underwater archaeology 11115:Pre-Columbian theories 10970:John Sinclair Morrison 10931:Research and education 10381:Austronesian Expansion 7786:Middle Hittite Kingdom 7413:Luwian-Aramaean states 6477: 6444:London Review of Books 6206: 6165:Paris: Hatchette 1968) 6160: 6157:(Original French ed.: 6114:Review by Roger Wright 5448:10.2307/j.ctvc77kkd.13 5001:Woolmer, Mark (2011). 4809:Herm, Gerhard (1975). 4780:"A Nation of Artisans" 4337:; et al. (2008). 3637:Rice, Michael (1994). 3549:Naveh, Joseph (1987). 3353:Drews, Robert (1998). 3318:Scott, John C (2018). 3222:James P. Allen (2010) 2664: 2597: 2465:Phoenician metal bowls 2458: 2395: 2309: 2289:Law and administration 2281: 2265: 2218: 2133: 2090: 1879: 1818: 1751: 1714:Mycenaean civilization 1705: 1693: 1481:Seleucid Dynastic Wars 1441: 1428:A naval action during 1363: 1325: 1231: 1118:Foundation of Carthage 760: 752: 744: 552:, similar to those of 379:Syria (Roman province) 52: 13482:34.12361°N 35.65111°E 13345:Medieval great powers 11772:Legend and literature 11730:Viking ship museums: 11706:Grand Egyptian Museum 11466:Austronesian replicas 11441:Heyerdahl expeditions 11351:Caligula's Giant Ship 11211:Dover Bronze Age Boat 9873:Berenice Troglodytica 8375:Cape Melqart (Cefalù) 7909:Neo-Babylonian Empire 7742:Old Babylonian Empire 7657:Early Dynastic period 7264:Neo-Babylonian Empire 6848:Canaanite city-states 6472:Thiollet, Jean-Pierre 6180:. Oxford: Blackwell. 5946:, p. 258 ("El"). 4914:on September 15, 2020 4908:History & Culture 4123:penelope.uchicago.edu 4075:The Histories, Book V 3665:R. A. Donkin (1998). 3241:www.perseus.tufts.edu 2673:ancient Semitic world 2646: 2588: 2418:and in Canaan in the 2385: 2300: 2279: 2217:, in southern Lebanon 2208: 2120: 2088: 1861: 1811:Phoenician metal bowl 1809: 1745: 1703: 1684: 1436:(332 BC). Drawing by 1427: 1354: 1311: 1270:Neo-Babylonian Empire 1217: 1169:in 1180 BC. However, 1163:Philistos of Syracuse 1144:. The city's name in 593:Proto-Sinaitic script 477:eastern Mediterranean 159:elements; oligarchic 105:Common languages 13355:European colonialism 13340:Ancient great powers 11673:Sea Research Society 11075:Maritime archaeology 10884:Ameinias the Phocian 10879:Mediterranean piracy 9052:Maqom Hadesh (Ounga) 8890:Carthage (Cartagena) 8278:Callista (Santorini) 8216:Tipasa in Mauretania 8176:Rusippisir (Taksebt) 7636:Southern Mesopotamia 7631:Northern Mesopotamia 7547:Tanukhid confederacy 7382:New Kingdom of Egypt 6615:University of Oxford 6094:Aubet, Maria Eugenia 5999:, pp. 173, 501. 5892:The Levantine Review 5843:Did God Have a Wife? 5049:Klein, Christopher. 4037:. pp. 218, §91. 3135:A history of writing 3022:www.historytoday.com 2918:Kitto, John (1851). 2348:was a member of the 2211:King Hiram I of Tyre 2101:) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, 1677:Phoenicians and wine 1660:Steppe-like ancestry 1545:A 2008 study led by 1503:that emerged in the 1304:Achaemenid Phoenicia 1009:from as far east as 911:Neolithic Revolution 806:History of Phoenicia 646:Honeyman inscription 30:For other uses, see 13606:Bronze Age cultures 13478: / 13350:Modern great powers 10766:Maritime Jade Route 9919:Kaveri Poompattinam 8789:Olissipona (Lisbon) 7890:Neo-Assyrian Empire 7804:Bronze Age Collapse 7737:Old Hittite Kingdom 7711:Old Assyrian period 7689:Third Dynasty of Ur 7259:Neo-Assyrian Empire 7042:Paleo-Syrian states 6607:Sam Haselby (ed.). 6602:Phoenician Alphabet 6478:Je m'appelle Byblos 6392:Smith, W. Robertson 6383:Röllig, W. (1995), 6296:Carthage. A History 6245:. Santorini Books. 6011:A Guide to the Gods 5816:, pp. 512–513. 5406:press.princeton.edu 5370:HSC Ancient History 4443:2016PLoSO..1155046M 3878:Captivating History 3780:Geographical Review 3343:, pp. 24, 204. 3081:, pp. 201–203. 2962:Meir Edrey (2019). 2807:Names of the Levant 2680:temple prostitution 2551:(New York City, US) 2378:Phoenician alphabet 2358:Carthaginian Empire 2346:Phoenician language 2336:Phoenician language 2192:Society and culture 1958:Phoenician religion 1888:hypobranchial gland 1710:Minoan civilization 1430:Alexander the Great 1403:Alexander the Great 1244:Tiglath-Pileser III 1132:History of Carthage 958:Dilmun civilization 927:Canaanite languages 909:, which led to the 657:William F. Albright 245:• Established 234:Classical antiquity 190: 1800 BC 13487:34.12361; 35.65111 11314:Bajo de la Campana 11016:Peter Throckmorton 11001:Jean-Yves Empereur 10975:William L. Rodgers 10796:Maritime Silk Road 8961:Balanaea (Baniyas) 8191:Rusuccuru (Dellys) 7746:Southern Akkadians 7653:Jemdet Nasr period 7502:Herodian Tetrarchy 6420:Carayon, Nicolas, 6070:. 8 September 2020 5933:– via JSTOR. 5909:Stern, E. (1990). 5030:on 6 November 2020 4932:Sechrist, Robert. 4721:10.1111/arcm.12623 4402:10.1002/ajpa.20273 4335:Zalloua, Pierre A. 4230:Stockwell, Stephen 3559:. Fortress Press. 2874:, pp. 18, 44. 2665: 2633:Canaanite religion 2617:'s epic poem, the 2598: 2440:Canaanite dialects 2400:their own language 2396: 2366:Augustine of Hippo 2310: 2282: 2219: 2134: 2091: 1880: 1819: 1752: 1706: 1694: 1576:In 2016, the rare 1555:Caucasus Mountains 1485:Tigranes the Great 1442: 1368:Greco-Persian Wars 1364: 1326: 1318:Xerxes I of Persia 1312:Phoenicians build 1232: 907:8.2 kiloyear event 609:Cyrillic alphabets 123:Canaanite religion 13591:Ancient Near East 13511:2nd millennium BC 13394: 13393: 13316: 13315: 13281:Polish–Lithuanian 12456:Gurjara-Pratihara 11900: 11899: 11896: 11895: 11762: 11761: 11749: 11748: 11369:Madrague de Giens 11088:Temple of Isthmia 11084:Maritime temples 11070:Marine navigation 11029: 11028: 11021:Shelley Wachsmann 11011:J. Richard Steffy 10921: 10920: 10854: 10853: 10723: 10722: 10710: 10709: 10661: 10660: 10391:Ocean exploration 10106: 10105: 10093: 10092: 9752:Rutter (nautical) 9708: 9707: 9695: 9694: 9551:Mortise and tenon 9185:Ancient seafaring 9151: 9150: 8781:Portus Hannibalis 8670:Arambys (Mogador) 8555:Ushu (Palaetyrus) 8536:Porphyreon (Jieh) 8405:Kapara (Soluntum) 8221:Tipasa in Numidia 8171:Rusicade (Skikda) 8013: 8012: 8008: 8007: 7936:Macedonian Empire 7926:Achaemenid Empire 7799:c. 1200–1150 BCE 7782:c. 1400–1200 BCE 7753:c. 1600–1400 BCE 7733:c. 1800–1600 BCE 7695:c. 2000–1800 BCE 7685:c. 2100–2000 BCE 7673:c. 2200–2100 BCE 7663:c. 2350–2200 BCE 7642:c. 3500–2350 BCE 7576: 7575: 7517:Nabataean Kingdom 7492:Hasmonean dynasty 7487:Ghassanid Kingdom 7200:Achaemenid Empire 7036:Ib'al Confederacy 6675:Kish civilization 6553:Library resources 6508:978-0-582-49274-5 6439:978 0 691 17527 0 6371:Rawlinson, George 6362:978-1-4008-8911-2 6320:978-0-520-22614-2 6275:978-1-789-14478-9 6221:Ancient Religions 6187:978-0-631-21481-6 6107:978-0-521-79543-2 6050:, pp. 33–43. 6036:Warmington (1964) 5987:, pp. 29–30. 5975:, pp. 113–4. 5723:www.metmuseum.org 5700:www.metmuseum.org 5579:978-0-395-87274-1 5539:World Archaeology 5380:978-1-74125-179-1 5346:978-0-521-03390-9 5312:978-3-11-080068-5 5278:978-0-292-77878-8 5244:978-0-203-89352-4 5210:978-1-4381-2918-1 5176:978-1-4381-1020-2 5142:978-0-521-88911-7 5108:978-87-7876-177-4 4680:978-960-7064-40-0 4659:, pp. 241–2. 4574:. 10 January 2018 4542:Los Angeles Times 4298:978-0-521-77248-8 4273:Rives, 1995 p.220 4260:978-90-04-10418-1 3927:, pp. 20–23. 3915:, pp. 28–35. 3901:Warmington (1964) 3530:978-0-521-68498-9 3209:Honeyman, A. M. " 3093:, pp. 10–12. 3003:978-0-203-83057-4 2973:978-3-86835-282-5 2948:978-1-4381-0579-6 2888:R. Bosworth Smith 2858:978-0-07-004949-9 2036:mortise-and-tenon 1938:common grape vine 1901:, in present-day 1766:. Tin for making 1764:Iberian Peninsula 1551:Haplogroup J-M172 1470:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1411:seven month siege 1380:Battle of Salamis 1334:Achaemenid Empire 1278:Nebuchadnezzar II 1142:Iberian Peninsula 923:Ugaritic language 878:from the earlier 846:Middle Bronze Age 501:Iberian Peninsula 399: 398: 395: 394: 391: 390: 371: 370: 220:Pygmalion of Tyre 16:(Redirected from 13658: 13646:Canaanite people 13561:Ancient Anatolia 13493: 13492: 13490: 13489: 13488: 13483: 13479: 13476: 13475: 13474: 13471: 13459: 13451: 13450: 13449: 13442: 13434: 13433: 13432: 13425: 13417: 13416: 13415: 13405: 13197: 13196: 12862:Austro-Hungarian 12562:Chagatai Khanate 11927: 11920: 11913: 11904: 11903: 11891: 11890: 11785:Ark of bulrushes 11768: 11767: 11757: 11756: 11395:Oldest surviving 11105:Nusantao network 10980:Chester G. Starr 10945: 10944: 10938: 10937: 10927: 10926: 10916: 10915: 10889:Cilician pirates 10860: 10859: 10849: 10848: 10786:Sa Huynh-Kalanay 10781:Iron Age Britain 10729: 10728: 10718: 10717: 10436: 10435: 10125: 10124: 10112: 10111: 10101: 10100: 10015:Ptolemais Theron 9725: 9724: 9714: 9713: 9703: 9702: 9295:Single-outrigger 9206: 9205: 9193: 9192: 9178: 9171: 9164: 9155: 9154: 8920:Tagilit (Tíjola) 8695:Shalat (Chellah) 8665:Azama (Azemmour) 8050: 8040: 8033: 8026: 8017: 8016: 7986:Byzantine Empire 7861:Middle Babylonia 7827:c. 1150–911 BCE 7620: 7619: 7603: 7596: 7589: 7580: 7579: 7527:Palmyrene Empire 7497:Herodian kingdom 7471:Byzantine Empire 7286:Israel (Samaria) 6647: 6640: 6633: 6624: 6623: 6619: 6542: 6530: 6512: 6480: 6468: 6408: 6399: 6380: 6366: 6344: 6335: 6324: 6309:. Berkeley, CA: 6299: 6279: 6256: 6237: 6235: 6224: 6209: 6203:Elayi, J. 2013. 6200: 6191: 6172: 6163: 6144: 6111: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6075: 6060: 6051: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6015: 6014: 6006: 6000: 5994: 5988: 5982: 5976: 5970: 5964: 5953: 5947: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5883: 5877: 5876: 5865: 5859: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5838: 5829: 5823: 5817: 5811: 5805: 5804:, pp. 83–4. 5799: 5793: 5787: 5781: 5780:, pp. 1–15. 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5716: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5706: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5649: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5636: 5624:"Phoenician Art" 5620: 5611: 5610: 5602: 5596: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5571: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5534: 5528: 5527: 5491: 5485: 5484: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5419:Mark, Joshua J. 5416: 5410: 5409: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5364: 5358: 5357: 5355: 5353: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5262: 5256: 5255: 5253: 5251: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5160: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5149: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5090: 5084: 5083: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5029: 5022: 5013: 5007: 5006: 4998: 4992: 4991: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4958: 4944: 4938: 4937: 4929: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4919: 4900: 4887: 4884:Rawlinson (1889) 4881: 4870: 4869: 4851: 4845: 4844: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4806: 4800: 4799: 4775: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4745: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4700: 4694: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4622: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4579: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4533: 4524: 4523: 4513: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4464: 4454: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4368: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4319:. 30 June 2023. 4309: 4303: 4302: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4226: 4211: 4210: 4208: 4207: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4148: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4129: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4085: 4079: 4078: 4077:. pp. §109. 4070: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4030: 4024: 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and in 2595: 2592: 2572: 2560: 2544: 2520: 2491:Solomon's Temple 2414:attested in the 2307: 2268: 2182:Balearic Islands 2154:Balearic Islands 2011: 2001: 1998: 1988: 1872: 1869: 1691: 1688: 1610:Canaanite people 1606:Sanger Institute 1293: 1290: 1286: 1283: 1235:their autonomy. 1179: 1176: 1160: 1158: 1153: 1128:Ancient Carthage 1088: 1085: 1061:Balearic Islands 995:native cedarwood 965: 962: 838:Early Bronze Age 780: 773: 772: 763: 755: 747: 708: 701: 700: 654: 651: 603:and in turn the 459: 458: 455: 454: 451: 448: 445: 442: 439: 436: 431: 430: 427: 424: 421: 418: 415: 412: 387: 386: 375: 374: 362: 361: 348: 347: 334: 333: 327: 326: 311: 310: 191: 188: 78: 63: 55: 49: 48: 37: 36: 21: 13666: 13665: 13661: 13660: 13659: 13657: 13656: 13655: 13601:Bronze Age Asia 13581:Ancient Lebanon 13496: 13495: 13486: 13484: 13480: 13477: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13465: 13464: 13462: 13458:from Wikisource 13452: 13447: 13445: 13435: 13430: 13428: 13424:from Wiktionary 13418: 13413: 13411: 13408: 13404:sister projects 13401:at Knowledge's 13395: 13390: 13379:American Empire 13364: 13360:African empires 13312: 13195: 12887:Central African 12833: 12651:Romano-Germanic 12237: 11971:Middle Assyrian 11944: 11936: 11931: 11901: 11892: 11888: 11883: 11773: 11758: 11754: 11745: 11688: 11682: 11630: 11629:Institutes and 11624: 11579:Viking replicas 11520:Balangay Voyage 11433: 11427: 11411: 11166: 11159: 11035: 11025: 10984: 10932: 10917: 10913: 10908: 10865: 10850: 10846: 10841: 10737: 10719: 10715: 10706: 10657: 10614: 10467: 10427: 10372: 10365: 10166: 10119: 10102: 10098: 10089: 9965:Mueang Phra Rot 9819: 9810: 9719: 9704: 9700: 9691: 9645: 9619:Triangular sail 9580: 9517: 9491:Sail components 9402: 9371: 9345:Tessarakonteres 9200: 9187: 9182: 9152: 9147: 9116: 9007:Aspis (Kelibia) 8995: 8939: 8808: 8794:Ossonoba (Faro) 8769: 8653: 8600: 8564: 8501:Athar (Tripoli) 8474: 8353: 8297: 8266: 8230: 8106:Iol (Cherchell) 8054: 8044: 8014: 8009: 8003:Sassanid Empire 7972:Parthian Empire 7967:Seleucid Empire 7957:Seleucid Empire 7876: 7870: 7847: 7838: 7667:Akkadian Empire 7613: 7607: 7577: 7572: 7551: 7542:Sasanian Empire 7537:Seleucid Empire 7532:Parthian Empire 7482:Emesene Dynasty 7445: 7291:Israel (united) 7206:Aramaean states 7186: 6733:Akkadian Empire 6719: 6661: 6651: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6561: 6560: 6556: 6549: 6539: 6509: 6465: 6417: 6415:Further reading 6412: 6411: 6363: 6321: 6276: 6253: 6232:The Phoenicians 6211:. Paris: Perrin 6188: 6153:Picard, Colette 6141: 6121:The Phoenicians 6108: 6087: 6082: 6073: 6071: 6062: 6061: 6054: 6046: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6022: 6018: 6007: 6003: 5995: 5991: 5983: 5979: 5971: 5967: 5954: 5950: 5942: 5938: 5923:10.2307/1357206 5907: 5903: 5884: 5880: 5867: 5866: 5862: 5854: 5850: 5839: 5832: 5824: 5820: 5812: 5808: 5800: 5796: 5788: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5752: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5727: 5725: 5718: 5717: 5713: 5704: 5702: 5694: 5693: 5689: 5666:10.2307/1357205 5650: 5643: 5634: 5632: 5622: 5621: 5614: 5603: 5599: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5562: 5558: 5535: 5531: 5508:10.2307/1356511 5492: 5488: 5477: 5473: 5458: 5436: 5432: 5417: 5413: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5365: 5361: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5331: 5327: 5317: 5315: 5313: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5263: 5259: 5249: 5247: 5245: 5229: 5225: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5195: 5191: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5161: 5157: 5147: 5145: 5143: 5127: 5123: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5091: 5087: 5072: 5068: 5059: 5057: 5047: 5043: 5033: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5014: 5010: 4999: 4995: 4984: 4980: 4969: 4965: 4956: 4954: 4948:"Galley | ship" 4946: 4945: 4941: 4936:. pp. 6–7. 4930: 4926: 4917: 4915: 4902: 4901: 4890: 4882: 4873: 4866: 4852: 4848: 4837: 4833: 4822: 4818: 4811:The Phoenicians 4807: 4803: 4776: 4763: 4752: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4681: 4667: 4663: 4657:Cunliffe (2008) 4655: 4651: 4640: 4636: 4590: 4586: 4577: 4575: 4572:Cosmos Magazine 4566: 4565: 4561: 4551: 4549: 4534: 4527: 4482: 4478: 4437:(5): e0155046. 4421: 4417: 4386: 4382: 4332: 4328: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4245: 4241: 4227: 4214: 4205: 4203: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4173: 4149: 4136: 4127: 4125: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4107:. pp. §90. 4101: 4097: 4092:. pp. §23. 4086: 4082: 4071: 4067: 4058: 4056: 4046: 4042: 4031: 4027: 4022:. pp. §19. 4016: 4012: 3989:10.2307/3209545 3969: 3960: 3951: 3949: 3941: 3940: 3931: 3923: 3919: 3911: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3874: 3857: 3818: 3814: 3803: 3799: 3776: 3769: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3663: 3656: 3649: 3635: 3628: 3621: 3603: 3596: 3583: 3579: 3567: 3547: 3538: 3531: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3483: 3479: 3475:, pp. 18–9 3471: 3464: 3456: 3449: 3442: 3426: 3422: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3390: 3386: 3351: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3316: 3295: 3287: 3283: 3271:Naveh, Joseph. 3270: 3266: 3258: 3254: 3245: 3243: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3221: 3217: 3208: 3204: 3191: 3187: 3174: 3170: 3161: 3157: 3146: 3142: 3131: 3124: 3116: 3109: 3101: 3097: 3089: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3064: 3062: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3039: 3035: 3026: 3024: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3004: 2990: 2981: 2974: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2933: 2929: 2916: 2912: 2898: 2894: 2882: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2859: 2851:. McGraw Hill. 2843: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2798: 2684:child sacrifice 2661:Musée du Louvre 2641: 2635: 2629: 2594: 1000–550 2593: 2583: 2576: 2573: 2564: 2561: 2552: 2545: 2536: 2521: 2471: 2461: 2420:Late Bronze Age 2386:Sarcophagus of 2380: 2374: 2342: 2334:Main articles: 2332: 2323: 2291: 2257:Babylonian rule 2203: 2194: 2115: 2083: 2077: 2067:was found near 2028: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2012: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1989: 1978: 1934: 1920: 1870: 1856: 1830:, engraved and 1804: 1690: 1200–800 1689: 1679: 1673: 1668: 1618:Eurasian steppe 1543: 1533: 1531:Genetic studies 1497: 1438:André Castaigne 1399: 1330:Cyrus the Great 1314:pontoon bridges 1306: 1300: 1291: 1284: 1240:Shalmaneser III 1212: 1204:Main articles: 1202: 1177: 1157:𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕 1154: 1138: 1122:Main articles: 1120: 1086: 1047:Early into the 1034: 973: 963: 872: 860:Main articles: 858: 850:Late Bronze Age 836:The Phoenician 808: 802: 728:Mycenaean Greek 652: 621: 466:ancient Semitic 433: 409: 405: 384: 366:Egyptian Empire 359: 345: 331: 298: 296:Seleucid Empire 281: 263: 246: 216: 204: 192: 189: 167:after c. 480 BC 81: 64: 57: 50: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13664: 13654: 13653: 13651:Tribe of Asher 13648: 13643: 13638: 13633: 13628: 13623: 13618: 13613: 13608: 13603: 13598: 13593: 13588: 13586:Ancient Levant 13583: 13578: 13573: 13568: 13563: 13558: 13553: 13551:Ancient Europe 13548: 13546:Ancient Africa 13543: 13538: 13533: 13531:6th century BC 13528: 13526:7th century BC 13523: 13521:8th century BC 13518: 13516:9th century BC 13513: 13508: 13461: 13460: 13443: 13426: 13397: 13392: 13391: 13389: 13388: 13387: 13386: 13381: 13372: 13370: 13366: 13365: 13363: 13362: 13357: 13352: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13336: 13335: 13324: 13322: 13318: 13317: 13314: 13313: 13311: 13310: 13305: 13300: 13295: 13290: 13289: 13288: 13278: 13273: 13268: 13263: 13258: 13253: 13248: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13232: 13231: 13226: 13216: 13211: 13205: 13203: 13194: 13193: 13192: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13171: 13161: 13156: 13155: 13154: 13144: 13139: 13138: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13117: 13112: 13111: 13110: 13105: 13095: 13094: 13093: 13088: 13083: 13078: 13073: 13063: 13062: 13061: 13056: 13046: 13041: 13036: 13031: 13030: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13014: 13009: 12999: 12998: 12997: 12992: 12982: 12977: 12976: 12975: 12970: 12960: 12959: 12958: 12953: 12943: 12942: 12941: 12936: 12926: 12921: 12920: 12919: 12914: 12909: 12904: 12899: 12889: 12884: 12883: 12882: 12877: 12869: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12843: 12841: 12835: 12834: 12832: 12831: 12826: 12821: 12816: 12815: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12774: 12769: 12768: 12767: 12762: 12757: 12752: 12747: 12742: 12732: 12731: 12730: 12725: 12720: 12715: 12705: 12700: 12695: 12690: 12685: 12680: 12675: 12670: 12665: 12664: 12663: 12658: 12648: 12647: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12608: 12603: 12598: 12593: 12592: 12591: 12586: 12581: 12571: 12570: 12569: 12564: 12559: 12554: 12544: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12518: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12492: 12491: 12490: 12485: 12480: 12475: 12465: 12464: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12422: 12421: 12416: 12411: 12401: 12396: 12395: 12394: 12389: 12384: 12379: 12374: 12369: 12359: 12358: 12357: 12352: 12342: 12341: 12340: 12335: 12330: 12325: 12315: 12310: 12309: 12308: 12298: 12297: 12296: 12291: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12268: 12263: 12258: 12253: 12247: 12245: 12243:Post-classical 12239: 12238: 12236: 12235: 12234: 12233: 12223: 12218: 12217: 12216: 12211: 12201: 12200: 12199: 12189: 12188: 12187: 12182: 12177: 12172: 12167: 12162: 12152: 12147: 12142: 12141: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12125: 12115: 12114: 12113: 12108: 12098: 12093: 12092: 12091: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12061: 12056: 12051: 12050: 12049: 12044: 12042:Middle Kingdom 12039: 12029: 12024: 12023: 12022: 12017: 12012: 12002: 12001: 12000: 11998:Neo-Babylonian 11995: 11990: 11988:Old Babylonian 11980: 11979: 11978: 11973: 11963: 11958: 11952: 11950: 11938: 11937: 11930: 11929: 11922: 11915: 11907: 11898: 11897: 11894: 11893: 11886: 11884: 11882: 11881: 11874: 11873: 11872: 11865: 11858: 11851: 11843: 11836: 11829: 11821: 11811: 11810: 11809: 11808: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11787: 11778: 11775: 11774: 11764: 11763: 11760: 11759: 11752: 11750: 11747: 11746: 11744: 11743: 11742: 11741: 11736: 11728: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11698: 11692: 11690: 11684: 11683: 11681: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11634: 11632: 11626: 11625: 11623: 11622: 11621: 11620: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11598: 11590: 11589: 11588: 11576: 11575: 11574: 11569: 11562: 11554:Mediterranean 11552: 11551: 11550: 11543: 11536: 11529: 11522: 11517: 11510: 11507:Alingano Maisu 11503: 11496: 11489: 11482: 11475: 11463: 11462: 11461: 11450: 11437: 11435: 11429: 11428: 11426: 11425: 11419: 11417: 11413: 11412: 11410: 11409: 11408: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11389: 11388: 11387: 11382: 11377: 11372: 11365: 11358: 11356:De Meern ships 11353: 11348: 11343: 11338: 11328: 11327: 11326: 11318: 11317: 11316: 11311: 11303: 11302: 11301: 11294: 11287: 11282: 11274: 11269: 11268: 11267: 11257: 11256: 11255: 11250: 11240: 11239: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11226:Cape Gelidonya 11223: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11183: 11171: 11169: 11161: 11160: 11158: 11157: 11152: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11132: 11127: 11122: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11102: 11101: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11061: 11060: 11050: 11045: 11039: 11037: 11031: 11030: 11027: 11026: 11024: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11008: 11003: 10998: 10992: 10990: 10989:Archaeologists 10986: 10985: 10983: 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10955:David Blackman 10951: 10949: 10942: 10934: 10933: 10923: 10922: 10919: 10918: 10911: 10909: 10907: 10906: 10901: 10896: 10894:Jewish pirates 10891: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10870: 10867: 10866: 10856: 10855: 10852: 10851: 10844: 10842: 10840: 10839: 10838: 10837: 10827: 10826: 10825: 10815: 10810: 10805: 10798: 10793: 10788: 10783: 10778: 10773: 10768: 10763: 10758: 10753: 10748: 10742: 10739: 10738: 10725: 10724: 10721: 10720: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10707: 10705: 10704: 10703: 10702: 10692: 10687: 10682: 10681: 10680: 10669: 10667: 10663: 10662: 10659: 10658: 10656: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10619: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10612: 10607: 10602: 10597: 10592: 10587: 10582: 10580:Lake Trasimene 10577: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10522: 10517: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10481:Mediterranean: 10477: 10475: 10469: 10468: 10466: 10465: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10444: 10442: 10433: 10429: 10428: 10426: 10425: 10420: 10415: 10410: 10409: 10408: 10403: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10377: 10375: 10367: 10366: 10364: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10342: 10341: 10336: 10326: 10321: 10316: 10311: 10306: 10301: 10296: 10291: 10290: 10289: 10284: 10279: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10258: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10187: 10186: 10185: 10174: 10172: 10168: 10167: 10165: 10164: 10159: 10158: 10157: 10152: 10142: 10137: 10131: 10129: 10121: 10120: 10108: 10107: 10104: 10103: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10090: 10088: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10007: 10002: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9921: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9900: 9895: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9870: 9865: 9860: 9855: 9850: 9845: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9823: 9821: 9812: 9811: 9809: 9808: 9807: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9784:Maritime pilot 9781: 9771: 9766: 9765: 9764: 9754: 9749: 9747:Portolan chart 9744: 9739: 9733: 9731: 9721: 9720: 9710: 9709: 9706: 9705: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9692: 9690: 9689: 9684: 9679: 9674: 9669: 9664: 9659: 9653: 9651: 9647: 9646: 9644: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9622: 9621: 9616: 9611: 9606: 9596: 9590: 9588: 9582: 9581: 9579: 9578: 9577: 9576: 9568: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9548: 9543: 9538: 9533: 9527: 9525: 9519: 9518: 9516: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9495: 9494: 9493: 9483: 9478: 9473: 9468: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9447: 9446: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9410: 9408: 9404: 9403: 9401: 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9379: 9377: 9373: 9372: 9370: 9369: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9349: 9348: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9320:Oared warships 9317: 9309: 9308: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9256: 9255: 9245: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9214: 9212: 9202: 9201: 9189: 9188: 9181: 9180: 9173: 9166: 9158: 9149: 9148: 9146: 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9124: 9122: 9118: 9117: 9115: 9114: 9109: 9099: 9094: 9084: 9079: 9077:Sicca (El Kef) 9074: 9069: 9064: 9054: 9049: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9003: 9001: 8997: 8996: 8994: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8947: 8945: 8941: 8940: 8938: 8937: 8932: 8922: 8917: 8907: 8902: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8872: 8867: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8837: 8827: 8816: 8814: 8810: 8809: 8807: 8806: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8783: 8777: 8775: 8771: 8770: 8768: 8767: 8762: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8712: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8661: 8659: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8651: 8646: 8644:Ras il-Wardija 8641: 8636: 8631: 8626: 8616: 8608: 8606: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8598: 8593: 8583: 8572: 8570: 8566: 8565: 8563: 8562: 8557: 8548: 8543: 8538: 8533: 8528: 8526:Gebal (Byblos) 8523: 8521:Botrys (Teros) 8518: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8482: 8480: 8476: 8475: 8473: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8407: 8402: 8400:Heraclea Minoa 8397: 8387: 8377: 8372: 8361: 8359: 8355: 8354: 8352: 8351: 8346: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8305: 8303: 8299: 8298: 8296: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8274: 8272: 8268: 8267: 8265: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8244: 8238: 8236: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8203: 8193: 8188: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8158: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8131:Kissi (Djinet) 8128: 8118: 8108: 8103: 8093: 8083: 8078: 8068: 8062: 8060: 8056: 8055: 8043: 8042: 8035: 8028: 8020: 8011: 8010: 8006: 8005: 8000: 7996: 7995: 7979: 7978:63 BCE–224 CE 7975: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7960: 7959: 7954: 7950: 7949: 7941:Ancient Greeks 7933: 7929: 7928: 7923: 7919: 7918: 7906: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7897: 7893: 7892: 7887: 7883: 7882: 7863: 7858: 7851: 7842: 7833: 7828: 7824: 7823: 7816: 7800: 7796: 7795: 7793:Middle Assyria 7790: 7788: 7783: 7779: 7778: 7766: 7754: 7750: 7749: 7739: 7734: 7730: 7729: 7713: 7708: 7696: 7692: 7691: 7686: 7682: 7681: 7674: 7670: 7669: 7664: 7660: 7659: 7646: 7643: 7639: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7615: 7614: 7606: 7605: 7598: 7591: 7583: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7565: 7563:Amarna letters 7559: 7557: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7463:Roman Republic 7455: 7453: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7384: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7202: 7196: 7194: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7126: 7125: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7022: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7009: 7004: 6992: 6990:Hittite Empire 6987: 6982: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6828: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6744:Amorite states 6740: 6735: 6729: 6727: 6721: 6720: 6718: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6671: 6669: 6663: 6662: 6650: 6649: 6642: 6635: 6627: 6621: 6620: 6604: 6599: 6593: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6563: 6562: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6547:External links 6545: 6544: 6543: 6537: 6520: 6514: 6507: 6491: 6469: 6463: 6448: 6427: 6416: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6400: 6388: 6381: 6367: 6361: 6345: 6336: 6325: 6319: 6300: 6280: 6274: 6266:Reaktion Books 6257: 6252:978-0983327905 6251: 6238: 6225: 6212: 6201: 6192: 6186: 6173: 6145: 6139: 6124: 6117: 6106: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6052: 6040: 6038:, p. 148. 6028: 6026:, p. 120. 6016: 6001: 5997:Brandon (1970) 5989: 5985:Brandon (1970) 5977: 5973:Moscati (1957) 5965: 5961:Brandon (1970) 5948: 5944:Brandon (1970) 5936: 5917:(279): 27–34. 5901: 5878: 5860: 5858:, p. 173. 5856:Brandon (1970) 5848: 5830: 5828:, p. 448. 5826:Brandon (1970) 5818: 5814:Brandon (1970) 5806: 5794: 5782: 5770: 5766:Moscati (1957) 5758: 5746: 5734: 5711: 5687: 5660:(279): 13–26. 5641: 5612: 5597: 5593:Moscati (1965) 5585: 5578: 5556: 5545:(3): 390–398. 5529: 5486: 5471: 5466:j.ctvc77kkd.13 5456: 5430: 5411: 5393: 5379: 5359: 5345: 5325: 5311: 5291: 5277: 5257: 5243: 5223: 5209: 5189: 5175: 5155: 5141: 5121: 5107: 5085: 5066: 5041: 5008: 4993: 4978: 4963: 4939: 4924: 4888: 4871: 4865:978-1647482053 4864: 4846: 4831: 4816: 4801: 4761: 4758:(63): 124–192. 4746: 4744:, p. 103. 4734: 4715:(3): 467–480. 4695: 4686: 4679: 4661: 4649: 4634: 4605:(1): 149–157. 4584: 4559: 4525: 4496:(2): 274–282. 4476: 4415: 4396:(2): 268–278. 4380: 4351:(5): 633–642. 4326: 4317:britannica.com 4304: 4297: 4275: 4266: 4259: 4239: 4212: 4186: 4171: 4134: 4110: 4095: 4080: 4065: 4040: 4025: 4010: 3958: 3929: 3917: 3905: 3893: 3886: 3855: 3834:10.2307/505217 3828:(2): 197–232. 3812: 3797: 3786:(2): 215–219. 3767: 3748: 3736: 3705:(2): 274–282. 3684: 3677: 3654: 3647: 3626: 3619: 3594: 3577: 3573:Coulmas (1996) 3565: 3536: 3529: 3511: 3502: 3495: 3477: 3462: 3447: 3440: 3420: 3406: 3384: 3345: 3333: 3293: 3281: 3264: 3252: 3228: 3215: 3202: 3185: 3183:(October 2004) 3168: 3155: 3140: 3122: 3120:, p. 111. 3107: 3095: 3083: 3071: 3045: 3033: 3009: 3002: 2979: 2972: 2954: 2947: 2927: 2910: 2892: 2876: 2864: 2857: 2836: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2819: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2797: 2794: 2705:Tribe of Asher 2631:Main article: 2628: 2625: 2582: 2579: 2578: 2577: 2574: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2555: 2553: 2546: 2539: 2537: 2529:Nimrud ivories 2527:; 900–800 BC; 2522: 2515: 2469:Nimrud ivories 2460: 2457: 2376:Main article: 2373: 2370: 2352:branch of the 2331: 2328: 2322: 2319: 2290: 2287: 2202: 2199: 2193: 2190: 2129:, present-day 2114: 2111: 2079:Main article: 2076: 2073: 2023: 2022: 2013: 2006: 2005: 1990: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1933: 1930: 1919: 1916: 1855: 1852: 1840:potter's wheel 1803: 1800: 1758:, mostly from 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1547:Pierre Zalloua 1532: 1529: 1496: 1493: 1398: 1395: 1391:Artaxerxes III 1302:Main article: 1299: 1296: 1201: 1198: 1119: 1116: 1087: 969–936 1033: 1030: 1018:Amarna letters 991:Orontes rivers 972: 969: 938:Erythraean Sea 897:cultures with 857: 854: 804:Main article: 801: 798: 765:), comes from 620: 617: 601:Greek alphabet 585:archaeologists 554:ancient Greece 475:region of the 397: 396: 393: 392: 389: 388: 381: 372: 369: 368: 363: 355: 354: 352:Hittite Empire 349: 341: 340: 335: 323: 322: 317: 307: 306: 303: 302: 299: 289: 286: 285: 282: 271: 268: 267: 264: 254: 251: 250: 247: 244: 241: 240: 237: 236: 231: 230:Historical era 227: 226: 223: 222: 217: 214: 211: 210: 205: 202: 199: 198: 193: 184: 181: 180: 177: 176: 173: 169: 168: 142: 138: 137: 132: 126: 125: 120: 116: 115: 106: 102: 101: 87: 83: 82: 79: 71: 70: 66: 65: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13663: 13652: 13649: 13647: 13644: 13642: 13639: 13637: 13634: 13632: 13629: 13627: 13624: 13622: 13619: 13617: 13614: 13612: 13609: 13607: 13604: 13602: 13599: 13597: 13594: 13592: 13589: 13587: 13584: 13582: 13579: 13577: 13574: 13572: 13569: 13567: 13564: 13562: 13559: 13557: 13556:Ancient Syria 13554: 13552: 13549: 13547: 13544: 13542: 13539: 13537: 13534: 13532: 13529: 13527: 13524: 13522: 13519: 13517: 13514: 13512: 13509: 13507: 13504: 13503: 13501: 13494: 13491: 13457: 13456: 13444: 13440: 13439: 13427: 13423: 13422: 13410: 13409: 13406: 13400: 13385: 13384:Soviet empire 13382: 13380: 13377: 13376: 13374: 13373: 13371: 13369:Miscellaneous 13367: 13361: 13358: 13356: 13353: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13334: 13331: 13330: 13329: 13326: 13325: 13323: 13319: 13309: 13306: 13304: 13301: 13299: 13296: 13294: 13291: 13287: 13284: 13283: 13282: 13279: 13277: 13274: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13262: 13259: 13257: 13254: 13252: 13249: 13247: 13244: 13242: 13239: 13237: 13234: 13230: 13227: 13225: 13222: 13221: 13220: 13217: 13215: 13212: 13210: 13207: 13206: 13204: 13202: 13198: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13175: 13172: 13170: 13167: 13166: 13165: 13162: 13160: 13157: 13153: 13150: 13149: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13140: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13122: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13109: 13106: 13104: 13101: 13100: 13099: 13096: 13092: 13089: 13087: 13084: 13082: 13079: 13077: 13074: 13072: 13069: 13068: 13067: 13064: 13060: 13057: 13055: 13052: 13051: 13050: 13047: 13045: 13042: 13040: 13037: 13035: 13032: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13013: 13010: 13008: 13005: 13004: 13003: 13000: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12987: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12968:German Empire 12966: 12965: 12964: 12961: 12957: 12954: 12952: 12949: 12948: 12947: 12944: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12931: 12930: 12927: 12925: 12922: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12894: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12885: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12873: 12872: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12844: 12842: 12840: 12836: 12830: 12827: 12825: 12822: 12820: 12817: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12779: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12756: 12753: 12751: 12748: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12737: 12736: 12733: 12729: 12726: 12724: 12721: 12719: 12716: 12714: 12711: 12710: 12709: 12708:Turco-Persian 12706: 12704: 12701: 12699: 12696: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12684: 12681: 12679: 12676: 12674: 12671: 12669: 12666: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12653: 12652: 12649: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12635: 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12617: 12616: 12615: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12590: 12587: 12585: 12582: 12580: 12577: 12576: 12575: 12572: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12549: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12538: 12535: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12497: 12496: 12493: 12489: 12486: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12470: 12469: 12466: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12448: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12420: 12417: 12415: 12412: 12410: 12407: 12406: 12405: 12402: 12400: 12397: 12393: 12390: 12388: 12385: 12383: 12380: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12364: 12363: 12360: 12356: 12353: 12351: 12348: 12347: 12346: 12343: 12339: 12336: 12334: 12331: 12329: 12326: 12324: 12321: 12320: 12319: 12316: 12314: 12311: 12307: 12304: 12303: 12302: 12299: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12287: 12286: 12284: 12282: 12279: 12277: 12274: 12272: 12269: 12267: 12264: 12262: 12259: 12257: 12254: 12252: 12249: 12248: 12246: 12244: 12240: 12232: 12229: 12228: 12227: 12224: 12222: 12219: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12206: 12205: 12202: 12198: 12195: 12194: 12193: 12190: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12178: 12176: 12173: 12171: 12168: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12158: 12157: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12146: 12143: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12124: 12121: 12120: 12119: 12116: 12112: 12109: 12107: 12104: 12103: 12102: 12099: 12097: 12094: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12066: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12038: 12035: 12034: 12033: 12030: 12028: 12025: 12021: 12018: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12007: 12006: 12003: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11985: 11984: 11981: 11977: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11968: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11953: 11951: 11948: 11943: 11939: 11935: 11928: 11923: 11921: 11916: 11914: 11909: 11908: 11905: 11880: 11879: 11875: 11871: 11870: 11866: 11864: 11863: 11859: 11857: 11856: 11855:Metamorphoses 11852: 11850: 11848: 11847:The Histories 11844: 11842: 11841: 11837: 11835: 11834: 11830: 11828: 11826: 11825:The Histories 11822: 11820: 11819: 11815: 11814: 11812: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11792: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11782: 11780: 11779: 11776: 11769: 11765: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11731: 11729: 11727: 11724: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11693: 11691: 11685: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11635: 11633: 11627: 11619: 11616: 11614: 11611: 11609: 11606: 11604: 11603: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11593: 11591: 11587: 11586: 11582: 11581: 11580: 11577: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11567: 11563: 11561: 11560: 11556: 11555: 11553: 11549: 11548: 11544: 11542: 11541: 11540:Marumaru Atua 11537: 11535: 11534: 11530: 11528: 11527: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11515: 11511: 11509: 11508: 11504: 11502: 11501: 11500:Samudra Raksa 11497: 11495: 11494: 11490: 11488: 11487: 11486:Te Au o Tonga 11483: 11481: 11480: 11476: 11474: 11473: 11469: 11468: 11467: 11464: 11460: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11449: 11448: 11444: 11443: 11442: 11439: 11438: 11436: 11430: 11424: 11421: 11420: 11418: 11414: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11392: 11390: 11386: 11383: 11381: 11378: 11376: 11373: 11371: 11370: 11366: 11364: 11363: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11346:Blackfriars I 11344: 11342: 11341:Arles Rhône 3 11339: 11337: 11336: 11332: 11331: 11329: 11325: 11322: 11321: 11319: 11315: 11312: 11310: 11307: 11306: 11304: 11300: 11299: 11295: 11293: 11292: 11288: 11286: 11283: 11281: 11278: 11277: 11275: 11273: 11270: 11266: 11263: 11262: 11261: 11258: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11245: 11244: 11241: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11172: 11170: 11168: 11162: 11156: 11153: 11151: 11148: 11146: 11145:Thalassocracy 11143: 11141: 11138: 11136: 11133: 11131: 11130:Shell middens 11128: 11126: 11123: 11121: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11108: 11106: 11103: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11083: 11081: 11080:Naval warfare 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11059: 11056: 11055: 11054: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11041: 11040: 11038: 11032: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11007: 11004: 11002: 10999: 10997: 10994: 10993: 10991: 10987: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10960:Lionel Casson 10958: 10956: 10953: 10952: 10950: 10946: 10943: 10939: 10935: 10928: 10924: 10905: 10902: 10900: 10897: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10871: 10868: 10861: 10857: 10836: 10833: 10832: 10831: 10828: 10824: 10821: 10820: 10819: 10816: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10806: 10804: 10803: 10799: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10791:Incense trade 10789: 10787: 10784: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10743: 10740: 10736: 10730: 10726: 10701: 10698: 10697: 10696: 10695:South America 10693: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10683: 10679: 10676: 10675: 10674: 10671: 10670: 10668: 10664: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10643:Sailing ships 10641: 10639: 10638:Oared vessels 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10620: 10617: 10611: 10608: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10560:Cape Hermaeum 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10482: 10479: 10478: 10476: 10474: 10470: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10445: 10443: 10441: 10437: 10434: 10430: 10424: 10421: 10419: 10416: 10414: 10411: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10398: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10374: 10371:Migration and 10368: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10331: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10322: 10320: 10317: 10315: 10312: 10310: 10307: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10295: 10292: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10274: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10192: 10191: 10188: 10184: 10181: 10180: 10179: 10178:Ancient Egypt 10176: 10175: 10173: 10171:Civilizations 10169: 10163: 10160: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10147: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10132: 10130: 10126: 10122: 10118: 10113: 10109: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9985: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9925: 9922: 9920: 9917: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9817: 9813: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9789: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9776: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9763: 9760: 9759: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9734: 9732: 9730: 9726: 9722: 9715: 9711: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9654: 9652: 9648: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9591: 9589: 9587: 9583: 9575: 9572: 9571: 9569: 9567: 9564: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9549: 9547: 9546:Clinker built 9544: 9542: 9539: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9531:Boat building 9529: 9528: 9526: 9524: 9520: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9492: 9489: 9488: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9479: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9445: 9442: 9441: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9411: 9409: 9405: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9391: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9380: 9378: 9374: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9310: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9292: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9280:Navis lusoria 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9254: 9251: 9250: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9215: 9213: 9211: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9179: 9174: 9172: 9167: 9165: 9160: 9159: 9156: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9125: 9123: 9119: 9113: 9110: 9107: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9092: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9062: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9047: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9027: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9004: 9002: 8998: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8956:Marat (Amrit) 8954: 8952: 8949: 8948: 8946: 8942: 8936: 8933: 8930: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8915: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8900: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8880: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8850:Gadir (Cadiz) 8848: 8845: 8841: 8838: 8835: 8831: 8828: 8825: 8821: 8818: 8817: 8815: 8811: 8804: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8778: 8776: 8772: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8720: 8716: 8713: 8710: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8675:Caricus Murus 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8629:Gaulos (Gozo) 8627: 8624: 8620: 8617: 8614: 8610: 8609: 8607: 8603: 8597: 8594: 8591: 8587: 8584: 8581: 8577: 8574: 8573: 8571: 8567: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8552: 8549: 8547: 8544: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8516: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8483: 8481: 8477: 8471: 8470:Ṣiṣ (Palermo) 8468: 8466: 8463: 8460: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8415: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8395: 8391: 8388: 8385: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8370: 8366: 8363: 8362: 8360: 8356: 8350: 8347: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8306: 8304: 8300: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8275: 8273: 8269: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8252: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8239: 8237: 8233: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8211: 8207: 8204: 8201: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8186: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8166: 8162: 8159: 8156: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8126: 8122: 8119: 8116: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8101: 8097: 8094: 8091: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8076: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8041: 8036: 8034: 8029: 8027: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8004: 7997: 7993: 7992: 7987: 7983: 7976: 7973: 7968: 7961: 7958: 7951: 7947: 7946: 7942: 7937: 7931: 7930: 7927: 7921: 7920: 7916: 7915: 7910: 7904: 7903: 7895: 7894: 7891: 7885: 7884: 7881: 7880: 7875: 7874: 7869: 7868: 7862: 7857: 7856: 7850: 7846: 7841: 7837: 7832: 7826: 7825: 7822: 7821: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7806: 7805: 7798: 7797: 7794: 7789: 7787: 7781: 7780: 7776: 7775: 7770: 7764: 7763: 7758: 7752: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7738: 7732: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7721: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7705: 7700: 7694: 7693: 7690: 7684: 7683: 7680: 7679: 7672: 7671: 7668: 7662: 7661: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7641: 7640: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7621: 7616: 7612: 7604: 7599: 7597: 7592: 7590: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7554: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7472: 7468: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7451:Classical Age 7448: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7416: 7415: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7395: 7392: 7391: 7390: 7389: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7341: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7272: 7271: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7212:Aram-Damascus 7210: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7195: 7193: 7189: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7176: 7175: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7132: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7061: 7058: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7044: 7043: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7018: 7015: 7014: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6849: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6770:First Babylon 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6745: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6722: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6648: 6643: 6641: 6636: 6634: 6629: 6628: 6625: 6617: 6616: 6610: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6587:BBC Radio4 – 6585: 6584: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6540: 6538:9780671669027 6534: 6529: 6528: 6521: 6519: 6515: 6510: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6495:Todd, Malcolm 6492: 6489: 6488:2-914266-04-9 6485: 6481: 6479: 6473: 6470: 6466: 6464:9780674091764 6460: 6456: 6455: 6449: 6446: 6445: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6425: 6424: 6419: 6418: 6406: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6333: 6332: 6326: 6322: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6307: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6284:Lancel, Serge 6281: 6277: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6258: 6254: 6248: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6233: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6202: 6198: 6193: 6189: 6183: 6179: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6140:9780684310091 6136: 6132: 6131: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6115: 6109: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6090: 6069: 6065: 6059: 6057: 6049: 6044: 6037: 6032: 6025: 6024:Markoe (2000) 6020: 6012: 6005: 5998: 5993: 5986: 5981: 5974: 5969: 5962: 5958: 5952: 5945: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5905: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5882: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5857: 5852: 5844: 5837: 5835: 5827: 5822: 5815: 5810: 5803: 5802:Harden (1962) 5798: 5791: 5790:Gaster (1965) 5786: 5779: 5774: 5767: 5762: 5756:, p. 44. 5755: 5750: 5744:, p. 31. 5743: 5738: 5724: 5721: 5715: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5648: 5646: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5608: 5601: 5594: 5589: 5581: 5575: 5570: 5569: 5560: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5533: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5490: 5482: 5475: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5457:9780691195964 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5434: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5382: 5376: 5372: 5371: 5363: 5348: 5342: 5338: 5337: 5329: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5303: 5295: 5280: 5274: 5270: 5269: 5261: 5246: 5240: 5236: 5235: 5227: 5212: 5206: 5202: 5201: 5193: 5178: 5172: 5168: 5167: 5159: 5144: 5138: 5134: 5133: 5125: 5110: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5081: 5077: 5070: 5056: 5052: 5045: 5026: 5019: 5012: 5004: 4997: 4989: 4982: 4974: 4967: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4935: 4928: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4885: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4867: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4842: 4835: 4827: 4820: 4812: 4805: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4757: 4750: 4743: 4742:Markoe (2000) 4738: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4690: 4682: 4676: 4672: 4665: 4658: 4653: 4645: 4638: 4630: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4588: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4530: 4521: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4431: 4426: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4330: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4308: 4300: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4279: 4270: 4262: 4256: 4252: 4251: 4243: 4236:(2): 128–129. 4235: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4202: 4201: 4196: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4172:9780807830307 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4155: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4124: 4120: 4114: 4106: 4099: 4091: 4084: 4076: 4069: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4036: 4029: 4021: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3926: 3921: 3914: 3909: 3902: 3897: 3889: 3887:9781647482053 3883: 3879: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3860: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3772: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3745: 3744:Markoe (2000) 3740: 3732: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3688: 3680: 3678:0-87169-224-4 3674: 3670: 3669: 3661: 3659: 3650: 3648:0-415-03268-7 3644: 3640: 3633: 3631: 3622: 3620:0-7103-0112-X 3616: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3574: 3568: 3566:0-8006-0831-3 3562: 3558: 3553: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3532: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3506: 3498: 3496:0-9629110-8-9 3492: 3488: 3481: 3474: 3473:Jigoulov 2021 3469: 3467: 3459: 3458:Jigoulov 2021 3454: 3452: 3443: 3441:9780190690632 3437: 3433: 3432: 3424: 3409: 3407:9780806131085 3403: 3398: 3397: 3388: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3365:(81): 39–61. 3364: 3360: 3356: 3349: 3342: 3337: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3290: 3289:Jigoulov 2021 3285: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3262:, p. 48. 3261: 3256: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3225: 3219: 3212: 3206: 3199: 3195: 3189: 3182: 3178: 3172: 3165: 3159: 3151: 3144: 3136: 3129: 3127: 3119: 3118:Markoe (2000) 3114: 3112: 3104: 3099: 3092: 3091:Markoe (2000) 3087: 3080: 3075: 3061: 3060: 3055: 3049: 3043:, p. 17. 3042: 3037: 3023: 3019: 3013: 3005: 2999: 2995: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2975: 2969: 2965: 2958: 2950: 2944: 2940: 2939: 2931: 2923: 2922: 2914: 2907: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2873: 2868: 2860: 2854: 2850: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2823: 2820: 2818: 2815: 2813: 2812:Phoenicianism 2810: 2808: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2799: 2793: 2789: 2787: 2781: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2750: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2700: 2695: 2694: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2640: 2639:Sanchuniathon 2634: 2624: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2602: 2587: 2571: 2566: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2519: 2514: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2506: 2505:chased silver 2502: 2498: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2487:Old Testament 2484: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2341: 2337: 2327: 2318: 2314: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2278: 2274: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2228: 2224: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2198: 2189: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2087: 2082: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2061: 2059: 2058:admiralty law 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2018:at the Louvre 2017: 2010: 1994: 1987: 1973: 1970: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1942:Transcaucasia 1939: 1929: 1926: 1915: 1912: 1911:status symbol 1906: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1884:Tyrian purple 1878: 1877: 1865: 1860: 1854:Tyrian purple 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1711: 1702: 1698: 1683: 1678: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1621: 1620:population). 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1542: 1538: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1461:"relatives". 1459: 1455: 1450: 1447: 1446:Hellenization 1439: 1435: 1434:Siege of Tyre 1431: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1361: 1358:-era coin of 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1295: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1263:Median Empire 1260: 1256: 1252: 1247: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1115: 1113: 1112: 1107: 1106:Tyrian purple 1101: 1099: 1094: 1092: 1081: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 998: 996: 992: 988: 987:Nahr al-Kabir 984: 983: 978: 968: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 930: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 881: 877: 871: 867: 863: 853: 851: 847: 843: 839: 834: 832: 828: 824: 820: 815: 813: 807: 797: 795: 791: 787: 786: 781: 779: 768: 764: 762: 756: 754: 748: 746: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 712:Tyrian purple 709: 707: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 678: 673: 668: 666: 662: 658: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 616: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 597:Arabic script 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 546: 544: 540: 534: 531: 528: 527:ancient Greek 524: 520: 517:and into the 516: 512: 509: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 467: 463: 457: 403: 382: 380: 377: 376: 373: 367: 364: 357: 356: 353: 350: 343: 342: 339: 336: 329: 328: 325: 324: 321: 318: 316: 313: 312: 308: 304: 300: 297: 293: 287: 283: 279: 275: 269: 265: 262: 258: 252: 248: 242: 238: 235: 232: 228: 224: 221: 218: 212: 209: 206: 200: 197: 194: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 143: 139: 136: 133: 131: 127: 124: 121: 117: 114: 110: 107: 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 77: 72: 67: 61: 54: 43: 38: 33: 19: 13541:Ancient Asia 13463: 13453: 13441:from Commons 13436: 13419: 13398: 13135:Contemporary 12985:Indo-Persian 12973:Nazi Germany 12917:Contemporary 12819:Vijayanagara 12718:Great Seljuk 12629:Thessalonica 12557:Golden Horde 12197:Carthaginian 12191: 11976:Neo-Assyrian 11961:Neo-Sumerian 11876: 11867: 11860: 11853: 11846: 11838: 11833:On the Ocean 11831: 11824: 11816: 11813:Literature: 11601: 11583: 11564: 11557: 11547:Aotearoa One 11545: 11538: 11531: 11524: 11512: 11505: 11498: 11491: 11484: 11477: 11470: 11457: 11453: 11445: 11432:Experimental 11400:Museum ships 11367: 11360: 11333: 11305:Phoenician: 11296: 11291:Leontophoros 11289: 11253:Butuan boats 11248:Pontian boat 11186:Dufuna canoe 11125:Shipbuilding 11036:and theories 11006:Boris Rankov 10800: 10733:Economy and 10633:Incendiaries 10480: 10313: 10267:Indus Valley 10235:Tarumanagara 10162:Ubaid period 10080:Wadi al-Jarf 9995:Ostia Antica 9599:Fore-and-aft 9566:Shipbuilding 9541:Carvel built 9523:Construction 9481:Steering oar 9362:Sailing ship 9285:Obelisk ship 9243:Dugout canoe 8760:Thymiaterium 8634:Għajn Qajjet 8459:Sant'Antioco 8081:Hippo Regius 7989: 7982:Ancient Rome 7953:311–129 BCE 7939: 7932:336–301 BCE 7922:539–331 BCE 7912: 7905:626–539 BCE 7896:729–609 BCE 7886:911–729 BCE 7877: 7871: 7865: 7853: 7830: 7818: 7808: 7802: 7772: 7760: 7745: 7722: 7701: 7676: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7609:Timeline of 7467:Roman Empire 7459:Ancient Rome 7411: 7386: 7342: 7268: 7204: 7172: 7128: 7104: 7040: 6994: 6957: 6846: 6742: 6685:Chagar Bazar 6612: 6588: 6567:Online books 6557: 6526: 6498: 6475: 6453: 6442: 6430: 6421: 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Retrieved 3240: 3231: 3223: 3218: 3205: 3193: 3188: 3176: 3171: 3158: 3149: 3143: 3134: 3103:Coulmas 1996 3098: 3086: 3079:Quinn (2017) 3074: 3063:. Retrieved 3057: 3048: 3041:Aubet (2001) 3036: 3025:. Retrieved 3021: 3012: 2993: 2963: 2957: 2937: 2930: 2920: 2913: 2903: 2895: 2883: 2879: 2867: 2847: 2840: 2817:Punic people 2790: 2768:fraternities 2753: 2746: 2717: 2697: 2691: 2677: 2666: 2656: 2618: 2603: 2599: 2509: 2494: 2476: 2472: 2445: 2438:, and other 2427: 2397: 2343: 2324: 2315: 2311: 2292: 2283: 2261:Roman consul 2254: 2243: 2231: 2220: 2195: 2186: 2139: 2135: 2096: 2092: 2062: 2051: 2040: 2029: 1976:Shipbuilding 1966: 1935: 1921: 1907: 1891: 1881: 1874: 1843: 1836: 1828:glass-making 1820: 1815:Mesopotamian 1796:Cassiterides 1786:and coastal 1784:Rhone valley 1753: 1718: 1707: 1695: 1629: 1622: 1591: 1575: 1544: 1520: 1512: 1498: 1495:Demographics 1478: 1463: 1451: 1443: 1400: 1384: 1376:Xerxes Canal 1365: 1360:Abdashtart I 1346: 1327: 1274:Nabopolassar 1267: 1248: 1237: 1233: 1167:fall of Troy 1139: 1109: 1102: 1095: 1077: 1046: 1043: 1035: 1015: 1007:lapis lazuli 999: 980: 977:Thutmose III 974: 954:Persian Gulf 931: 883:chalcolithic 875: 873: 835: 816: 809: 793: 783: 775: 758: 750: 742: 735: 731: 703: 693: 685: 681: 675: 670:Obelisks at 669: 660: 633: 625: 622: 582: 547: 535: 522: 505: 493:Mount Carmel 461: 401: 400: 320:Succeeded by 319: 314: 249:2500 BC 41: 13485: / 13421:Definitions 12723:Khwarezmian 12656:Carolingian 12461:Rashtrakuta 12165:Shaishunaga 12064:Hellenistic 12047:New Kingdom 12037:Old Kingdom 11840:Argonautica 11827:(Herodotus) 11790:Flood myths 11687:Museums and 11631:conferences 11596:Vital Alsar 11434:archaeology 11243:Austronesia 11236:Hjortspring 11231:Rochelongue 11181:Pesse canoe 11135:Ship burial 11120:Sea Peoples 11053:Lighthouses 11048:Grave goods 10996:George Bass 10776:Spice trade 10373:exploration 10195:Philippines 10190:Austronesia 10183:Old Kingdom 10060:Trincomalee 10010:Prosphorion 9955:Myos Hormos 9799:Micronesian 9790:By region: 9762:Lighthouses 9570:By region: 9335:Quinquereme 9260:Kunlun ship 9253:Penteconter 9238:Dragon boat 9012:Bulla Regia 8560:Umm al-Amad 8445:Pantelleria 8314:Akka (Acre) 8200:Aïn Oulmene 8181:Rusubbicari 8165:Tamentfoust 8125:Constantine 7999:224–mid 7C 7963:129–63 BCE 7945:Macedonians 7840:city-states 7836:Neo-Hittite 7811:Sea Peoples 7727:city-states 7706:city-states 7649:Uruk period 7611:Mesopotamia 7232:Bit Bahiani 7017:Tell Hadidi 6589:In Our Time 5421:"Phoenicia" 5386:17 February 5352:22 February 5318:17 February 5284:23 February 5216:23 February 5148:24 February 4784:Archaeology 4313:"Phoenicia" 4103:Herodotus. 4088:Herodotus. 4073:Herodotus. 4033:Herodotus. 4018:Herodotus. 3925:Lancel 1995 3054:"Phoenicia" 2900:"Phoenicia" 2263:, known as 2234:monarchical 1954:Old Kingdom 1946:Mesopotamia 1932:Viticulture 1746:Phoenician 1654:or ancient 1644:Hellenistic 1559:Mesopotamia 1479:During the 1474:Syrian Wars 1458:Demetrius I 1405:during his 1328:In 539 BC, 1320:during the 1255:Sennacherib 1151:Qart-Ḥadašt 1011:Afghanistan 964: 1750 905:during the 736:Phoenicians 732:po-ni-ki-jo 574:oligarchies 550:city-states 315:Preceded by 284:814 BC 266:969 BC 157:plutocratic 145:City-states 13500:Categories 13473:35°39′04″E 13470:34°07′25″N 13293:Portuguese 13174:Revival Le 13164:Vietnamese 12807:Later Tran 12777:Vietnamese 12673:Singhasari 12661:Holy Roman 12285:Bulgarian 12221:Satavahana 12192:Phoenician 12128:Achaemenid 12089:Indo-Greek 12069:Macedonian 11983:Babylonian 11849:(Polybius) 11493:Hawaiʻiloa 11375:Nemi ships 11260:Black Sea‎ 11206:Khufu ship 11167:and relics 11065:Marine art 11058:Alexandria 10965:Fik Meijer 10948:Historians 10835:Indo-Roman 10648:Greek navy 10550:Salamis II 10540:Hellespont 10500:Artemisium 10490:Nile Delta 10453:Achaemenid 10346:Achaemenid 10215:Langkasuka 10210:Micronesia 10128:Prehistory 10055:Sounagoura 9883:Chittagong 9858:Barbarikon 9837:Alexandria 9779:Pilot boat 9729:Navigation 9561:Sewn-plank 9556:Lashed-lug 9434:Figurehead 9407:Components 9376:Propulsion 9330:Quadrireme 9311:Polyremes 9290:Outriggers 9022:Hadrumetum 8840:Akra Leuka 8719:Casablanca 8551:Sur (Tyre) 7723:and other 7702:and other 7419:Carchemish 7400:Nabataeans 7217:Aram Rehob 6985:Carchemish 6795:Third Mari 6775:Third Ebla 6725:Bronze Age 6680:Tell Halaf 6667:Copper Age 6264:. London: 6074:2020-09-11 5873:Britannica 5728:2020-04-19 5705:2020-04-19 5635:2020-04-19 5060:2020-04-23 5034:6 November 4975:(39): 283. 4957:2020-04-19 4918:2020-09-15 4578:2020-04-25 4206:2019-03-07 4128:2020-04-20 4059:2020-04-20 4054:Brewminate 3952:2020-04-22 3584:Herodotos 3396:Canaanites 3246:2017-02-03 3065:2017-08-09 3027:2020-04-20 2872:Aubet 2001 2828:References 2657:Ras Shamra 2647:Figure of 2637:See also: 2535:(Ohio, US) 2479:Bronze Age 2463:See also: 2432:Phoenician 2428:Phoenician 2404:consonants 2360:is termed 2317:remedies. 2238:priesthood 2000: 700 1969:winemaking 1876:toga picta 1871: 350 1782:) via the 1748:sarcophagi 1675:See also: 1652:Anatolians 1636:Bronze Age 1625:Sardinians 1614:Canaanites 1602:Bronze Age 1535:See also: 1509:Canaanites 1440:, 1888–89. 1374:built the 1356:Achaemenid 1292: 562 1285: 605 1259:Esarhaddon 1194:Punic Wars 1178: 300 1136:Punic Wars 1108:. Homer's 1073:hacksilver 880:Ghassulian 831:Israelites 819:Canaanites 812:literature 665:Phoenician 653: 900 648:(dated to 511:Canaanites 508:Bronze Age 487:in modern 338:Canaanites 301:64 BC 196:Abishemu I 153:oligarchic 141:Government 135:Phoenician 130:Demonym(s) 109:Phoenician 18:Phoenecian 13506:Phoenicia 13399:Phoenicia 13286:Couronian 12924:Ethiopian 12912:Manchukuo 12867:Brazilian 12713:Ghaznavid 12683:Srivijaya 12634:Trebizond 12619:Byzantine 12601:North Sea 12596:Norwegian 12584:Almoravid 12567:Ilkhanate 12537:Majapahit 12510:Muromachi 12419:Solomonic 12404:Ethiopian 12318:Caliphate 12251:Aragonese 12079:Ptolemaic 11862:Geography 11800:Gilgamesh 11689:memorials 11613:Viracocha 11526:Faʻafaite 11479:Sarimanok 11385:Yassi Ada 11298:Syracusia 11221:Canaanite 11196:Moor Sand 10666:By region 10628:Grappling 10600:Naulochus 10590:Myonessus 10545:Echinades 10530:Arginusae 10525:Cynossema 10510:Naupactus 10505:Eurymedon 10339:Classical 10314:Phoenicia 10309:Mycenaean 10272:Tamilakam 10255:Polynesia 10245:Srivijaya 10040:Satingpra 10000:Palembang 9984:Cattigara 9926:(Kadaram) 9909:Jambukola 9903:Guangzhou 9844:(Podouke) 9842:Arikamedu 9804:Polynesia 9737:Celestial 9650:Armaments 9636:Spritsail 9594:Crab claw 9536:Careening 9503:Sternpost 9357:Reed boat 9300:Catamaran 9275:Multihull 9143:Tahpanhes 9138:Gibraltar 9133:Phoenicus 9128:Myriandus 9037:Kerkouane 8914:Almunecar 8725:Volubilis 8596:Tsabratan 8450:Selinunte 8420:Lilybaeum 8187:El Bahri) 8161:Rusguniae 8136:Macomades 8071:Cartennae 7914:Chaldeans 7831:Phoenicia 7769:Karduniaš 7512:Macedonia 7477:Commagene 7405:Qedarites 7343:Phoenicia 7311:Philistia 7227:Bit Agusi 7222:Bit-Adini 7064:Tall Bazi 6958:Phoenicia 6928:Jerusalem 6780:Ekallatum 6558:Phoenicia 6394:(1956) . 5682:163353156 5524:222445150 4729:225150177 4253:. BRILL. 4005:165757132 3983:(1): 31. 3850:191378720 3590:Geography 3586:Histories 3413:9 October 3379:144074940 2833:Citations 2802:Maronites 2734:storm god 2699:2nd Kings 2350:Canaanite 2034:. Pegged 1962:oxidation 1950:Black Sea 1598:Canaanite 1466:Seleucids 1419:crucified 1251:Sargon II 934:Herodotus 823:Ammonites 720:date palm 667:: 𐤐𐤕). 619:Etymology 523:Phoenicia 402:Phoenicia 147:ruled by 119:Religion 42:Phoenicia 13266:Japanese 13229:Scottish 13209:American 13201:Colonial 13130:Imperial 13098:Moroccan 13034:Japanese 13012:Afsharid 12871:Burmese 12857:Austrian 12812:Later Le 12787:Early Le 12772:Venetian 12698:Tiwanaku 12611:Hellenic 12574:Moroccan 12505:Kamakura 12495:Japanese 12478:Saffarid 12431:Georgian 12345:Chalukya 12323:Rashidun 12313:Calakmul 12281:Bruneian 12160:Haryanka 12138:Sasanian 12133:Parthian 12084:Bactrian 12074:Seleucid 12054:Goguryeo 12032:Egyptian 11966:Assyrian 11956:Akkadian 11947:Colonies 11878:Tākitimu 11781:Legend: 11739:Roskilde 11618:Tangaroa 11559:Olympias 11533:Gaualofa 11472:Hōkūleʻa 11447:Kon-Tiki 11280:Ashkelon 11216:Uluburun 11175:Earliest 10941:Scholars 10823:shipping 10623:Boarding 10535:Mytilene 10520:Syracuse 10485:Alashiya 10448:Egyptian 10432:Military 10423:Timeline 10401:Sardinia 10324:Carthage 10240:Kalingga 10200:Sa Huỳnh 10135:Timeline 10085:Zanzibar 10035:Sarapion 10030:Rhacotis 9960:Martaban 9905:(Canton) 9898:Godavaya 9893:Giao Chỉ 9863:Barygaza 9853:Avalites 9774:Piloting 9662:Catapult 9657:Ballista 9631:Mast-aft 9444:Planking 9383:Paddling 9340:Hexareme 9305:Trimaran 9270:Longship 9218:Balangay 9102:Thysdrus 9046:Monastir 9017:Carthage 8925:Toscanos 8905:Saguntum 8895:Rushadir 8844:Alicante 8774:Portugal 8740:Oualidia 8700:Tamusida 8649:Tas-Silġ 8613:Cospicua 8611:Maleth ( 8430:Neapolis 8414:Cagliari 8380:Drepanum 8339:Shikmona 8257:Lapathus 8185:Zemmouri 8155:Azeffoun 8146:Rachgoun 8096:Igilgili 8066:Camarata 7855:Arameans 7849:Damascus 7820:Arameans 7774:Kassites 7762:Hurrians 7434:Palistin 7394:Itureans 7192:Iron Age 6996:Hurrians 6738:Alashiya 6690:Hamoukar 6527:Carthage 6405:Carthage 6373:(1889). 6351:(2017). 6290:Carthage 6286:(1995). 6155:(1968). 6096:(2001). 4796:41765806 4629:32470374 4552:5 August 4546:Archived 4520:28757201 4471:27224451 4430:PLoS ONE 4410:16323196 4375:18976729 4321:Archived 3731:28757201 3693:(2017). 2796:See also 2786:Assembly 2693:Jeremiah 2627:Religion 2483:Iron Age 2424:Anatolia 2372:Alphabet 2330:Language 2321:Military 2271:shophets 2241:family. 2215:Hanaouay 2209:Tomb of 2180:and the 2178:Sardinia 2158:Sardinia 2107:Tripolis 1864:Etruscan 1802:Industry 1788:Massalia 1780:Brittany 1776:Cornwall 1762:and the 1760:Sardinia 1640:Iron Age 1561:and the 1527:, etc.) 1513:Sidonian 1454:Polybius 1372:Xerxes I 1220:Assyrian 1159:‎) 1124:Carthage 1098:Ithobaal 1057:Sardinia 1049:Iron Age 1026:Hittites 1022:Amorites 989:and the 950:Muharraq 929:proper. 895:Harifian 891:Natufian 827:Moabites 785:Poenulus 778:Phoiníkē 757:, later 753:poenicus 626:Sidonian 570:kingship 543:Carthage 519:Iron Age 469:maritime 462:Phœnicia 274:Carthage 165:Carthage 161:republic 53:Phoiníkē 13333:largest 13328:Empires 13308:Swedish 13303:Spanish 13298:Russian 13261:Italian 13236:Chinese 13224:English 13219:British 13214:Belgian 13189:Vietnam 13179:Tay son 13125:Tsarist 13120:Russian 13115:Ottoman 13081:Dzungar 13076:Khoshut 13049:Mexican 13044:Maratha 13027:Pahlavi 13007:Safavid 13002:Iranian 12929:Haitian 12892:Chinese 12852:Ashanti 12824:Wagadou 12750:Eastern 12745:Western 12728:Timurid 12688:Tibetan 12678:Songhai 12668:Serbian 12589:Almohad 12579:Idrisid 12483:Samanid 12473:Tahirid 12468:Iranian 12446:Kannauj 12426:Genoese 12362:Chinese 12355:Eastern 12350:Western 12338:Fatimid 12333:Abbasid 12328:Umayyad 12301:Burmese 12261:Ayyubid 12256:Angevin 12226:Xianbei 12214:Eastern 12209:Western 12155:Magadha 12118:Iranian 12111:Xiongnu 12096:Hittite 12005:Chinese 11993:Kassite 11942:Ancient 11934:Empires 11818:Odyssey 11795:Genesis 11592:Others 11391:Lists: 11380:Marausa 11330:Roman: 11320:Punic: 11285:Kyrenia 11276:Greek: 11272:Marsala 11265:Sinop D 11140:Tacking 10874:History 10761:Meluhha 10751:Fishing 10746:Whaling 10653:Ramming 10575:Aegates 10570:Drepana 10565:Ecnomus 10495:Salamis 10483: 10473:Battles 10351:Nabatea 10334:Archaic 10304:Nuragic 10294:Somalia 10145:Oceania 10140:Britain 10117:History 10050:Socotra 10020:Qandala 10005:Piraeus 9975:Muziris 9945:Madurai 9940:Manthai 9878:Canopus 9848:Arsinoe 9820:harbors 9769:History 9757:Coastal 9687:Sambuca 9672:Dolphin 9586:Rigging 9398:Poling 9388:Sailing 9325:Trireme 9265:Liburna 9228:Coracle 9198:Vessels 9106:El Djem 9097:Thapsus 9087:Tayinat 9082:Tabarka 9072:Ruspina 9000:Tunisia 8935:Tyreche 8899:Melilla 8860:Iboshim 8765:Rusibis 8735:Rusadir 8730:Mogador 8709:Tangier 8689:Larache 8658:Morocco 8590:Tripoli 8541:Sarepta 8506:Baalbek 8479:Lebanon 8465:Tharros 8384:Trapani 8251:Larnaca 8206:Thagora 8151:Rusazus 8115:Tigzirt 8111:Iomnium 8090:Algiers 8086:Icosium 8059:Algeria 7757:Mitanni 7725:Amorite 7704:Amorite 7678:Gutians 7556:Sources 7522:Osroene 7321:Ascalon 7296:Jericho 7174:Nuhašše 7122:Suteans 7060:Armanum 7012:Mitanni 7007:Nuhašše 6968:Shechem 6948:Megiddo 6943:Lakisha 6933:Kenites 6923:Jericho 6903:Dimasqu 6874:Aštartu 6869:Ascalon 6805:Palmyra 6760:Andarig 6750:Alalakh 6695:Jericho 6657:of the 6655:history 6618:. Aeon. 6085:Sources 5931:1357206 5869:"Asher" 5674:1357205 5516:1356511 5250:3 March 5182:3 March 5114:5 April 5055:HISTORY 4620:7332655 4511:5544389 4462:4880306 4439:Bibcode 4366:2668035 3997:3209545 3722:5544389 3592:16.3.4. 2938:Lebanon 2890:, p. 16 2770:. Each 2749:Astarte 2738:Melqart 2713:Solomon 2688:Tophets 2607:Jezebel 2525:griffin 2266:sufetes 2150:Corsica 2103:Baalbek 2054:amphora 2047:trireme 1993:Nineveh 1948:or the 1903:Morocco 1899:Mogador 1890:of the 1772:Galicia 1733:Sarepta 1725:Ascalon 1666:Economy 1648:Ottoman 1587:Maghreb 1585:to the 1567:Lebanon 1489:Armenia 1415:Melqart 1342:talents 1338:satrapy 1171:Timaeus 1091:Solomon 1080:Hiram I 982:Fenekhu 946:Bahrain 913:in the 876:in situ 866:Retjenu 856:Origins 800:History 771:Φοινίκη 761:pūnicus 738:, like 716:crimson 706:phoînix 499:to the 481:Lebanon 290:• 272:• 261:Hiram I 255:• 208:Hiram I 185:• 86:Capital 47:Φοινίκη 13271:Mongol 13256:German 13251:French 13241:Danish 13184:Dainam 13159:Tongan 13147:Somali 13142:Sokoto 13108:'Alawi 13086:Kalmyk 13066:Mongol 13059:Second 13039:Korean 12990:Mughal 12980:Indian 12963:German 12956:Second 12946:French 12939:Second 12875:Second 12847:Afghan 12839:Modern 12765:Kyrgyz 12760:Uighur 12755:Second 12735:Turkic 12703:Toltec 12639:Epirus 12624:Nicaea 12547:Mongol 12500:Yamato 12436:Huetar 12294:Second 12231:Rouran 12180:Shunga 12175:Maurya 12150:Kushan 12123:Median 12101:Hunnic 12059:Harsha 11869:Aeneid 11585:Viking 11566:Regina 11335:Alkedo 11191:Abydos 11165:Wrecks 11034:Topics 10864:Piracy 10818:Greece 10678:Odisha 10610:Actium 10605:Mycale 10440:Navies 10329:Greece 10319:Olmecs 10287:Pandya 10262:Minoan 10225:Champa 10205:Lapita 10150:Remote 10070:Tyndis 10025:Quilon 9970:Muscat 9935:Lothal 9930:Korkai 9914:Jeddah 9888:Essina 9832:Adulis 9742:Charts 9677:Harpax 9667:Corvus 9641:Square 9609:Settee 9604:Lateen 9513:Tiller 9508:Strake 9476:Rudder 9466:Paddle 9414:Anchor 9393:Towing 9315:Bireme 9248:Galley 9223:Bangka 9061:Djerba 9057:Meninx 9042:Lepcis 9026:Sousse 8991:Ugarit 8981:Shuksi 8976:Safita 8971:Paltus 8879:Málaga 8875:Malake 8820:Abdera 8803:Tavira 8685:Likush 8639:Mtarfa 8576:Lepcis 8515:Beirut 8410:Karaly 8334:Reshef 8324:Michal 8309:Achzib 8302:Israel 8288:Rhodes 8271:Greece 8262:Marion 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