547:: an external battery is placed subcutaneously, with wires under the skin which enter the skull and a region of the brain. To stimulate the globus pallidus internus, microelectrodes are placed into the globus pallidus internus bilaterally. After the surgery is performed, multiple visits are required to program the settings for the stimulator. The stimulation of the globus pallidus internus disrupts the abnormal discharge pattern in the globus pallidus internus, resulting in inhibition of hyperactive cortical activity. Globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation is the preferred surgical procedure, due to the lower frequency of side effects. Advantages of deep brain stimulation include the reversibility of the procedure, and the ability to adjust the settings of the stimulation.
410:. Sensory tricks offer only temporary and often partial relief of spasmodic torticollis. 74% of patients report only partial relief of spasmodic torticollis compared to 26% reporting complete relief. The sensory trick must also be applied by the patient themselves. When the sensory trick is applied by an examiner, only 32% of patients report relief comparable to relief during self-application. Since the root of the problem is neurological, doctors have explored sensorimotor retraining activities to enable the brain to "rewire" itself and eliminate dystonic movements.
579:
overall effectiveness in reducing symptoms and patients receiving physiotherapy in conjunction with botulinum toxin injections reported enhanced effects of treatment compared to the injections alone. One study examined patients with cervical dystonia who were treated with a physiotherapy program that included muscle stretching and relaxation, balance and coordination training, and exercises for muscle strengthening and endurance. A significant reduction in pain and severity of dystonia as well as increased postural awareness and quality of life was found.
114:
53:
588:
years, and a prevalence rate of 57 per 1 million. The exact prevalence of the disorder is not known; several family and population studies show that as many as 25% of cervical dystonia patients have relatives that are undiagnosed. Studies have shown that spasmodic torticollis is not diagnosed immediately; many patients are diagnosed well after a year of seeking medical attention. A survey of 59 patients diagnosed with spasmodic torticollis show that 43% of the patients visited at least four physicians before the diagnosis was made.
464:
29:
517:
488:, paralyzing the dystonic muscle. By disabling the movement of the antagonist muscle, the agonist muscle is allowed to move freely. With botulinum toxin injections, patients experience relief from spasmodic torticollis for approximately 12 to 16 weeks. There are several type A preparations available worldwide and in the United States.
170:. These neurotransmitters are secreted from the basal ganglia, traveling to muscle groups in the neck. An increase in neurotransmitters causes spasms to occur in the neck, resulting in spasmodic torticollis. Studies of local field potentials have also shown an increase of 4–10 Hz oscillatory activity in the
587:
Spasmodic torticollis is one of the most common forms of dystonia seen in neurology clinics, occurring in approximately 0.390% of the United States population in 2007 (390 per 100,000). Worldwide, it has been reported that the incidence rate of spasmodic torticollis is at least 1.2 per 100,000 person
96:
Initial symptoms of spasmodic torticollis are usually mild. Some feel an invisible tremor of their head for a few months at onset. Then the head may turn, pull or tilt in jerky movements, or sustain a prolonged position involuntarily. Over time, the involuntary spasm of the neck muscles will increase
187:
The most commonly used scale to rate the severity of spasmodic torticollis is the
Toronto Western Spasmodic Torticollis Rating Scale (TWSTRS). It has been shown that this rating system has widespread acceptance for use in clinical trials, and has been shown to have “good interobserver reliability.”
578:
also has an important role in managing spasmodic torticollis by providing stretching and strengthening exercises to aid the patient in keeping their head in proper alignment with their body. Patients with cervical dystonia ranked physical therapy intervention second to botulinum toxin injections in
394:
for a mild occasional twinge, oral medications, and deep brain stimulation. Combinations of these treatments have been used to control spasmodic torticollis. In addition, selective surgical denervation of nerves triggering muscle contractions may offer relief from spasms and pain, and limit damage
204:
that consists of sustained muscle contractions causing repetitive and twisting movements and abnormal postures in a single body region. There are two main ways to categorize spasmodic torticollis: age of onset, and cause. The disorder is categorized as early onset if the patient is diagnosed before
491:
Some patients experience or develop immunoresistance to botulinum toxin type A and must use botulinum toxin type B. Approximately 4% to 17% of patients develop botulinum toxin type A antibodies. The only botulinum toxin type B accessible in the United States is
Myobloc. Treatment using botulinum
454:
Higher doses of these medications can be used for later stages of spasmodic torticollis; however, the frequency and severity of side effects associated with the medications are usually not tolerated. Side effects include dry mouth, cognitive disturbance, drowsiness, diplopia, glaucoma and urinary
591:
There is a higher prevalence of spasmodic torticollis in females; females are 1.5 times more likely to develop spasmodic torticollis than males. The prevalence rate of spasmodic torticollis also increases with age, most patients show symptoms from ages 50–69. The average onset age of spasmodic
553:
There is a low rate of side effects for those who undergo deep brain stimulation. The most common side effect is headache, occurring in 15% of patients, followed by infection (4.4%) and cognitive dysfunction (4%). Serious side effects are seizure (1.2%), intracerebral hemorrhage (0.6%),
503:
published in 2016 reported moderate-quality evidence that a single
Botulinum toxin-B treatment session could improve cervical dystonia symptoms by 10% to 20%, although with an increased risk of dry mouth and swallowing difficulties. Another Cochrane review published in 2020 for
422:
blocking agents have been used in the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Treatment was based on the theory that there is an imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the basal ganglia. These drugs have fallen out of fashion due to various serious side effects: sedation,
370:
The flexion of the neck (head tilts forwards) is anterocollis. This is the "chin-to-chest" version and is the most difficult version to address. This movement utilizes the bilateral sternocleidomastoid, bilateral scalene complex, bilateral submental
178:
episodes and an increase of 5–7 Hz activity in dystonic muscles when compared to other primary dystonias. This indicates that oscillatory activity in these frequency bands may be involved in the pathophysiology of spasmodic torticollis.
121:
The pathophysiology of spasmodic torticollis is still relatively unknown. Spasmodic torticollis is considered neurochemical in nature, and does not result in structural neurodegenerative changes. Although no lesions are present in the
362:
Laterocollis is the tilting of the head from side to side. This is the "ear-to-shoulder" version. This involves many more muscles: ipsilateral sternocleidomastoid, ipsilateral splenius, ipsilateral scalene complex, ipsilateral
257:
When other conditions lead to spasmodic torticollis, it is said that the spasmodic torticollis is secondary. A variety of conditions can cause brain injury, from external factors to diseases. These conditions are listed below:
221:
Primary spasmodic torticollis is defined as having no other abnormality other than dystonic movement and occasional tremor in the neck. This type of spasmodic torticollis is usually inherited. Studies have shown that the DYT7
1817:
1802:
188:
There are three scales in the TWSTRS: torticollis severity scale, disability scale, and pain scale. These scales are used to represent the severity, the pain, and the general lifestyle of spasmodic torticollis.
84:. A small number of patients develop the disorder as a result of another disorder or disease. Most patients first experience symptoms midlife. The most common treatment for spasmodic torticollis is the use of
1483:
Tassorelli C, Mancini F, Balloni L, Pacchetti C, Sandrini G, Nappi G, Martignoni E (December 2006). "Botulinum toxin and neuromotor rehabilitation: An integrated approach to idiopathic cervical dystonia".
473:
The most commonly used treatment for spasmodic torticollis is the use of botulinum toxin injection in the dystonic musculature. Botulinum toxin type A is most often used; it prevents the release of
550:
In one study, patients who had developed immunoresistance to botulinum toxin underwent globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation, showing improvement by 54.4% after three to six months.
2371:
97:
in frequency and strength until it reaches a plateau. Symptoms can also worsen while the patient is walking or during periods of increased stress. Other symptoms include muscle
390:
There are several treatments for spasmodic torticollis, the most commonly used being botulinum toxin injections in the dystonic muscle of the neck. Other treatments include
395:
to the spine as a result of torqued posture. Spinal fibrosis (i.e., locking of spinal facets due to muscular contortion resulting in fused vertebrae) may occur rapidly.
2757:
2752:
431:. Other oral medications can be used in low doses to treat early stages of spasmodic torticollis. Relief from spasmodic torticollis is higher in those patients who take
1407:
Rodrigues, Filipe B.; Duarte, Gonçalo S.; Marques, Raquel E.; Castelão, Mafalda; Ferreira, Joaquim; Sampaio, Cristina; Moore, Austen P.; Costa, João (November 12, 2020).
2769:
2747:
1726:
van
Herwaarden GM, Anten HW, Hoogduin CA, et al. (August 1994). "Idiopathic spasmodic torticollis: a survey of the clinical syndromes and patients' experiences".
1920:
861:
Tang JK, et al. (2007). "Changes in cortical and pallidal oscillatory activity during the execution of a sensory trick in patients with cervical dystonia".
1570:
Claypool DW, Duane DD, Ilstrup DM, Melton LJ (September 1995). "Epidemiology and outcome of cervical dystonia (spasmodic torticollis) in
Rochester, Minnesota".
499:
due to the spread to adjacent muscles (11% to 40%), dry mouth (up to 33%), fatigue (up to 17%), and weakness of the injected or adjacent muscle (up to 56%). A
439:
alone or in combination with another drug such as clonazepam. 50% of patients who use anticholinergic agents report relief, 21% of patients report relief from
1527:
Zetterberg L, Halvorsen K, Färnstrand C, Aquilonius SM, Lindmark B (2008). "Physiotherapy in cervical dystonia: six experimental single-case studies".
729:
Vacherot F, Vaugoyeau M, Mallau S, Soulayrol S, Assaiante C, Azulay JP (May 2007). "Postural control and sensory integration in cervical dystonia".
2116:
1613:
The
Epidemiological Study of Dystonia in Europe (ESDE) Collaborative (2000). "A prevalence study of primary dystonia in eight European countries".
2838:
2111:
914:
Salvia P, Champagne O, Feipel V, Rooze M, de Beyl DZ (May 2006). "Clinical and goniometric evaluation of patients with spasmodic torticollis".
535:. This technique is currently, as of 2007, being trialed in patients with spasmodic torticollis. Patients are subjected to stimulation of the
694:
Jankovic J; Tsui J; Bergeron C. (2007). "Prevalence of
Cervical Dystonia and Spasmodic Torticollis in the United States general population".
398:
This suggests that the desynchronization of the frequency range is movement related. Obtaining relief via a "sensory trick", also known as a
374:
Retrocollis is the extension of the neck (head tilts back) and uses the following muscles for movement: bilateral splenius, bilateral upper
1913:
1464:
Silfors, Anders; Göran
Solders (2002). "Living with dystonia. A questionnaire among members of the Swedish Dystonia Patient Association".
2739:
72:
causing the neck to involuntarily turn to the left, right, upwards, and/or downwards. The condition is also referred to as "cervical
2729:
1906:
150:
pars reticulata. The studies hypothesize the hyper activation of the cortical areas is due to reduced pallidal inhibition of the
2709:
2382:
77:
570:
Physical treatment options for cervical dystonia include biofeedback, mechanical braces as well as patients self-performing a
158:
during movement. It has also been suggested that the functional imbalance is due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters such as
2734:
2366:
249:. Although these loci have been found, it is still not clear the extent of influence the loci have on spasmodic torticollis.
1096:
Farias J. Limitless. How your movements can heal your brain. An essay on the neurodynamics of dystonia. Galene editions 2016
2572:
2560:
2022:
1699:
Duffey PO, Butler AG, Hawthorne MR, Barnes MP (1998). "The epidemiology of the primary dystonias in the north of
England".
105:
and tremor. Studies have shown that over 75% of patients report neck pain, and 33% to 40% experience tremor of the head.
329:
insult or exposure, neurological abnormalities other than dystonia, abnormalities on brain imaging, particularly in the
2791:
2724:
2279:
2494:
2297:
1105:
Farias J. Intertwined. How to induce neuroplasticity. A new approach to rehabilitate dystonias. Galene editions 2012.
382:
A combination of these head positions is common; many patients experience turning and tilting actions of the head.
1203:
Ochudlo S; Drzyzga K; Drzyzga LR; Opala G. (2007). "Various patterns of gestes antagonists in cervical dystonia".
2843:
2613:
1358:
Marques, RE; Duarte, GS; Rodrigues, FB; CastelĂŁo, M; Ferreira, J; Sampaio, C; Moore, AP; Costa, J (13 May 2016).
2128:
2104:
1934:
1767:
1284:
2807:
2692:
2608:
2550:
2320:
2099:
1656:
Waddy HM, Fletcher NA, Harding AE, Marsden CD (March 1991). "A genetic study of idiopathic focal dystonias".
949:
Richter A, Löscher W (April 1998). "Pathology of idiopathic dystonia: findings from genetic animal models".
2776:
2150:
268:
131:
2286:
154:, leading to over activity of the medial and prefrontal cortical areas and under activity of the primary
2764:
2314:
1986:
356:
2714:
2682:
2656:
2634:
2483:
2062:
1612:
1241:
Velickovic M, Benabou R, Brin MF (2001). "Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options".
213:). Spasmodic torticollis can be further categorized by the direction and rotation of head movement.
52:
2781:
2555:
1969:
1832:
665:
234:
36 in an
Italian family is associated with spasmodic torticollis. The inheritance for both loci is
171:
142:
areas. Studies have suggested that there is a functional imbalance in the striatal control of the
2786:
2719:
2475:
2293:
2145:
2135:
1979:
1070:"Dystonia. Rewiring the brain through movement and dance | Federico Bitti | TEDxNapoli"
167:
1898:
492:
toxin type B is comparable to type A, with an increased frequency of the side effect dry mouth.
2651:
2643:
2598:
2274:
2246:
2094:
813:
de Carvalho Aguiar PM, Ozelius LJ (September 2002). "Classification and genetics of dystonia".
532:
524:
432:
325:
Secondary spasmodic torticollis is diagnosed when any of the following are present: history of
262:
201:
2666:
2540:
2358:
2336:
2251:
2084:
2071:
1996:
2603:
2420:
2309:
238:
80:
contract simultaneously during dystonic movement. Causes of the disorder are predominantly
8:
2532:
2179:
2034:
1974:
1821:
540:
1022:
Poisson, A.; Krack P.; Thobois S.; Loiraud C.; Serra G.; Vial C.; Broussolle E. (2012).
467:
Target molecules of botulinum (BoNT) and tetanus (TeNT) toxins inside the axon terminal.
205:
the age of 27, and late onset thereafter. The causes are categorized as either primary (
2702:
2687:
2675:
2425:
2376:
2213:
2076:
1964:
1826:
1779:
1751:
1681:
1638:
1595:
1552:
1509:
1441:
1408:
1384:
1335:
1310:
1266:
1051:
974:
896:
838:
754:
647:
468:
428:
242:
113:
1137:
962:
927:
826:
788:
635:
402:, is a common characteristic present in focal dystonias, most prevalently in cervical
2465:
2431:
2403:
2394:
2326:
2302:
2169:
2017:
1843:
1743:
1739:
1708:
1673:
1630:
1587:
1544:
1501:
1446:
1428:
1389:
1340:
1322:
1258:
1254:
1220:
1216:
1185:
1141:
1043:
966:
931:
888:
830:
792:
746:
711:
707:
639:
559:
435:
when compared to other oral medications. Many have reported complete management with
69:
41:
1883:
1755:
1685:
1642:
1599:
1556:
1513:
1270:
1055:
978:
874:
842:
758:
651:
345:
Torticollis is the horizontal turning (rotational collis) of the head, and uses the
2588:
2459:
2454:
2239:
2234:
1886:
1735:
1665:
1622:
1579:
1536:
1493:
1436:
1424:
1420:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1330:
1250:
1212:
1175:
1133:
1035:
1004:
958:
923:
900:
878:
870:
822:
784:
738:
703:
631:
575:
364:
349:
283:
223:
147:
341:
To further classify spasmodic torticollis, one can note the position of the head.
2510:
2201:
1837:
742:
536:
505:
500:
485:
448:
378:, bilateral deep posterior paravertebrals. This is the "chin-in-the-air" version.
316:
273:
143:
139:
85:
1084:"How your movements can heal your brain | Joaquin Farias | TEDxNapoli"
2567:
2516:
2344:
2053:
1930:
1848:
1023:
1008:
296:
1811:
1540:
1083:
1069:
1039:
531:
has recently been used as a successful treatment for tremors of patients with
2832:
2593:
2545:
2415:
2184:
2140:
1991:
1432:
1326:
571:
474:
407:
391:
353:
330:
227:
163:
135:
123:
2089:
1959:
1942:
1634:
1548:
1505:
1450:
1393:
1344:
1262:
1224:
1189:
1145:
1047:
995:
Brashear A. (2004). "Treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin".
935:
892:
834:
796:
750:
715:
643:
463:
424:
231:
155:
66:
1747:
1712:
1677:
1669:
1626:
1591:
1583:
970:
2048:
2009:
1951:
1180:
1163:
478:
346:
288:
210:
98:
1794:
2159:
2029:
1526:
555:
440:
436:
312:
246:
206:
102:
81:
1497:
1359:
883:
2269:
2220:
2208:
2191:
2123:
1878:
1854:
544:
496:
375:
326:
302:
235:
175:
46:
1202:
516:
495:
Common side effects include pain at the injection site (up to 28%),
28:
2744:
Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance (SMALED)
2449:
2441:
2407:
2261:
2164:
1021:
528:
444:
419:
403:
306:
197:
159:
151:
73:
1928:
1859:
1482:
728:
2488:
2229:
2196:
1806:
1406:
1357:
1024:"History of the "geste antagoniste" sign in cervical dystonia"
1311:"Comparison and Overview of Currently Available Neurotoxins"
997:
Operative Techniques in Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery
622:
Geyer HL; Bressman SB. (2006). "The diagnosis of dystonia".
1725:
1698:
1655:
693:
481:
127:
117:
Coronal sections of human brain labeling the basal ganglia.
1569:
913:
812:
1768:
Dystonia Medical Research Foundation: Cervical Dystonia
1409:"Botulinum toxin type A therapy for cervical dystonia"
1240:
1124:
Adam OR, Jankovic J (2007). "Treatment of dystonia".
1784:
1463:
621:
1164:"dystonia: disease profile and clinical management"
775:Uc EY; Rodnitzky RL. (2003). "Childhood Dystonia".
1309:Walker, Thomas J.; Dayan, Steven H. (2014-02-01).
774:
406:; however, it has also been seen in patients with
1315:The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
2830:
359:muscles. This is the "chin-to-shoulder" version.
1360:"Botulinum toxin type B for cervical dystonia"
948:
1914:
1520:
1476:
1123:
672:. National Spasmodic Torticollis Association
666:"Spasmodic Torticollis – Signs and Symptoms"
2633:
1413:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1364:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1308:
1161:
1086:. 13 July 2015 – via www.youtube.com.
1072:. 13 July 2015 – via www.youtube.com.
994:
990:
988:
367:, and ipsilateral posterior paravertebrals.
1921:
1907:
1157:
1155:
689:
687:
230:in a German family and the DYT13 locus on
51:
27:
1440:
1383:
1334:
1179:
882:
565:
511:
196:Spasmodic torticollis is a form of focal
1563:
1236:
1234:
985:
808:
806:
515:
462:
134:studies have shown abnormalities of the
112:
1196:
1152:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
684:
617:
615:
613:
611:
609:
607:
605:
2831:
2710:Distal hereditary motor neuronopathies
2383:Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS
856:
854:
852:
2839:Extrapyramidal and movement disorders
1902:
1231:
803:
520:Insertion of electrode during surgery
443:, 11% of patients report relief from
91:
2561:Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
1950:
1606:
1289:Dystonia Medical Research Foundation
1108:
860:
770:
768:
602:
849:
658:
413:
13:
2792:Infantile progressive bulbar palsy
1205:Parkinsonism and Related Disorders
696:Parkinsonism and Related Disorders
458:
126:in primary spasmodic torticollis,
108:
14:
2855:
2495:Template:Cerebrovascular diseases
2298:Frontotemporal lobar degeneration
1773:
1285:"Botulinum Neurotoxin Injections"
928:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.11.011
765:
336:
191:
2515:For more detailed coverage, see
2493:For more detailed coverage, see
2464:For more detailed coverage, see
2430:For more detailed coverage, see
2381:For more detailed coverage, see
1255:10.2165/00003495-200161130-00004
1217:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2007.01.004
708:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2007.02.005
65:is an extremely painful chronic
1719:
1692:
1649:
1457:
1400:
1351:
1302:
1277:
1099:
1090:
1076:
1062:
1015:
875:10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.01.010
777:Seminars in Pediatric Neurology
582:
543:. The device is analogous to a
1425:10.1002/14651858.CD003633.pub4
1376:10.1002/14651858.CD004315.pub3
942:
907:
722:
282:Infectious or post infectious
78:agonist and antagonist muscles
1:
2808:Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
2693:Hereditary spastic paraplegia
2551:Normal pressure hydrocephalus
1138:10.1016/S1353-8020(08)70031-2
963:10.1016/S0301-0082(97)00089-0
827:10.1016/S1474-4422(02)00137-0
789:10.1016/S1071-9091(02)00010-4
636:10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70547-6
595:
2777:Progressive muscular atrophy
1740:10.1016/0303-8467(94)90072-8
916:Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon)
743:10.1016/j.clinph.2007.01.013
385:
269:Central pontine myelinolysis
252:
182:
138:and hyper activation of the
7:
2287:Primary progressive aphasia
10:
2860:
2609:Hashimoto's encephalopathy
2315:Posterior cortical atrophy
2136:Striatonigral degeneration
1987:Cavernous sinus thrombosis
1126:Parkinsonism Relat. Disord
1009:10.1016/j.otot.2004.03.004
216:
2715:Spinal muscular atrophies
2683:Primary lateral sclerosis
2665:
2642:
2626:
2581:
2541:Intracranial hypertension
2531:
2503:
2474:
2440:
2402:
2391:
2357:
2335:
2321:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
2260:
2070:
2061:
2047:
2007:
1941:
1869:
1788:
1541:10.1080/09593980701884816
1040:10.1007/s00415-011-6380-7
527:to the basal ganglia and
40:
35:
26:
21:
2782:Progressive bulbar palsy
2573:Intracranial hypotension
2556:Choroid plexus papilloma
1970:Herpesviral encephalitis
172:globus pallidus internus
2294:Frontotemporal dementia
1980:Encephalitis lethargica
1529:Physiother Theory Pract
508:found similar results.
245:inherited with reduced
168:gamma-aminobutyric acid
2844:Neurological disorders
2599:Hepatic encephalopathy
863:Experimental Neurology
566:Physical Interventions
525:Deep brain stimulation
521:
512:Deep brain stimulation
470:
433:anticholinergic agents
263:Central nervous system
202:neuromuscular disorder
118:
2657:Ataxia–telangiectasia
2614:Static encephalopathy
2337:Mitochondrial disease
2175:Spasmodic torticollis
2085:Basal ganglia disease
1728:Clin Neurol Neurosurg
1670:10.1002/ana.410290315
1627:10.1007/s004150070094
1584:10.1002/mds.870100513
519:
466:
447:, and 13% from other
241:. These loci are all
116:
63:Spasmodic torticollis
22:Spasmodic torticollis
2604:Toxic encephalopathy
2310:Lewy bodies dementia
1615:Journal of Neurology
1181:10.2522/ptj.20060272
1162:Crowner BE. (2007).
1028:Journal of Neurology
624:The Lancet Neurology
243:autosomal dominantly
2652:Friedreich's ataxia
2035:Meningoencephalitis
1975:Limbic encephalitis
1780:Neck Pain Treatment
1132:(Suppl 3): S362–8.
592:torticollis is 41.
541:subthalamic nucleus
533:Parkinson's disease
357:sternocleidomastoid
146:, specifically the
36:Muscles of the neck
2688:Pseudobulbar palsy
2426:Status epilepticus
2377:Multiple sclerosis
2214:Myoclonic epilepsy
2077:movement disorders
2023:Acute disseminated
1965:Viral encephalitis
1870:External resources
558:(0.6%), and large
522:
471:
429:tardive dyskinesia
119:
92:Signs and symptoms
2826:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2622:
2621:
2527:
2526:
2466:Template:Headache
2432:Template:Epilepsy
2353:
2352:
2327:Vascular dementia
2170:Status dystonicus
2043:
2042:
2018:Encephalomyelitis
1896:
1895:
1498:10.1002/mds.21145
731:Clin Neurophysiol
572:geste antagoniste
560:subdural hematoma
554:intraventricular
539:internus, or the
506:Botulinum toxin-A
400:geste antagoniste
70:movement disorder
60:
59:
16:Medical condition
2851:
2640:
2639:
2631:
2630:
2589:Brain herniation
2400:
2399:
2240:Intention tremor
2235:Essential tremor
2100:Postencephalitic
2068:
2067:
2059:
2058:
1948:
1947:
1929:Diseases of the
1923:
1916:
1909:
1900:
1899:
1786:
1785:
1760:
1759:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1444:
1419:(11): CD003633.
1404:
1398:
1397:
1387:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1338:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1238:
1229:
1228:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1183:
1168:Physical Therapy
1159:
1150:
1149:
1121:
1106:
1103:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1034:(8): 1580–1584.
1019:
1013:
1012:
992:
983:
982:
946:
940:
939:
911:
905:
904:
886:
858:
847:
846:
810:
801:
800:
772:
763:
762:
726:
720:
719:
691:
682:
681:
679:
677:
662:
656:
655:
619:
576:Physical therapy
414:Oral medications
365:levator scapulae
284:encephalopathies
209:) or secondary (
148:substantia nigra
56:
55:
31:
19:
18:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2814:
2740:Congenital DSMA
2661:
2618:
2577:
2523:
2511:Sleep disorders
2499:
2476:Cerebrovascular
2470:
2436:
2393:
2387:
2349:
2331:
2256:
2202:Choreoathetosis
2075:
2052:
2039:
2003:
1937:
1927:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1865:
1864:
1797:
1776:
1764:
1763:
1724:
1720:
1697:
1693:
1654:
1650:
1611:
1607:
1568:
1564:
1525:
1521:
1481:
1477:
1462:
1458:
1405:
1401:
1370:(5): CD004315.
1356:
1352:
1307:
1303:
1294:
1292:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1249:(13): 1921–43.
1239:
1232:
1201:
1197:
1174:(11): 1511–26.
1160:
1153:
1122:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1020:
1016:
993:
986:
951:Prog. Neurobiol
947:
943:
912:
908:
859:
850:
811:
804:
773:
766:
727:
723:
692:
685:
675:
673:
664:
663:
659:
620:
603:
598:
585:
568:
537:globus pallidus
514:
501:Cochrane review
486:motor end plate
461:
459:Botulinum toxin
449:benzodiazepines
416:
388:
339:
305:(during birth)
274:Cerebrovascular
255:
219:
194:
185:
144:globus pallidus
111:
109:Pathophysiology
94:
86:botulinum toxin
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2857:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2712:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2671:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2648:
2646:
2637:
2628:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2568:Cerebral edema
2565:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2537:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2517:Template:Sleep
2507:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2491:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2412:
2410:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2345:Leigh syndrome
2341:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2266:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2194:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2081:
2079:
2072:Extrapyramidal
2065:
2056:
2054:encephalopathy
2045:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2014:
2012:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1956:
1954:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1931:nervous system
1926:
1925:
1918:
1911:
1903:
1894:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1851:
1840:
1829:
1814:
1798:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1789:Classification
1783:
1782:
1775:
1774:External links
1772:
1771:
1770:
1762:
1761:
1718:
1691:
1648:
1621:(10): 787–92.
1605:
1562:
1519:
1492:(12): 2240–3.
1475:
1466:Läkartidningen
1456:
1399:
1350:
1301:
1276:
1230:
1211:(7): 417–420.
1195:
1151:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1075:
1061:
1014:
984:
941:
906:
848:
802:
764:
737:(5): 1019–27.
721:
683:
657:
630:(9): 780–790.
600:
599:
597:
594:
584:
581:
567:
564:
513:
510:
460:
457:
415:
412:
387:
384:
380:
379:
372:
368:
360:
338:
337:Head positions
335:
323:
322:
319:
310:
300:
297:Paraneoplastic
294:
291:
286:
280:
277:
271:
266:
254:
251:
228:chromosome 18p
218:
215:
193:
192:Classification
190:
184:
181:
110:
107:
93:
90:
58:
57:
44:
38:
37:
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2856:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2625:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2594:Reye syndrome
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Hydrocephalus
2544:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2359:Demyelinating
2356:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2247:Restless legs
2245:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2185:Blepharospasm
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2141:Hemiballismus
2139:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2006:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1992:Brain abscess
1990:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1919:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1799:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:(5): 608–14.
1577:
1573:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1535:(4): 275–90.
1534:
1530:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1479:
1472:(8): 786–789.
1471:
1467:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1235:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1102:
1093:
1085:
1079:
1071:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1018:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
991:
989:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
957:(6): 633–77.
956:
952:
945:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
910:
902:
898:
894:
890:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
857:
855:
853:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
821:(5): 316–25.
820:
816:
815:Lancet Neurol
809:
807:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
771:
769:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
725:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
690:
688:
671:
667:
661:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
618:
616:
614:
612:
610:
608:
606:
601:
593:
589:
580:
577:
573:
563:
561:
557:
551:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
518:
509:
507:
502:
498:
493:
489:
487:
483:
480:
476:
475:acetylcholine
469:
465:
456:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
418:In the past,
411:
409:
408:blepharospasm
405:
401:
396:
393:
392:sensory trick
383:
377:
373:
369:
366:
361:
358:
355:
354:contralateral
351:
348:
344:
343:
342:
334:
332:
331:basal ganglia
328:
320:
318:
314:
311:
308:
304:
301:
298:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
281:
278:
275:
272:
270:
267:
264:
261:
260:
259:
250:
248:
244:
240:
237:
233:
232:chromosome 1p
229:
225:
214:
212:
208:
203:
199:
189:
180:
177:
173:
169:
165:
164:acetylcholine
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
136:basal ganglia
133:
129:
125:
124:basal ganglia
115:
106:
104:
101:, neck pain,
100:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
68:
64:
54:
48:
45:
43:
39:
34:
30:
25:
20:
2802:
2701:
2674:
2635:Degenerative
2372:Inflammatory
2319:
2252:Stiff-person
2174:
2090:Parkinsonism
2063:Degenerative
1960:Encephalitis
1943:Inflammation
1933:, primarily
1887:orthoped/452
1877:
1853:
1842:
1831:
1816:
1801:
1734:(3): 222–5.
1731:
1727:
1721:
1704:
1700:
1694:
1664:(3): 320–4.
1661:
1657:
1651:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1321:(2): 31–39.
1318:
1314:
1304:
1293:. Retrieved
1291:. 2022-09-28
1288:
1279:
1246:
1242:
1208:
1204:
1198:
1171:
1167:
1129:
1125:
1101:
1092:
1078:
1064:
1031:
1027:
1017:
1003:(2): 122–7.
1000:
996:
954:
950:
944:
922:(4): 323–9.
919:
915:
909:
869:(2): 845–8.
866:
862:
818:
814:
783:(1): 52–61.
780:
776:
734:
730:
724:
702:(7): 411–6.
699:
695:
676:December 29,
674:. Retrieved
669:
660:
627:
623:
590:
586:
583:Epidemiology
569:
552:
549:
523:
494:
490:
472:
453:
425:parkinsonism
417:
399:
397:
389:
381:
340:
324:
279:Drug induced
256:
220:
195:
186:
156:motor cortex
120:
95:
67:neurological
62:
61:
2787:Fazio–Londe
2627:Both/either
2421:Generalised
2280:Early-onset
2275:Alzheimer's
2010:spinal cord
1658:Ann. Neurol
1572:Mov. Disord
1486:Mov. Disord
479:presynaptic
455:retention.
347:ipsilateral
315:or central
289:Kernicterus
211:symptomatic
99:hypertrophy
2833:Categories
2395:paroxysmal
2367:Autoimmune
2160:Dyskinesia
2030:Meningitis
2008:Brain and
1844:DiseasesDB
1701:Adv Neurol
1295:2022-09-28
884:1807/17904
596:References
556:hemorrhage
441:clonazepam
437:gabapentin
313:Peripheral
247:penetrance
207:idiopathic
103:dysarthria
82:idiopathic
2392:Episodic/
2270:Tauopathy
2221:Akathisia
2209:Myoclonus
2192:Athetosis
2124:Tauopathy
1884:emerg/597
1879:eMedicine
1855:SNOMED CT
1707:: 121–5.
1433:1469-493X
1327:1941-2789
545:pacemaker
497:dysphagia
477:from the
386:Treatment
376:trapezius
327:exogenous
303:Perinatal
299:syndromes
293:Metabolic
253:Secondary
236:autosomal
183:Diagnosis
176:myoclonic
47:Neurology
42:Specialty
2758:SMALED2B
2753:SMALED2A
2450:Migraine
2442:Headache
2408:epilepsy
2404:Seizures
2262:Dementia
2165:Dystonia
1860:74333002
1756:27554275
1686:37961232
1643:26041305
1635:11127535
1600:25177370
1557:20722262
1549:18574753
1514:16366190
1506:17029278
1451:33180963
1394:27176573
1345:24587850
1271:46954613
1263:11708764
1225:17355914
1190:17878433
1146:18267265
1056:27142003
1048:22234840
979:53173608
936:16427167
893:17307166
843:29200547
835:12849429
797:12785748
759:45602523
751:17383228
716:17442609
652:28374695
644:16914406
562:(0.3%).
529:thalamus
445:baclofen
420:dopamine
404:dystonia
371:complex.
350:splenius
307:cerebral
276:diseases
239:dominant
198:dystonia
160:dopamine
152:thalamus
140:cortical
88:type A.
76:". Both
74:dystonia
2770:SMA-PME
2765:SMA-PCH
2748:SMALED1
2460:Tension
2455:Cluster
2180:Meige's
1997:Amoebic
1838:D014103
1748:7988090
1713:9750909
1678:2042948
1592:8552113
1442:8106615
1385:8552447
1336:3935649
971:9560845
901:3255050
484:of the
217:Primary
174:during
2489:Stroke
2303:Pick's
2230:Tremor
2197:Chorea
1827:333.83
1754:
1746:
1711:
1684:
1676:
1641:
1633:
1598:
1590:
1555:
1547:
1512:
1504:
1449:
1439:
1431:
1392:
1382:
1343:
1333:
1325:
1269:
1261:
1223:
1188:
1144:
1054:
1046:
977:
969:
934:
899:
891:
841:
833:
795:
757:
749:
714:
650:
642:
427:, and
352:, and
321:Toxins
317:trauma
309:injury
166:, and
49:
2803:both:
2735:DSMA1
2730:SMAX2
2725:SMAX1
2705:only:
2678:only:
2582:Other
2504:Other
2416:Focal
2049:Brain
1952:Brain
1849:13180
1812:G24.3
1752:S2CID
1682:S2CID
1639:S2CID
1596:S2CID
1553:S2CID
1510:S2CID
1267:S2CID
1243:Drugs
1052:S2CID
975:S2CID
897:S2CID
839:S2CID
755:S2CID
648:S2CID
265:tumor
224:locus
2406:and
2117:PKAN
2112:NBIA
1833:MeSH
1822:9-CM
1744:PMID
1709:PMID
1674:PMID
1631:PMID
1588:PMID
1545:PMID
1502:PMID
1447:PMID
1429:ISSN
1417:2020
1390:PMID
1368:2016
1341:PMID
1323:ISSN
1259:PMID
1221:PMID
1186:PMID
1142:PMID
1044:PMID
967:PMID
932:PMID
889:PMID
831:PMID
793:PMID
747:PMID
712:PMID
678:2018
670:NSTA
640:PMID
482:axon
200:, a
130:and
128:fMRI
2720:SMA
2703:LMN
2676:UMN
2667:MND
2533:CSF
2484:TIA
2129:PSP
2105:NMS
2074:and
1935:CNS
1818:ICD
1803:ICD
1736:doi
1666:doi
1623:doi
1619:247
1580:doi
1537:doi
1494:doi
1437:PMC
1421:doi
1380:PMC
1372:doi
1331:PMC
1251:doi
1213:doi
1176:doi
1134:doi
1036:doi
1032:259
1005:doi
959:doi
924:doi
879:hdl
871:doi
867:204
823:doi
785:doi
739:doi
735:118
704:doi
632:doi
226:on
132:PET
2835::
2644:SA
2151:OA
2146:HD
2095:PD
1882::
1858::
1847::
1836::
1825::
1810::
1807:10
1750:.
1742:.
1732:96
1730:.
1705:78
1703:.
1680:.
1672:.
1662:29
1660:.
1637:.
1629:.
1617:.
1594:.
1586:.
1576:10
1574:.
1551:.
1543:.
1533:24
1531:.
1508:.
1500:.
1490:21
1488:.
1470:99
1468:.
1445:.
1435:.
1427:.
1415:.
1411:.
1388:.
1378:.
1366:.
1362:.
1339:.
1329:.
1317:.
1313:.
1287:.
1265:.
1257:.
1247:61
1245:.
1233:^
1219:.
1209:13
1207:.
1184:.
1172:87
1170:.
1166:.
1154:^
1140:.
1130:13
1128:.
1110:^
1050:.
1042:.
1030:.
1026:.
1001:15
999:.
987:^
973:.
965:.
955:54
953:.
930:.
920:21
918:.
895:.
887:.
877:.
865:.
851:^
837:.
829:.
817:.
805:^
791:.
781:10
779:.
767:^
753:.
745:.
733:.
710:.
700:13
698:.
686:^
668:.
646:.
638:.
626:.
604:^
574:.
451:.
333:.
162:,
2296:/
2051:/
1922:e
1915:t
1908:v
1820:-
1805:-
1795:D
1758:.
1738::
1715:.
1688:.
1668::
1645:.
1625::
1602:.
1582::
1559:.
1539::
1516:.
1496::
1453:.
1423::
1396:.
1374::
1347:.
1319:7
1298:.
1273:.
1253::
1227:.
1215::
1192:.
1178::
1148:.
1136::
1058:.
1038::
1011:.
1007::
981:.
961::
938:.
926::
903:.
881::
873::
845:.
825::
819:1
799:.
787::
761:.
741::
718:.
706::
680:.
654:.
634::
628:5
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
