71:
from ages 30 through 40. Major types of focal dystonia affect the limbs, face, mouth, neck, and larynx. These focal dystonias can be exclusive to specific tasks, like writing or playing an instrument. Focal dystonia will typically have a subtle and slow onset before slowly worsening over years. During the beginning stages, symptoms can be intermittent and without clear associations and provocation. The progression of this disease can vary from person to person. During the first couple years of onset, symptoms can partially or completely disappear for days to months, but return in other parts of the body.
277:
include history before and after symptom onset and observation of playing the instrument, as deficits can be subtle and considered minor to the general population. Treatment modalities available, such as BoNT/A, leave many musicians unsatisfied due to muscle weakness and lack of improvement in muscle control. In musicians, this is commonly associated with overuse or high volume of practicing. Though musician's dystonia presents initially as task-specific, one study found that the dystonia can progress outside of playing their instrument.
281:
treating musician's dystonia requires an understanding and collaboration with the musician to obtain a complete history and tailor treatment and education effectively. The most successful treatment for musician's dystonia has been a multidisciplinary approach, involving physicians, physical therapists, physiotherapists, psychologists, and music instructors, focusing on rehabilitation that can involve retraining the brain to play their instrument again and even learning to play other instruments.
91:
involved over-training particular finger movements in non-human primates, which resulted in the development of focal hand dystonia. Examination of the primary somatosensory cortex in the trained animals showed grossly distorted representations of the maps pertaining to the fingers when compared to the untrained animals. Additionally, these maps in the dystonic animals had lost the distinct borders that were noted in the untrained animals.
87:, a thin layer of neural tissue that covers the brain, is thought to cause contractions. This misfiring may result from impaired inhibitory mechanisms during muscle contraction. When the brain tells a given muscle to contract, it simultaneously silences muscles that would oppose the intended movement. It appears that dystonia interferes with the brain's ability to inhibit those surrounding muscles, leading to loss of selectivity.
323:, Canadian classical guitarist, publicized as the "First Lady of the Guitar", retired from the concert stage for six years in 2003, due to focal dystonia that affected her right hand. She worked to retrain her right hand, and since 2009 has been performing again as a guitarist, singer, and songwriter.
226:
type A (BoNT/A). BoNT/A reduces the symptoms of the disorder but it is not a cure for dystonia. Since the root of the problem is neurological, doctors have explored sensorimotor retraining activities to enable the brain to "rewire" itself and eliminate dystonic movements. The work of several doctors
280:
Treatments such as splinting and sensorimotor retraining for focal hand dystonia have shown to be beneficial with varying results. It is important to consider the mental health and social aspect of this condition as a musician's self-identity and career can be affected considerably. The approach to
167:
Physical therapy is commonly used as an adjunct or main form of treatment for focal dystonia, however more studies for its benefit are needed. Bass guitarist and instructor Scott Devine said that he wears a glove while playing bass guitar because of the condition. He finds that the glove stops the
70:
People with dystonia experience tightness, cramping, fatigue, involuntary sustained or repetitive muscle contractions that can be painless or painful and resulting in abnormal posturing, twisting motions, and even tremors. Focal dystonia typically presents in adults, more commonly in women ranging
114:
While usually painless, in some instances the sustained contraction and abnormal posturing in dystonia cause pain. Focal dystonia most typically affects people who rely on fine motor skills—musicians, writers, surgeons, etc. It is thought that the excessive motor training those skills require may
276:
Musician's dystonia treatment studies have yielded varying results. This condition can often be misdiagnosed as psychogenic, as this was previously thought to be its cause. In this population, men are affected more than women from 20 to 60 years of age. Evaluation of musician's dystonia should
90:
The sensorimotor cortex is organized as discrete "maps" of the human body. Under normal conditions, each body part (such as individual fingers) occupies a distinct area on these cortical maps. In dystonia, these maps lose their distinct borders and overlap occurs. Exploration of this initially
106:
The cross-connectivity between areas that are normally segregated in the sensory cortex may prevent normal sensorimotor feedback and so contribute to the observed co-contraction of antagonist muscle groups, and inappropriately timed and sequenced movements that underlie the symptoms of focal
379:, an international concert pianist, dealt with this condition in his right hand beginning in the 1960s and switched to only left hand playing. In the 2000s, he regained use of his right hand and recommenced performing and recording with two hands.
725:
Byl, NN; Merzenich, MM; Jenkins, WM. (1996). "A primate genesis model of focal dystonia and repetitive strain injury: I. Learning-induced dedifferentiation of the representation of the hand in the primary somatosensory cortex in adult monkeys".
98:
stimulation of peripheral muscles induces organizational changes in motor representations, characterized both by an increase in map size of stimulated muscles and a reduction in map separation, as assessed using
115:
contribute to the development of dystonia as their cortical maps become enlarged and begin to overlap. Focal dystonia is generally "task-specific," meaning that it is only problematic during certain activities.
123:
The diagnosis of focal dystonia is highly dependent on the history of the patient, as physical exam is typically normal, and ruling out other causes of movement disorder. The main types of are
155:
Treatment options would be based on the type of focal dystonia the patient has. If possible, incorporating rest earlier to symptom onset has shown to have greater improvement in symptoms for
263:
Though studies on prevention of focal dystonia is limited, it is believed for musician's dystonia that mindfulness of muscle use and proper rest can help prevent focal dystonia and injury.
1489:
423:, diagnosed in early 2000s. To help him with live shows, Uwe Reitenauer was hired as a second guitarist. Koffler continues to write and perform live on stage with the band.
62:. The condition appears to be associated with over-training, and individualized treatment strategies may involve medications, retraining techniques, and procedures.
143:, all affecting a different region of the body. Labs and imaging may be ordered as workup to evaluate for other causes of dystonia. A provider can rule in or out
79:
Current medical science does not precisely describe the causes of dystonia, however genetic and environmental factors may play a large role. Misfiring of
1564:
156:
26:, is a neurological condition that affects a muscle or group of muscles in a specific part of the body during specific activities, causing involuntary
255:
Recovery from focal dystonia has varying results, ranging from minimal improvement in function to complete recovery and ranging from weeks to years.
1741:
1539:
480:, long distance runner, diagnosed with Runner's dystonia in 2021. She had ended her competitive career a few years prior to the diagnosis.
1801:
1328:
Farias, J., Sarti-MartĂnez, MA. Title: "Elite musicians treated by specific fingers motion program to stimulate propiceptive sense",
1013:
1309:
Treatment efficacy in an ecologically valid neuropsychological treatment program of 120 professional musicians with focal dystonia
450:, Greek-American classical guitarist-composer, was struck by focal dystonia to his right hand in 2009. He fully recovered in 2013.
2037:
317:, bass guitarist with British rock group, The Hamsters, has made a partial recovery; he plays by using modified guitar plectrums.
1604:
168:
involuntary finger movements. He says it works for him but does not suggest that it may work for everyone with the condition.
1646:
1316:
588:
560:
195:, can be used as a muscle relaxant. Other oral medications have been studied for different types of focal dystonia, such as
812:
Schabrun SM, Ridding MC (2007). "The influence of correlated afferent input on motor cortical representations in humans".
769:
Bara-Jimenez, W; Catalan, MJ; Hallett, M; Gerloff, C (1998). "Abnormal somatosensory homunculus in dystonia of the hand".
311:, Brazilian singer-guitarist, was diagnosed with focal dystonia in 1999; she eventually recovered and resumed her career.
1352:
1282:
1246:
1210:
1162:
1379:
1658:. "Limitless. How your movements can heal your brain. An essay on the neurodynamics of dystonia". Galene Editions 2016.
235:, making it possible for patients to recover substantial function that was lost to focal dystonia. For some dystonias,
1439:
1982:
100:
1927:
1637:
Rich, Robert F.; Mackin, Evelyn; Callahan, Anne; A. Lee
Osterman; Terri M. Skirven; Schneider, Lawrence J. (2002).
1937:
1664:. "Intertwined. How to induce neuroplasticity. A new approach to rehabilitating dystonias". Galene Editions 2012.
50:, the fingers either curl into the palm or extend outward without control. In musicians, the condition is called
1987:
1794:
1579:
1464:
302:
107:
dystonia. It is hypothesized that a deficit in inhibition caused by a genetically mediated loss of inhibitory
2374:
1917:
2201:
1942:
404:
144:
2388:
2367:
2353:
1907:
1892:
511:
MartĂ, Maria. J.; Tolosa, Eduardo S. (2012), Watts, Ray L.; Standaert, David G.; Obeso, Jose A. (eds.),
2161:
2131:
1839:
1692:
414:
403:, Korean singer-songwriter and guitarist diagnosed with dystonia in her left hand in 2012. In 2015, on
240:
1756:
2415:
1887:
1859:
1787:
1101:
Hautekiet, Arne; Raes, Katrien; Geers, Sybille; Santens, Patrick; Oostra, Kristine (November 2021).
2176:
2090:
2057:
1902:
1742:"What Every Guitarist Should Know: A Guide to the Prevention and Rehabilitation of Focal Dystonia"
2032:
1844:
244:
2381:
2324:
2080:
305:, bluegrass banjo player, has focal dystonia in his right hand, and has switched to the guitar.
236:
128:
2186:
1834:
1678:
Leisner, David (2007). "Curing Focal
Dystonia or How to Play the Guitar with Large Muscles".
1639:
Hunter, Mackin & Callahan's
Rehabilitation of the Hand and Upper Extremity (2 Volume Set)
911:"Focal task-specific dystonia of the musicians' hand--a practical approach for the clinician"
364:
354:
329:, American Pulitzer Prize winning comic strip artist and book writer/illustrator. Known for
136:
94:
Imaging studies in humans with focal dystonia have confirmed this finding. Also, synchronous
855:
Rosenkranz, Karin; Katherine Butler; Aaron
Williamon; John C. Rothwell (November 18, 2009).
341:, and others. His work was featured as that of the main character, as an adult, of the film
231:
has shown that sensorimotor retraining activities and proprioceptive stimulation can induce
1992:
1829:
1704:
512:
447:
429:, classical guitarist, has recovered the full use of his hand after a decade of disability.
223:
95:
27:
1636:
1565:"CANNIBAL CORPSE's ALEX WEBSTER Opens up About His Battle with Rare Neurological Disorder"
438:
8:
2279:
2171:
2166:
2111:
2070:
1957:
1952:
1103:"Evidence of rehabilitation therapy in task-specific focal dystonia: a systematic review"
854:
132:
84:
1708:
239:
may be considered where BoNT treatment fails. If the dystonia is cause by an underlying
2259:
2229:
1932:
1912:
1728:
1716:
1278:
1138:
1083:
881:
857:"Regaining Motor Control in Musician's Dystonia by Restoring Sensorimotor Organization"
856:
837:
794:
751:
699:
674:
645:
612:
337:
35:
980:
2410:
2146:
2022:
2002:
1972:
1872:
1720:
1642:
1312:
1202:
Dystonia. Rewiring the brain through movement and dance | Federico Bitti | TEDxNapoli
1142:
1130:
1122:
1075:
1067:
992:
984:
938:
930:
886:
829:
786:
743:
704:
650:
632:
584:
556:
343:
47:
1732:
798:
755:
2346:
2289:
2274:
2224:
2209:
1882:
1877:
1810:
1712:
1274:
Choosing music over meds, one man's quest to retrain his brain to overcome dystonia
1118:
1114:
1087:
1059:
976:
922:
876:
872:
868:
841:
821:
778:
735:
694:
686:
640:
624:
432:
326:
176:
2219:
2181:
2136:
2121:
2047:
2012:
1997:
1962:
1922:
1849:
1630:
1443:
388:
350:
232:
180:
1540:"Man of constant sorrow: Charlie Parr's quiet battle to stay alive - City Pages"
2269:
2244:
2017:
2007:
1947:
1867:
442:
382:
228:
188:
1513:
1346:
1272:
1236:
1200:
1156:
1063:
926:
825:
690:
628:
2404:
2329:
2309:
2299:
2284:
2239:
2234:
2191:
2156:
2141:
2095:
2075:
1967:
1824:
1126:
1071:
988:
934:
636:
465:
426:
420:
394:
376:
370:
208:
200:
124:
1102:
1047:
964:
910:
2360:
2314:
2294:
2264:
2116:
2042:
2027:
1724:
1134:
1079:
996:
942:
890:
833:
708:
654:
477:
459:
453:
360:
331:
314:
108:
790:
782:
747:
2319:
2249:
739:
471:
400:
290:
212:
1414:
1188:
299:
comics, has focal dystonia of the right hand, which impedes his artwork.
2304:
2254:
2214:
2151:
1242:
1206:
435:, guitarist, switched to playing left-handed when affected by dystonia.
410:
320:
308:
204:
192:
58:. In sports, it may be involved in what is commonly referred to as the
1773:
184:
16:
Nerve disorder affecting certain muscle(s) during specific activities
1670:. "Rebellion of the body. Understanding musician's Focal dystonia".
1440:"Andrew Dawes wins GG award for lifetime achievement - WE Vancouver"
1238:
How your movements can heal your brain | Joaquin Farias | TEDxNapoli
1779:
357:, announced focal dystonia in September 2011; he has left the band.
196:
39:
111:
may be the underlying cause of the deficits observed in dystonia.
42:, each affecting a different region of the body. For example, in
2126:
1897:
1766:
1667:
1661:
1655:
1364:
1294:
1258:
1222:
1174:
768:
295:
1641:. St. Louis: Mosby. pp. 2053–2075 ("Focal Hand Dystonia").
2065:
80:
1046:
Batla, Amit; Stamelou, Maria; Bhatia, Kailash P. (June 2012).
1977:
555:. Narberth, PA: Science & Medicine, Inc. pp. 66–72.
397:, pianist, who changed to performing only with his left hand.
31:
1402:
59:
1100:
1107:
European
Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine
675:"Neurophysiology of dystonia: The role of inhibition"
519:(3 ed.), New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies
391:, Baroque violinist, switched to playing left-handed.
1605:"Goucher reveals diagnosis of neurological disorder"
1580:"Bass Magazine Lockdown Check-In With Victor Wooten"
611:
Stahl, Christine M.; Frucht, Steven J. (July 2017).
513:"Chapter 29. Adult-Onset Idiopathic Focal Dystonias"
1330:
Congreso
Nacional De La Sociedad Anatómica Española
1045:
724:
613:"Focal task specific dystonia: a review and update"
441:, lead guitarist of progressive extreme metal band
222:This condition is often treated with injections of
1693:"The brain that plays music and is changed by it"
2402:
1631:Medical Problems of the Instrumentalist Musician
1187:Dystonia. The Canadian Movement Disorder group.
1158:Why I Wear "The Gloves" /// Scott's Bass Lessons
456:, American country blues musician from Minnesota
1690:
1490:"Metal-Rules.com: Interview with Pink Cream 69"
811:
1795:
583:. The McGraw-Hill Company, Inc. p. 339.
407:, she announced that she quit playing guitar.
247:has shown to have improvement in some cases.
610:
510:
266:
38:. There are many different types of focal
1802:
1788:
880:
698:
644:
581:Harrison's Neurology in Clinical Medicine
550:
363:, noted violinist and co-founder of the
187:use, as some patients have had success.
2038:Temporal dynamics of music and language
1739:
1677:
1161:. Scott's Bass Lessons. 27 April 2016.
962:
720:
718:
553:Performing Arts Medicine, Third Edition
419:Alfred Koffler, guitarist of rock band
2403:
1377:
1052:Current Treatment Options in Neurology
908:
672:
668:
666:
664:
578:
271:
1783:
1285:from the original on 23 November 2020
1249:from the original on 23 February 2021
1189:http://cmdg.org/Dystonia/dystonia.htm
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1008:
1006:
958:
956:
954:
952:
904:
902:
900:
65:
1809:
1577:
1213:from the original on 3 February 2021
1165:from the original on 13 October 2021
715:
606:
604:
602:
600:
574:
572:
546:
544:
542:
540:
538:
536:
534:
532:
506:
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
494:
353:, founder of the bagpipe rock group
1633:; UK; Martin Dunitz (2000); 295-397
1311:, Galene Editions. Amsterdam 2012.
661:
162:
13:
1717:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05741.x
1629:Tubiana, Raoul, Amadio, Peter C.;
1537:
1355:from the original on 27 April 2021
1351:. Gabriel Sousa. 2 February 2013.
1030:
1003:
949:
897:
14:
2427:
1983:Music in psychological operations
597:
569:
529:
491:
284:
101:transcranial magnetic stimulation
1928:Generative theory of tonal music
909:Frucht, Steven J. (April 2009).
1938:Hedonic music consumption model
1835:Cognitive neuroscience of music
1597:
1571:
1557:
1531:
1506:
1482:
1457:
1432:
1407:
1396:
1380:"Scott Adams, Drawing the Line"
1378:Sordyl, Samantha (2005-05-10).
1371:
1339:
1322:
1301:
1265:
1229:
1193:
1181:
1149:
1094:
468:, bassist, has it on both hands
1465:"Chicago Symphony Orchestra -"
1119:10.23736/S1973-9087.21.06677-6
873:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2094-09.2009
848:
805:
762:
171:
1:
2375:Psychology of Music (journal)
1918:Eye movement in music reading
1578:Jisi, Chris (30 April 2020).
1419:Liona Boyd - Classical Guitar
1048:"Treatment of focal dystonia"
981:10.1016/s0749-0712(02)00099-9
484:
373:, pianist and keyboard player
258:
217:
1943:Illusory continuity of tones
551:Sataloff, Robert T. (2010).
250:
150:
145:dopamine-responsive dystonia
118:
24:focal task-specific dystonia
7:
2389:This Is Your Brain on Music
2368:Music, Thought, and Feeling
2354:Musicae Scientiae (journal)
1774:"Musician's Focal Dystonia"
1334:European Journal of Anatomy
965:"Musician's focal dystonia"
963:Tubiana, Raoul (May 2003).
861:The Journal of Neuroscience
814:Experimental Brain Research
579:Hauser, Stephen L. (2010).
10:
2432:
2162:Neuronal encoding of sound
2132:Melodic intonation therapy
1840:Culture in music cognition
1740:Solomon, Jason W. (2007).
1622:
415:Chicago Symphony Orchestra
413:, principal oboist of the
2338:
2200:
2104:
2056:
1888:Consonance and dissonance
1858:
1817:
1064:10.1007/s11940-012-0169-6
927:10.1016/j.jht.2008.11.006
826:10.1007/s00221-007-1019-8
691:10.1016/j.nbd.2010.08.025
629:10.1007/s00415-016-8373-z
405:You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook
74:
52:musician's focal dystonia
2177:Psychoanalysis and music
2157:Neurologic music therapy
2091:Music-specific disorders
1903:Embodied music cognition
1893:Deutsch's scale illusion
1691:Pascual-Leone A (2001).
921:(2): 136–142, quiz 143.
267:Performing arts medicine
2033:Speech-to-song illusion
1845:Evolutionary musicology
1514:"2018 March Newsletter"
915:Journal of Hand Therapy
679:Neurobiology of Disease
147:with a levodopa trial.
2382:The World in Six Songs
2325:William Forde Thompson
2081:Musical hallucinations
245:surgical decompression
237:Deep brain stimulation
227:such as Nancy Byl and
183:can be prescribed for
129:oromandibular dystonia
2187:Systematic musicology
1755:: 2–9. Archived from
1518:Red Hot Chilli Pipers
1403:Badi Assad's web site
1348:OPEN YOUR EYES PART 1
1332:, Alicante (España),
783:10.1002/ana.410440520
673:Hallet, Mark (2011).
365:Orford String Quartet
355:Red Hot Chilli Pipers
137:spasmodic torticollis
28:muscular contractions
1993:Music-related memory
1830:Cognitive musicology
1697:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci
1307:Farias J, Yoshie M.
740:10.1212/wnl.47.2.508
617:Journal of Neurology
448:Apostolos Paraskevas
293:, the writer of the
224:botulinum neurotoxin
2280:Max Friedrich Meyer
2172:Philosophy of music
2167:Performance science
2112:Aesthetics of music
2086:Musician's dystonia
2071:Auditory arrhythmia
1958:Melodic expectation
1709:2001NYASA.930..315P
1494:www.metal-rules.com
1384:The Washington Post
975:(2): 303–308, vii.
867:(46): 14627–14636.
771:Annals of Neurology
272:Musician's dystonia
133:spasmodic dysphonia
85:sensorimotor cortex
56:musician's dystonia
44:focal hand dystonia
2339:Books and journals
2260:Carol L. Krumhansl
1978:Music and movement
1933:Glissando illusion
1913:Exercise and music
1769:- Farias Technique
1279:The Globe and Mail
517:Movement Disorders
66:Signs and symptoms
2398:
2397:
2147:Musical acoustics
2023:Sharawadji effect
2003:Musical semantics
1973:Music and emotion
1873:Auditory illusion
1648:978-0-323-01094-8
1317:978-84-615-5124-8
590:978-0-07-174123-1
562:978-0-9758862-2-9
439:Christian MĂĽnzner
344:Second Hand Lions
36:abnormal postures
2423:
2416:Music psychology
2347:Music Perception
2290:Richard Parncutt
2275:Leonard B. Meyer
2225:Jane W. Davidson
2210:Jamshed Bharucha
1988:Music preference
1883:Background music
1878:Auditory imagery
1811:Music psychology
1804:
1797:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1763:
1761:
1746:
1736:
1687:
1652:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1442:. Archived from
1436:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1411:
1405:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1390:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1362:
1360:
1343:
1337:
1326:
1320:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1281:. 8 March 2015.
1269:
1263:
1262:
1256:
1254:
1245:. 13 July 2015.
1233:
1227:
1226:
1220:
1218:
1209:. 13 July 2015.
1197:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1043:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1018:www.uptodate.com
1010:
1001:
1000:
960:
947:
946:
906:
895:
894:
884:
852:
846:
845:
809:
803:
802:
766:
760:
759:
722:
713:
712:
702:
670:
659:
658:
648:
623:(7): 1536–1541.
608:
595:
594:
576:
567:
566:
548:
527:
526:
525:
524:
508:
474:, jazz guitarist
433:Billy McLaughlin
327:Berkley Breathed
241:nerve entrapment
177:Anticholinergics
163:Physical therapy
2431:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2394:
2334:
2220:Robert Cutietta
2196:
2182:Sociomusicology
2137:Music education
2122:Ethnomusicology
2100:
2052:
2048:Tritone paradox
2013:Octave illusion
1998:Musical gesture
1963:Melodic fission
1953:Lipps–Meyer law
1923:Franssen effect
1854:
1850:Psychoacoustics
1813:
1808:
1778:
1767:Farias, Joaquin
1759:
1744:
1672:Galene Editions
1668:Farias, Joaquin
1662:Farias, Joaquin
1656:Farias, Joaquin
1649:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1586:
1576:
1572:
1567:. 25 July 2021.
1563:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1546:
1538:Rivera, Erica.
1536:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1498:
1496:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1449:
1447:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1421:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1397:
1388:
1386:
1376:
1372:
1358:
1356:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1327:
1323:
1306:
1302:
1288:
1286:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1252:
1250:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1216:
1214:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1168:
1166:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1099:
1095:
1044:
1031:
1022:
1020:
1012:
1011:
1004:
961:
950:
907:
898:
853:
849:
810:
806:
767:
763:
723:
716:
671:
662:
609:
598:
591:
577:
570:
563:
549:
530:
522:
520:
509:
492:
487:
389:Reinhard Goebel
351:Stuart Cassells
287:
274:
269:
261:
253:
233:neuroplasticity
220:
189:Benzodiazepines
174:
165:
153:
121:
77:
68:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2429:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2357:
2350:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2270:Daniel Levitin
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2245:Henkjan Honing
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2206:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2105:Related fields
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2018:Relative pitch
2015:
2010:
2008:Musical syntax
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1948:Levitin effect
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1868:Absolute pitch
1864:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1807:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1777:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1762:on 2007-10-20.
1737:
1703:(1): 315–329.
1688:
1675:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1634:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1596:
1570:
1556:
1530:
1505:
1481:
1456:
1431:
1406:
1395:
1370:
1338:
1321:
1300:
1264:
1228:
1192:
1180:
1148:
1093:
1058:(3): 213–229.
1029:
1002:
948:
896:
847:
804:
777:(5): 828–831.
761:
714:
685:(2): 177–184.
660:
596:
589:
568:
561:
528:
489:
488:
486:
483:
482:
481:
475:
469:
463:
457:
451:
445:
436:
430:
424:
417:
408:
398:
392:
386:
383:Dominic Frasca
380:
374:
368:
358:
348:
324:
318:
312:
306:
300:
286:
285:Noted patients
283:
273:
270:
268:
265:
260:
257:
252:
249:
229:Joaquin Farias
219:
216:
209:antipsychotics
173:
170:
164:
161:
157:writer's cramp
152:
149:
120:
117:
76:
73:
67:
64:
48:writer's cramp
22:, also called
20:Focal dystonia
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2428:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2330:Sandra Trehub
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2310:Roger Shepard
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2300:Carl Seashore
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2285:James Mursell
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2240:Tuomas Eerola
2238:
2236:
2235:Diana Deutsch
2233:
2231:
2230:Irène Deliège
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2192:Zoomusicology
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2142:Music therapy
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2096:Tone deafness
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2076:Beat deafness
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1968:Mozart effect
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1825:Biomusicology
1823:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1775:
1772:Gorrie, Jon.
1771:
1768:
1765:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1749:Guitar Review
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:Guitar Review
1676:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1627:
1606:
1600:
1585:
1584:Bass Magazine
1581:
1574:
1566:
1560:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1519:
1515:
1509:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1470:
1466:
1460:
1446:on 2013-11-15
1445:
1441:
1435:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1399:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1366:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1342:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1304:
1296:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1260:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1232:
1224:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1203:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1176:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1007:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
959:
957:
955:
953:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
905:
903:
901:
892:
888:
883:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
851:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
808:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
765:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
734:(2): 508–20.
733:
729:
721:
719:
710:
706:
701:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
669:
667:
665:
656:
652:
647:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
607:
605:
603:
601:
592:
586:
582:
575:
573:
564:
558:
554:
547:
545:
543:
541:
539:
537:
535:
533:
518:
514:
507:
505:
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
490:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
466:Victor Wooten
464:
461:
458:
455:
452:
449:
446:
444:
440:
437:
434:
431:
428:
427:David Leisner
425:
422:
421:Pink Cream 69
418:
416:
412:
409:
406:
402:
399:
396:
395:Gary Graffman
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
378:
377:Leon Fleisher
375:
372:
371:Keith Emerson
369:
366:
362:
359:
356:
352:
349:
346:
345:
340:
339:
334:
333:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
297:
292:
289:
288:
282:
278:
264:
256:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
215:
214:
210:
206:
202:
201:tetrabenazine
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
169:
160:
158:
148:
146:
142:
141:limb dystonia
138:
134:
130:
126:
125:blepharospasm
116:
112:
110:
104:
102:
97:
92:
88:
86:
82:
72:
63:
61:
57:
54:, or simply,
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
2387:
2380:
2373:
2366:
2361:Musicophilia
2359:
2352:
2345:
2315:John Sloboda
2295:Oliver Sacks
2265:Fred Lerdahl
2117:Bioacoustics
2085:
2043:Tonal memory
2028:Shepard tone
1757:the original
1752:
1748:
1700:
1696:
1683:
1679:
1671:
1638:
1608:. Retrieved
1599:
1589:29 September
1587:. Retrieved
1583:
1573:
1559:
1547:. Retrieved
1543:
1533:
1521:. Retrieved
1517:
1508:
1497:. Retrieved
1493:
1484:
1472:. Retrieved
1468:
1459:
1448:. Retrieved
1444:the original
1434:
1422:. Retrieved
1418:
1409:
1398:
1387:. Retrieved
1383:
1373:
1363:– via
1357:. Retrieved
1347:
1341:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1308:
1303:
1293:– via
1287:. Retrieved
1273:
1267:
1257:– via
1251:. Retrieved
1237:
1231:
1221:– via
1215:. Retrieved
1201:
1195:
1183:
1173:– via
1167:. Retrieved
1157:
1151:
1110:
1106:
1096:
1055:
1051:
1021:. Retrieved
1017:
972:
969:Hand Clinics
968:
918:
914:
864:
860:
850:
820:(1): 41–49.
817:
813:
807:
774:
770:
764:
731:
727:
682:
678:
620:
616:
580:
552:
521:, retrieved
516:
478:Kara Goucher
460:Alex Webster
454:Charlie Parr
361:Andrew Dawes
342:
336:
332:Bloom County
330:
315:Andy Billups
294:
279:
275:
262:
254:
221:
175:
166:
154:
140:
122:
113:
109:interneurons
105:
93:
89:
78:
69:
55:
51:
43:
23:
19:
18:
2320:Carl Stumpf
2250:David Huron
2202:Researchers
1908:Entrainment
1610:13 December
1415:"Biography"
1359:18 February
1289:18 February
1253:18 February
1217:18 February
1169:18 February
1113:: 710–719.
472:Julian Lage
401:Jang Jae-in
385:, guitarist
291:Scott Adams
213:amphetamine
172:Medications
2405:Categories
2305:Max Schoen
2255:Nina Kraus
2215:Lola Cuddy
2152:Musicology
1544:City Pages
1499:2021-02-16
1450:2013-11-14
1389:2010-05-02
1243:TEDx Talks
1207:TEDx Talks
1023:2022-03-21
1014:"UpToDate"
523:2022-03-20
485:References
411:Alex Klein
321:Liona Boyd
309:Badi Assad
259:Prevention
218:Procedures
205:amantadine
193:Clonazepam
191:, such as
2058:Disorders
1143:232018908
1127:1973-9095
1072:1534-3138
989:0749-0712
935:0894-1130
728:Neurology
637:1432-1459
462:, bassist
303:Tom Adams
251:Prognosis
185:off-label
151:Treatment
119:Diagnosis
2411:Dystonia
1733:30266285
1725:11458838
1686:: 10–15.
1549:23 April
1523:23 April
1474:23 April
1424:23 April
1353:Archived
1336:, p. 110
1283:Archived
1247:Archived
1211:Archived
1163:Archived
1135:33619945
1080:22415705
997:12852672
943:19272752
891:19923295
834:17602215
799:23696383
756:43897851
709:20817092
655:28039522
197:baclofen
179:such as
96:afferent
40:dystonia
2127:Hearing
1898:Earworm
1705:Bibcode
1623:Sources
1469:cso.org
1365:YouTube
1295:YouTube
1259:YouTube
1223:YouTube
1175:YouTube
1088:2397836
882:2998172
842:7060907
791:9818942
748:8757029
700:3016461
646:5502053
443:Obscura
296:Dilbert
83:in the
81:neurons
2066:Amusia
1860:Topics
1731:
1723:
1645:
1315:
1141:
1133:
1125:
1086:
1078:
1070:
995:
987:
941:
933:
889:
879:
840:
832:
797:
789:
754:
746:
707:
697:
653:
643:
635:
587:
559:
211:, and
181:Artane
139:, and
75:Causes
34:) and
32:spasms
1818:Areas
1760:(PDF)
1745:(PDF)
1729:S2CID
1674:2004.
1139:S2CID
1084:S2CID
838:S2CID
795:S2CID
752:S2CID
46:, or
1721:PMID
1643:ISBN
1612:2023
1591:2023
1551:2018
1525:2018
1476:2018
1426:2018
1361:2022
1313:ISBN
1291:2022
1255:2022
1219:2022
1171:2022
1131:PMID
1123:ISSN
1076:PMID
1068:ISSN
993:PMID
985:ISSN
939:PMID
931:ISSN
887:PMID
830:PMID
787:PMID
744:PMID
705:PMID
651:PMID
633:ISSN
585:ISBN
557:ISBN
338:Opus
60:yips
1753:133
1713:doi
1701:930
1684:133
1115:doi
1060:doi
977:doi
923:doi
877:PMC
869:doi
822:doi
818:183
779:doi
736:doi
695:PMC
687:doi
641:PMC
625:doi
621:264
335:,
2407::
1751:.
1747:.
1727:.
1719:.
1711:.
1699:.
1695:.
1682:.
1582:.
1542:.
1516:.
1492:.
1467:.
1417:.
1382:.
1277:.
1241:.
1205:.
1137:.
1129:.
1121:.
1111:57
1109:.
1105:.
1082:.
1074:.
1066:.
1056:14
1054:.
1050:.
1032:^
1016:.
1005:^
991:.
983:.
973:19
971:.
967:.
951:^
937:.
929:.
919:22
917:.
913:.
899:^
885:.
875:.
865:29
863:.
859:.
836:.
828:.
816:.
793:.
785:.
775:44
773:.
750:.
742:.
732:47
730:.
717:^
703:.
693:.
683:42
681:.
677:.
663:^
649:.
639:.
631:.
619:.
615:.
599:^
571:^
531:^
515:,
493:^
243:,
207:,
203:,
199:,
159:.
135:,
131:,
127:,
103:.
1803:e
1796:t
1789:v
1735:.
1715::
1707::
1651:.
1614:.
1593:.
1553:.
1527:.
1502:.
1478:.
1453:.
1428:.
1392:.
1367:.
1319:.
1297:.
1261:.
1225:.
1177:.
1145:.
1117::
1090:.
1062::
1026:.
999:.
979::
945:.
925::
893:.
871::
844:.
824::
801:.
781::
758:.
738::
711:.
689::
657:.
627::
593:.
565:.
367:.
347:.
30:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.