Positron emission tomography

1205:. The sinograms are sorted by the angle of each view and tilt (for 3D images). The sinogram images are analogous to the projections captured by CT scanners, and can be reconstructed in a similar way. The statistics of data thereby obtained are much worse than those obtained through transmission tomography. A normal PET data set has millions of counts for the whole acquisition, while the CT can reach a few billion counts. This contributes to PET images appearing "noisier" than CT. Two major sources of noise in PET are scatter (a detected pair of photons, at least one of which was deflected from its original path by interaction with matter in the field of view, leading to the pair being assigned to an incorrect LOR) and random events (photons originating from two different annihilation events but incorrectly recorded as a coincidence pair because their arrival at their respective detectors occurred within a coincidence timing window). 1427:

radiotracer molecules that will contain a positron-emitting radioisotope cannot be synthesized first and then the radioisotope prepared within them, because bombardment with a cyclotron to prepare the radioisotope destroys any organic carrier for it. Instead, the isotope must be prepared first, then the chemistry to prepare any organic radiotracer (such as FDG) accomplished very quickly, in the short time before the isotope decays. Few hospitals and universities are capable of maintaining such systems, and most clinical PET is supported by third-party suppliers of radiotracers that can supply many sites simultaneously. This limitation restricts clinical PET primarily to the use of tracers labelled with fluorine-18, which has a half-life of 110 minutes and can be transported a reasonable distance before use, or to rubidium-82 (used as

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artifacts common with FBP, but the disadvantage is greater computer resource requirements. A further advantage of statistical image reconstruction techniques is that the physical effects that would need to be pre-corrected for when using an analytical reconstruction algorithm, such as scattered photons, random coincidences, attenuation and detector dead-time, can be incorporated into the likelihood model being used in the reconstruction, allowing for additional noise reduction. Iterative reconstruction has also been shown to result in improvements in the resolution of the reconstructed images, since more sophisticated models of the scanner physics can be incorporated into the likelihood model than those used by analytical reconstruction methods, allowing for improved quantification of the radioactivity distribution.

1047:. PET technology can be used to trace the biologic pathway of any compound in living humans (and many other species as well), provided it can be radiolabeled with a PET isotope. Thus, the specific processes that can be probed with PET are virtually limitless, and radiotracers for new target molecules and processes are continuing to be synthesized. As of this writing there are already dozens in clinical use and hundreds applied in research. In 2020 by far the most commonly used radiotracer in clinical PET scanning is the carbohydrate derivative FDG. This radiotracer is used in essentially all scans for oncology and most scans in neurology, thus makes up the large majority of radiotracer (>95%) used in PET and PET-CT scanning. 1354:: For modern systems with a higher time resolution (roughly 3 nanoseconds) a technique called "time-of-flight" is used to improve the overall performance. Time-of-flight PET makes use of very fast gamma-ray detectors and data processing system which can more precisely decide the difference in time between the detection of the two photons. It is impossible to localize the point of origin of the annihilation event exactly (currently within 10 cm). Therefore, image reconstruction is still needed. TOF technique gives a remarkable improvement in image quality, especially signal-to-noise ratio. 1373: 188:. PET is a valuable research tool to learn and enhance our knowledge of the normal human brain, heart function, and support drug development. PET is also used in pre-clinical studies using animals. It allows repeated investigations into the same subjects over time, where subjects can act as their own control and substantially reduces the numbers of animals required for a given study. This approach allows research studies to reduce the sample size needed while increasing the statistical quality of its results. 1561: 1392:) giving both anatomic and metabolic information (i.e., what the structure is, and what it is doing biochemically). Because PET imaging is most useful in combination with anatomical imaging, such as CT, modern PET scanners are now available with integrated high-end multi-detector-row CT scanners (PET-CT). Because the two scans can be performed in immediate sequence during the same session, with the patient not changing position between the two types of scans, the two sets of images are more precisely 31: 1456: 7813: 6863: 1381: 4937: 923: 6851: 240: 6875: 423:(AD) greatly decrease brain metabolism of both glucose and oxygen in tandem. Therefore FDG PET of the brain may also be used to successfully differentiate Alzheimer's disease from other dementing processes, and also to make early diagnoses of Alzheimer's disease. The advantage of FDG PET for these uses is its much wider availability. Some fluorine-18 based radioactive tracers used for Alzheimer's include 769:

and dissecting the animals. Commonly, drug occupancy at a purported site of action can be inferred indirectly by competition studies between unlabeled drug and radiolabeled compounds to bind with specificity to the site. A single radioligand can be used this way to test many potential drug candidates for the same target. A related technique involves scanning with radioligands that compete with an

1091: 396: 1521: 855:, which can be used only on superficial muscles directly under the skin. However, a disadvantage is that PET provides no timing information about muscle activation because it has to be measured after the exercise is completed. This is due to the time it takes for FDG to accumulate in the activated muscles. 1238:

such as the Shepp–Vardi algorithm are now the preferred method of reconstruction. These algorithms compute an estimate of the likely distribution of annihilation events that led to the measured data, based on statistical principles. The advantage is a better noise profile and resistance to the streak

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Young H, Baum R, Cremerius U, Herholz K, Hoekstra O, Lammertsma AA, et al. (December 1999). "Measurement of clinical and subclinical tumor response using -fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: review and 1999 EORTC recommendations. European Organization for Research and Treatment

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beginning in the 1950s contributed significantly to the development of PET technology and included the first demonstration of annihilation radiation for medical imaging. Their innovations, including the use of light pipes and volumetric analysis, have been important in the deployment of PET imaging.

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3D techniques have better sensitivity (because more coincidences are detected and used) hence less noise, but are more sensitive to the effects of scatter and random coincidences, as well as requiring greater computer resources. The advent of sub-nanosecond timing resolution detectors affords better

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became the first veterinary center to employ a small clinical PET scanner as a scanner for clinical (rather than research) animal diagnosis. Because of cost as well as the marginal utility of detecting cancer metastases in companion animals (the primary use of this modality), veterinary PET scanning

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in the scanning device, creating a burst of light which is detected by photomultiplier tubes or silicon avalanche photodiodes (Si APD). The technique depends on simultaneous or coincident detection of the pair of photons moving in approximately opposite directions (they would be exactly opposite in

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with opposite charge. The emitted positron travels in tissue for a short distance (typically less than 1 mm, but dependent on the isotope), during which time it loses kinetic energy, until it decelerates to a point where it can interact with an electron. The encounter annihilates both electron

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Because the half-life of fluorine-18 is about two hours, the prepared dose of a radiopharmaceutical bearing this radionuclide will undergo multiple half-lives of decay during the working day. This necessitates frequent recalibration of the remaining dose (determination of activity per unit volume)

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The raw data collected by a PET scanner are a list of 'coincidence events' representing near-simultaneous detection (typically, within a window of 6 to 12 nanoseconds of each other) of annihilation photons by a pair of detectors. Each coincidence event represents a line in space connecting the two

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In pre-clinical trials, a new drug can be radiolabeled and injected into animals. Such scans are referred to as biodistribution studies. The information regarding drug uptake, retention and elimination over time can be obtained quickly and cost-effectively compare to the older technique of killing

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changes in the body. Since PET is capable of detecting biochemical processes as well as expression of some proteins, PET can provide molecular-level information much before any anatomic changes are visible. PET scanning does this by using radiolabelled molecular probes that have different rates of

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studies. In recent years a few on-site cyclotrons with integrated shielding and "hot labs" (automated chemistry labs that are able to work with radioisotopes) have begun to accompany PET units to remote hospitals. The presence of the small on-site cyclotron promises to expand in the future as the

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The minimization of radiation dose to the subject is an attractive feature of the use of short-lived radionuclides. Besides its established role as a diagnostic technique, PET has an expanding role as a method to assess the response to therapy, in particular, cancer therapy, where the risk to the

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The logical extension of positron instrumentation was a design using two 2-dimensional arrays. PC-I was the first instrument using this concept and was designed in 1968, completed in 1969 and reported in 1972. The first applications of PC-I in tomographic mode as distinguished from the computed

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is injected into the living subject (usually into blood circulation). Each tracer atom has been chemically incorporated into a biologically active molecule. There is a waiting period while the active molecule becomes concentrated in tissues of interest. Then the subject is placed in the imaging

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fitted with a coincidence detector. The quality of gamma-camera PET imaging is lower, and the scans take longer to acquire. However, this method allows a low-cost on-site solution to institutions with low PET scanning demand. An alternative would be to refer these patients to another center or

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Limitations to the widespread use of PET arise from the high costs of cyclotrons needed to produce the short-lived radionuclides for PET scanning and the need for specially adapted on-site chemical synthesis apparatus to produce the radiopharmaceuticals after radioisotope preparation. Organic

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Due to the short half-lives of most positron-emitting radioisotopes, the radiotracers have traditionally been produced using a cyclotron in close proximity to the PET imaging facility. The half-life of fluorine-18 is long enough that radiotracers labeled with fluorine-18 can be manufactured

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Mukherjee J, Christian BT, Dunigan KA, Shi B, Narayanan TK, Satter M, Mantil J (December 2002). "Brain imaging of F-fallypride in normal volunteers: blood analysis, distribution, test-retest studies, and preliminary assessment of sensitivity to aging effects on dopamine D-2/D-3 receptors".

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in the raw data is prominent in the reconstructed images, and areas of high tracer uptake tend to form streaks across the image. Also, FBP treats the data deterministically – it does not account for the inherent randomness associated with PET data, thus requiring all the pre-reconstruction

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emitted by the radiotracer inside the body are absorbed by intervening tissue between the detector and the emission of the photon. As different LORs must traverse different thicknesses of tissue, the photons are attenuated differentially. The result is that structures deep in the body are

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of the radioactive glucose molecule allows the PET scan to be utilized. The concentrations of imaged FDG tracer indicate tissue metabolic activity as it corresponds to the regional glucose uptake. FDG is used to explore the possibility of cancer spreading to other body sites

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tomographic mode were reported in 1970. It soon became clear to many of those involved in PET development that a circular or cylindrical array of detectors was the logical next step in PET instrumentation. Although many investigators took this approach, James Robertson and

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in August 1976 at the University of Pennsylvania. Brain images obtained with an ordinary (non-PET) nuclear scanner demonstrated the concentration of FDG in that organ. Later, the substance was used in dedicated positron tomographic scanners, to yield the modern procedure.

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sugars, due to their ionic charge, cannot exit from the cell. This results in intense radiolabeling of tissues with high glucose uptake, such as the normal brain, liver, kidneys, and most cancers, which have a higher glucose uptake than most normal tissue due to the

1396:, so that areas of abnormality on the PET imaging can be more perfectly correlated with anatomy on the CT images. This is very useful in showing detailed views of moving organs or structures with higher anatomical variation, which is more common outside the brain. 1152:

The most significant fraction of electron–positron annihilations results in two 511 keV gamma photons being emitted at almost 180 degrees to each other. Hence, it is possible to localize their source along a straight line of coincidence (also called the

1333:: Early PET scanners had only a single ring of detectors, hence the acquisition of data and subsequent reconstruction was restricted to a single transverse plane. More modern scanners now include multiple rings, essentially forming a cylinder of detectors. 1506:

One of the factors most responsible for the acceptance of positron imaging was the development of radiopharmaceuticals. In particular, the development of labeled 2-fluorodeoxy-D-glucose (FDG-firstly synthethized and described by two Czech scientists from

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Comparative images of the first X-ray (left) and the first total body FDG-PET scan (right), the latter pioneered by Abass Alavi. These diagnostic tools have revolutionized modern medicine, with the FDG-PET scan having an impact akin to that of the first

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While attenuation-corrected images are generally more faithful representations, the correction process is itself susceptible to significant artifacts. As a result, both corrected and uncorrected images are always reconstructed and read together.

577:. These probes permit the visualization of amyloid plaques in the brains of Alzheimer's patients and could assist clinicians in making a positive clinical diagnosis of AD pre-mortem and aid in the development of novel anti-amyloid therapies. 403:

PET imaging with oxygen-15 indirectly measures blood flow to the brain. In this method, increased radioactivity signal indicates increased blood flow which is assumed to correlate with increased brain activity. Because of its 2-minute

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Luster M, Karges W, Zeich K, Pauls S, Verburg FA, Dralle H, et al. (March 2010). "Clinical value of F-fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine positron emission tomography/computed tomography (F-DOPA PET/CT) for detecting pheochromocytoma".

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have been explored for this purpose. If the sclerosis is unilateral (right hippocampus or left hippocampus), FDG uptake can be compared with the healthy side. Even if the diagnosis is difficult with MRI, it may be diagnosed with PET.

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by way of example. To visualize and quantify the distribution of such antibodies in the body, the PET isotope Zr is well suited because its physical half-life matches the typical biological half-life of antibodies, see table above.

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PET imaging with FDG can also be used for localization of "seizure focus". A seizure focus will appear as hypometabolic during an interictal scan. Several radiotracers (i.e. radioligands) have been developed for PET that are

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patient from lack of knowledge about disease progress is much greater than the risk from the test radiation. Since the tracers are radioactive, the elderly and pregnant are unable to use it due to risks posed by radiation.

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in Prague in 1968) by the Brookhaven group under the direction of Al Wolf and Joanna Fowler was a major factor in expanding the scope of PET imaging. The compound was first administered to two normal human volunteers by

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and 6.5–8 mSv for a CT scan of the chest. Average civil aircrews are exposed to 3 mSv/year, and the whole body occupational dose limit for nuclear energy workers in the US is 50 mSv/year. For scale, see

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reports that the current average incremental cost to perform a PET scan in the province is CA$ 1,000–1,200 per scan. This includes the cost of the radiopharmaceutical and a stipend for the physician reading the scan.

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technologies can improve diagnosis and treatment follow-up. Clinically, PET has been widely used to image bacterial infections using FDG to identify the infection-associated inflammatory response. Three different PET

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uptake depending on the type and function of tissue involved. Regional tracer uptake in various anatomic structures can be visualized and relatively quantified in terms of injected positron emitter within a PET scan.

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correction (after the detection of a photon, the detector must "cool down" again) and detector-sensitivity correction (for both inherent detector sensitivity and changes in sensitivity due to angle of incidence).

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Ido T, Wan CN, Casella V, Fowler JS, Wolf AP, Reivich M, Kuhl DE (1978). "Labeled 2-deoxy-D-glucose analogs. F-labeled 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose, 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-mannose and 14C-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose".

1144:, but the scanner has no way to know this, and so has a built-in slight direction-error tolerance). Photons that do not arrive in temporal "pairs" (i.e. within a timing-window of a few nanoseconds) are ignored. 415:

PET imaging with FDG takes advantage of the fact that the brain is normally a rapid user of glucose. Standard FDG PET of the brain measures regional glucose use and can be used in neuropathological diagnosis.

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scanner. The molecule most commonly used for this purpose is FDG, a sugar, for which the waiting period is typically an hour. During the scan, a record of tissue concentration is made as the tracer decays.

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Mathis CA, Bacskai BJ, Kajdasz ST, McLellan ME, Frosch MP, Hyman BT, et al. (February 2002). "A lipophilic thioflavin-T derivative for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of amyloid in brain".

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reconstructed as having falsely low tracer uptake. Contemporary scanners can estimate attenuation using integrated x-ray CT equipment, in place of earlier equipment that offered a crude form of CT using a

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has been in use for 60 years for measuring regional bone metabolism and blood flow using static and dynamic scans. Researchers have recently started using sodium fluoride to study bone metastasis as well.

1223:(FBP) has been frequently used to reconstruct images from the projections. This algorithm has the advantage of being simple while having a low requirement for computing resources. Disadvantages are that 3593:

van Rij, Catharina M.; Sharkey, Robert M.; Goldenberg, David M.; Frielink, Cathelijne; Molkenboer, Janneke D. M.; Franssen, Gerben M.; van Weerden, Wietske M.; Oyen, Wim J. G.; Boerman, Otto C. (2011).

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Ahn, Shin Hye; Cosby, Alexia G.; Koller, Angus J.; Martin, Kirsten E.; Pandey, Apurva; Vaughn, Brett A.; Boros, Eszter (2021). "Chapter 6. Radiometals for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Imaging".

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Buchsbaum MS, Christian BT, Lehrer DS, Narayanan TK, Shi B, Mantil J, et al. (July 2006). "D2/D3 dopamine receptor binding with fallypride in thalamus and cortex of patients with schizophrenia".

286:). These FDG PET scans for detecting cancer metastasis are the most common in standard medical care (representing 90% of current scans). The same tracer may also be used for the diagnosis of types of 247:). The normal brain and kidneys are labeled, and radioactive urine from breakdown of the FDG is seen in the bladder. In addition, a large metastatic tumor mass from colon cancer is seen in the liver. 4065:

Miller MI, Snyder DL (1987). "The role of likelihood and entropy in incomplete data problems: Applications to estimating point-process intensites and toeplitz constrained covariance estimates".

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A Vital Legacy: Biological and Environmental Research in the Atomic Age (Report). U.S. Department of Energy, The Office of Biological and Environmental Research. September 2010. pp. 25–26.

666:) and other sites have been used successfully in studies with human subjects. Studies have been performed examining the state of these receptors in patients compared to healthy controls in 2594:"Binding characteristics of radiofluorinated 6-dialkylamino-2-naphthylethylidene derivatives as positron emission tomography imaging probes for beta-amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease" 3949: 2677:

Kuhl DE, Koeppe RA, Minoshima S, Snyder SE, Ficaro EP, Foster NL, et al. (March 1999). "In vivo mapping of cerebral acetylcholinesterase activity in aging and Alzheimer's disease".

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Heuveling, Derek A.; Visser, Gerard W. M.; Baclayon, Marian; Roos, Wouter H.; Wuite, Gijs J. L.; Hoekstra, Otto S.; Leemans, C. René; de Bree, Remco; van Dongen, Guus A. M. S. (2011).

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cyclotrons shrink in response to the high cost of isotope transportation to remote PET machines. In recent years the shortage of PET scans has been alleviated in the US, as rollout of

5626: 585:. Post-mortem examination of AD patients have shown decreased levels of acetylcholinesterase. PMP is used to map the acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain, which could allow for 3385:

Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, Ziegler SI, Münzing W, Müller SP, Beyer T (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality F-FDG PET/CT examinations".

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were the first to propose a ring system that has become the prototype of the current shape of PET. The first multislice cylindrical array PET scanner was completed in 1974 at the

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Treat each ring as a separate entity, so that only coincidences within a ring are detected, the image from each ring can then be reconstructed individually (2D reconstruction), or

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Navalpakkam BK, Braun H, Kuwert T, Quick HH (May 2013). "Magnetic resonance-based attenuation correction for PET/MR hybrid imaging using continuous valued attenuation maps".

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Pauls S, Buck AK, Hohl K, Halter G, Hetzel M, Blumstein NM, et al. (2007). "Improved non-invasive T-Staging in non-small cell lung cancer by integrated F-FDG PET/CT".

1301:'s roughness method may yield superior performance to expectation-maximization-based methods which involve a Poisson likelihood function but do not involve such a prior. 4562: 1410:

For brain imaging, registration of CT, MRI and PET scans may be accomplished without the need for an integrated PET-CT or PET-MRI scanner by using a device known as the

1283: 1177:(SNR) of the image will improve, requiring fewer events to achieve the same image quality. This technology is not yet common, but it is available on some new systems. 6406: 4278:

Huang SC, Hoffman EJ, Phelps ME, Kuhl DE (December 1979). "Quantitation in positron emission computed tomography: 2. Effects of inaccurate attenuation correction".

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Willett R, Harmany Z, Marcia R (2010). Bouman CA, Pollak I, Wolfe PJ (eds.). "SPIRAL out of Convexity: Sparsity-regularized Algorithms for Photon-limited Imaging".

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For PET-CT scanning, the radiation exposure may be substantial—around 23–26 mSv (for a 70 kg person—dose is likely to be higher for higher body weights).

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Numerous compounds that bind selectively to neuroreceptors of interest in biological psychiatry have been radiolabeled with C-11 or F-18. Radioligands that bind to

1307:: Quantitative PET Imaging requires attenuation correction. In these systems attenuation correction is based on a transmission scan using Ge rotating rod source. 1862:

McCarten KM, Nadel HR, Shulkin BL, Cho SY (October 2019). "Imaging for diagnosis, staging and response assessment of Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma".

581:(PMP) is a novel radiopharmaceutical used in PET imaging to determine the activity of the acetylcholinergic neurotransmitter system by acting as a substrate for 7772: 1161:). In practice, the LOR has a non-zero width as the emitted photons are not exactly 180 degrees apart. If the resolving time of the detectors is less than 500 5814: 1201:

collected in PET is much poorer than CT, so reconstruction techniques are more difficult. Coincidence events can be grouped into projection images, called

80:, regional chemical composition, and absorption. Different tracers are used for various imaging purposes, depending on the target process within the body. 5341: 5636: 3328: 1503:

In 1961, James Robertson and his associates at Brookhaven National Laboratory built the first single-plane PET scan, nicknamed the "head-shrinker."

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Saleh H, Kassas B (2015). "Developing Stereotactic Frames for Cranial Treatment". In Benedict SH, Schlesinger DJ, Goetsch SJ, Kavanagh BD (eds.).

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Oi N, Iwaya T, Itoh M, Yamaguchi K, Tobimatsu Y, Fujimoto T (2003). "FDG-PET imaging of lower extremity muscular activity during level walking".

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magnetic resonance tomograph (MRT) combined with a PET. Presently, only the head and brain can be imaged at these high magnetic field strengths.

880:. FDG, which is now the standard radiotracer used for PET neuroimaging and cancer patient management, has an effective radiation dose of 14 337:

A 2020 review of research on the use of PET for Hodgkin lymphoma found evidence that negative findings in interim PET scans are linked to higher

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in all cells, no further reactions occur in FDG. Furthermore, most tissues (with the notable exception of liver and kidneys) cannot remove the

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Snyder DL, Miller MI, Thomas LJ, Politte DG (1987). "Noise and edge artifacts in maximum-likelihood reconstructions for emission tomography".

7487: 7171: 5321: 4539: 3735: 1471:, Luke Chapman and Roy Edwards in the late 1950s. Their work would lead to the design and construction of several tomographic instruments at 1070:

The isotope Zr has been applied to the tracking and quantification of molecular antibodies with PET cameras (a method called "immuno-PET").

532:). These agents permit the visualization of neuroreceptor pools in the context of a plurality of neuropsychiatric and neurologic illnesses. 7301: 5643: 5074: 4823: 4769:

Robertson JS, Marr RB, Rosenblum M, Radeka V, Yamamoto YL (1983). "32-Crystal positron transverse section detector". In Freedman GS (ed.).

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Ter-Pogossian MM, Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Mullani NA (January 1975). "A positron-emission transaxial tomograph for nuclear imaging (PETT)".

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The use of positron-emitting isotopes of metals in PET scans has been reviewed, including elements not listed above, such as lanthanides.

7313: 2883:"Use of stereotactic PET images in dosimetry planning of radiosurgery for brain tumors: clinical experience and proposed classification" 7641: 5409: 2091:

Khan TS, Sundin A, Juhlin C, Långström B, Bergström M, Eriksson B (March 2003). "11C-metomidate PET imaging of adrenocortical cancer".

2042:"Interim PET-results for prognosis in adults with Hodgkin lymphoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic factor studies" 1194: 720: 212: 199:

PET imaging is best performed using a dedicated PET scanner. It is also possible to acquire PET images using a conventional dual-head

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Zaucha JM, Chauvie S, Zaucha R, Biggii A, Gallamini A (July 2019). "The role of PET/CT in the modern treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma".

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In practice, considerable pre-processing of the data is required – correction for random coincidences, estimation and subtraction of

6151: 7749: 3543:"Zr-Nanocolloidal Albumin–Based PET/CT Lymphoscintigraphy for Sentinel Node Detection in Head and Neck Cancer: Preclinical Results" 2363:

Stanescu, Luana; Ishak, Gisele E.; Khanna, Paritosh C.; Biyyam, Deepa R.; Shaw, Dennis W.; Parisi, Marguerite T. (September 2013).

1492: 1472: 7279: 6362: 6202: 6141: 5048:—U.S. government source of radionuclides including those for PET—production, research, development, distribution, and information 6282: 6107: 809: 4569: 3102: 797:, are marketed for academic and pharmaceutical research. The scanners are based on microminiature scintillators and amplified 7837: 7284: 5336: 4186: 4102:"Bayesian image reconstruction for emission tomography incorporating Good's roughness prior on massively parallel processors" 3701: 1965: 1809:

ARSAC – Notes for Guidance on the Clinical Administration of Radiopharmaceuticals and use of Sealed Sources (March 2018 p.35)

1679: 566: 220: 773:(naturally occurring) substance at a given receptor to demonstrate that a drug causes the release of the natural substance. 6158: 3493: 364:(FDOPA) PET/CT (also called F-18-DOPA PET/CT) has proven to be a more sensitive alternative to finding and also localizing 2167:"6-[F]fluorodopamine positron emission tomographic (PET) scanning for diagnostic localization of pheochromocytoma" 1343:

Allow coincidences to be detected between rings as well as within rings, then reconstruct the entire volume together (3D).

345:; however, the certainty of the available evidence was moderate for survival, and very low for progression-free survival. 7842: 7125: 6879: 6075: 5621: 5586: 2040:

Aldin A, Umlauff L, Estcourt LJ, Collins G, Moons KG, Engert A, et al. (Cochrane Haematology Group) (January 2020).

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PET is both a medical and research tool used in pre-clinical and clinical settings. It is used heavily in the imaging of

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Institute of Neurosciences and Biophysics, the world's largest PET-MRI device began operation in April 2009. A 9.4-

7677: 7556: 7296: 7205: 6773: 6357: 3736:"Invitation to Cover: Advancements in "Time-of-Flight" Technology Make New PET/CT Scanner at Penn a First in the World" 1732: 1235: 1124: 827:

PET imaging has been used for imaging muscles and bones. FDG is the most commonly used tracer for imaging muscles, and

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to be scanned. This RatCAP (rat conscious animal PET) allows animals to be scanned without the confounding effects of

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PET SCAN PRIMER, A Guide to the Implementation of Positron Emission Tomography Imaging in Ontario, Executive Summary

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Ruggiero, A.; Holland, J. P.; Hudolin, T.; Shenker, L.; Koulova, A.; Bander, N. H.; Lewis, J. S.; Grimm, J. (2011).

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A few other isotopes and radiotracers are slowly being introduced into oncology for specific purposes. For example,

7120: 7115: 6998: 6667: 6532: 5067: 4784:

Cho ZH, Eriksson L, Chan JK (1975). "A circular ring transverse axial positron camera". In Ter-Pogossian MM (ed.).

2744:"Imaging cortical dopamine D1 receptors using [11C]NNC112 and ketanserin blockade of the 5-HT 2A receptors" 891:(12.4 mSv/year). For comparison, radiation dosage for other medical procedures range from 0.02 mSv for a 517: 7200: 7183: 6610: 6444: 6046: 5924: 5581: 5442: 4963: 4804: 3596:"Imaging of Prostate Cancer with Immuno-PET and Immuno-SPECT Using a Radiolabeled Anti-EGP-1 Monoclonal Antibody" 897: 690:

for the treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations and other surgically treatable conditions.

322:. As a result, FDG-PET can be used for diagnosis, staging, and monitoring treatment of cancers, particularly in 7561: 7408: 7308: 7291: 6600: 6449: 5907: 4918: 4405: 2447:"18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 18 F-flumazenil positron emission tomography in patients with refractory epilepsy" 1499: 1251: 1043:, or into molecules that bind to receptors or other sites of drug action. Such labelled compounds are known as 7504: 4866: 2914:"Imaging atherosclerotic plaque inflammation with [F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography" 7687: 7541: 7140: 7015: 7007: 6906: 6374: 6207: 5631: 5559: 4431:

Tse VC, Kalani MY, Adler JR (2015). "Techniques of Stereotactic Localization". In Chin LS, Regine WF (eds.).

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The amount of radiation in FDG is similar to the effective dose of spending one year in the American city of

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PET imaging of neuroaggregate in human brain has brought amyloid imaging close to clinical use. The earliest

305:. Because the hydroxy group that is replaced by fluorine-18 to generate FDG is required for the next step in 298:(F), are used to image the tissue concentration of different kinds of molecules of interest inside the body. 161:. PET scan images can be reconstructed using a CT scan performed using one scanner during the same session. 142:

is emitted, and when the positron interacts with an ordinary electron, the two particles annihilate and two

7872: 7847: 7798: 7732: 7654: 7632: 7403: 7371: 7002: 6717: 6454: 6163: 5917: 4461:

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added by hexokinase. This means that FDG is trapped in any cell that takes it up until it decays, since

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to detect molecules in the body. SPECT is less expensive and provides inferior image quality than PET.

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during exercise. Also, PET can provide muscle activation data about deep-lying muscles (such as the

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Transmission scans directly measure attenuation values at 511 keV. Attenuation occurs when

164:

One of the disadvantages of a PET scanner is its high initial cost and ongoing operating costs.

7586: 7455: 7386: 7193: 6522: 5809: 5353: 4242: 4164: 4029: 1613:

for whole body FDG PET ranges from A$ 953 to A$ 999, depending on the indication for the scan.

1261: 1255: 731:

is also feasible. Also, it can help test the efficacy of novel anti-atherosclerosis therapies.

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A typical dose of FDG used in an oncological scan has an effective radiation dose of 7.6

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The overall performance of PET systems can be evaluated by quality control tools such as the

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has developed and commercialized a compound called florbetapir that uses the longer-lasting

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generators have become commercially available. These contain strontium-82, which decays by

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To examine links between specific psychological processes or disorders and brain activity.

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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Radionuclides are incorporated either into compounds normally used by the body such as

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A miniature animal PET has been constructed that is small enough for a fully conscious

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Harmany Z, Marcia R, Willett R (2010). "Sparsity-regularized Photon-limited Imaging".

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Quantitative dynamic studies using short-lived radioisotopes and positron detection

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moving in approximately opposite directions. These are detected when they reach a

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PET scans are increasingly read alongside CT or MRI scans, with the combination (

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1875: 1832: 1541:

The PET-CT scanner, attributed to David Townsend and Ronald Nutt, was named by

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The biological half-life of antibodies is typically on the order of days, see

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commercially at offsite locations and shipped to imaging centers. Recently

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are emitted in opposite directions. These gamma rays are detected by two

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Reconstruction Tomography in Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine

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Hodolic, Marina; Topakian, Raffi; Pichler, Robert (1 September 2016).

2207:"Pheochromocytoma Imaging: Overview, Radiography, Computed Tomography" 1380: 1246:

methods that involve a Poisson likelihood function and an appropriate

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de Jong PA, Tiddens HA, Lequin MH, Robinson TE, Brody AS (May 2008).

1606:

reference cost (2015–2016) for an adult outpatient PET scan is £798.

1599:

In the United States, a PET scan is estimated to be US$ 1500-$ 5000.

1498:

Work by Gordon Brownell, Charles Burnham and their associates at the

1435: 1348:

random coincidence rejection, thus favoring 3D image reconstruction.

1336:

There are two approaches to reconstructing data from such a scanner:

1316: 1298: 1213: 1128: 976: 966: 951: 941: 444: 409: 405: 373: 349: 310: 271: 103: 6590: 7668: 6821: 6464: 6459: 6399: 6068: 5996: 5979: 5964: 5939: 5682: 5171: 3253: 1639: 1320: 1198: 1119: 753: 472: 287: 185: 139: 6891: 4643:

Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Mullani NA, Ter-Pogossian MM (March 1975).

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Stereotactic Radiosurgery and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy

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Wagenknecht G, Kaiser HJ, Mottaghy FM, Herzog H (February 2013).

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Brownell GL, Burnham CA, Hoop Jr B, Bohning DE (August 1945).

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PET scanning is non-invasive, but it does involve exposure to

756:(FDS). FDS has the added benefit of being able to target only 748:

have been developed to image bacterial infections in vivo are

262:

that is taken up by glucose-using cells and phosphorylated by

7719: 6930: 6811: 6768: 6431: 6287: 6080: 5944: 4753: 3634: 3289:"Estimation of the radiation dose from CT in cystic fibrosis" 1090: 1036: 525: 173: 4768: 3286: 2790: 2640: 926:

Schematic view of a detector block and ring of a PET scanner

813:

is expected to be rarely available in the immediate future.

711:

and vascular disease study: FDG PET can help in identifying

600: 395: 6292: 6181: 5991: 5949: 4312: 3540: 3339: 3274: 2591: 2133: 2039: 544: 493: 4800:"Michel Ter-Pogossian Honored as Nuclear Medicine Pioneer" 4707:

Journal of the Chemical Society D: Chemical Communications

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European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

2093:

European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

539:, which causes epilepsy. FDG, and the less common tracers 6265: 6129: 4501: 3969: 3384: 2676: 2537:"Neuroimaging in Investigation of Patients With Epilepsy" 2362: 2090: 1991:"PET/CT in the staging of the non-small-cell lung cancer" 1818: 1447:

and careful planning with respect to patient scheduling.

1169:, it is possible to localize the event to a segment of a 782: 227:. SPECT is an imaging technique similar to PET that uses 2741: 1520: 681: 5045: 4568:. Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging. Archived from 3162: 2911: 1861: 1667: 1189:

Analytical techniques, much like the reconstruction of

597:

fluorine-18 to detect amyloid plaques using PET scans.

4729:

Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals

4465:. Vol. 116. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 28–30. 4277: 4161:

17th IEEE International Conference on Image Processing

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To conduct the scan, a short-lived radioactive tracer

801:(APDs) through a system that uses single-chip silicon 1948:

Steinert HC (2011). "PET and PET-CT of Lung Cancer".

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Principles and Practice of Stereotactic Radiosurgery

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International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI)

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attached to a drug – is injected into the body as a

64:

technique that uses radioactive substances known as

4725: 1904: 589:diagnoses of AD and help to monitor AD treatments. 356:(11C-metomidate) has been used to detect tumors of 5815:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 3254:"Institute for Science and International Security" 1747: 1668:Bailey DL, Townsend DW, Valk PE, Maisy MN (2005). 1277: 831:is the most widely used tracer for imaging bones. 408:, oxygen-15 must be piped directly from a medical 270:form is significantly elevated in rapidly growing 100:(NaF) is widely used for detecting bone formation; 4849:Ontario PET Steering Committee (31 August 2008), 4463:Brain Stimulation: Handbook of Clinical Neurology 3787: 911: 789:. PET scanners designed specifically for imaging 7829: 551:The development of a number of novel probes for 4783: 3790:Journal of the American Statistical Association 3405: 2312:Anand, Keshav; Sabbagh, Marwan (January 2017). 1148:Localization of the positron annihilation event 565:imaging probes included FDDNP developed at the 4430: 3414:Clinical Physics and Physiological Measurement 3329:"Chapter 9 Occupational Exposure to Radiation" 2406:"PET and SPECT in epilepsy: A critical review" 1547:as the medical invention of the year in 2000. 1197:(SPECT) data, are commonly used, although the 6907: 6518:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 5068: 4673: 4460: 3454: 3067:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 2748:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 2496:"Hippocampal sclerosis – origins and imaging" 1718: 1716: 4891:. 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Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 156–159. 3822: 1995:Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology 1805: 1803: 1713: 1663: 1661: 1195:single-photon emission computed tomography 1059:to produce positron-emitting rubidium-82. 535:PET may also be used for the diagnosis of 213:single-photon emission computed tomography 29: 5016: 5006: 4381: 4246: 4168: 4135: 4125: 4033: 3660: 3611: 3561: 3304: 3229: 3188: 3078: 3037: 2988: 2978: 2929: 2767: 2617: 2560: 2511: 2470: 2421: 2380: 2339: 2329: 2182: 2067: 2057: 2016: 2006: 1988: 1783: 1773: 1463:The concept of emission and transmission 839:PET is a feasible technique for studying 601:Neuropsychology or cognitive neuroscience 134:. When the radiopharmaceutical undergoes 7750:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging 6430: 4869:. Department of Health. 15 December 2016 3361:"NRC: Information for Radiation Workers" 3060: 2732:, June 23, 2010. Accessed June 23, 2010. 1947: 1519: 1493:Washington University School of Medicine 1473:Washington University School of Medicine 1454: 1379: 1371: 1323:emitting) source and the PET detectors. 1232:Statistical, likelihood-based approaches 1089: 921: 394: 238: 204:relying on a visit by a mobile scanner. 90:(FDG or FDG) is commonly used to detect 4792: 4771:Tomographic Imaging in Nuclear Medicine 4398: 4280:Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 3857: 3763:Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 2494:Malmgren, K; Thom, M (September 2012). 2209:. 10 August 2017 – via eMedicine. 1800: 1722: 1658: 1180: 776: 294:, usually but not always labelled with 7830: 6445:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 5082: 4560: 3683: 2534: 2284: 810:UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine 734: 6895: 6687: 6450:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5859: 5846: 5056: 4537: 4012: 3336:Radiation, People and the Environment 682:Stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery 567:University of California, Los Angeles 221:functional magnetic resonance imaging 6874: 5847: 4989:Hofman MS, Hicks RJ (October 2016). 4503:of Cancer (EORTC) PET Study Group". 4022:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3972:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3911:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3825:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3512:Metal Ions in Bio-Imaging Techniques 1554: 1297:or via Bayes penalty methods or via 1250:(e.g., a smoothing prior leading to 68:to visualize and measure changes in 6921: 6455:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5046:National Isotope Development Center 5034:PET-CT atlas Harvard Medical School 4913:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 4788:. 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Archived from 3080:10.1097/00004647-200003000-00001 2513:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03610.x 1559: 191:Physiological processes lead to 7314:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) 5627:Historical stockpiles and tests 4903: 4881: 4859: 4842: 4816: 4805:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 4777: 4762: 4747: 4719: 4699: 4688: 4667: 4636: 4593: 4579: 4554: 4531: 4495: 4454: 4439: 4424: 4349: 4306: 4271: 4218: 4203: 4152: 4093: 4058: 4006: 3963: 3941: 3902: 3860:Physics in Medicine and Biology 3851: 3816: 3781: 3754: 3728: 3720:. GE Healthcare. Archived from 3710: 3677: 3641:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3628: 3600:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3586: 3550:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3534: 3503: 3483: 3448: 3378: 3353: 3321: 3280: 3264: 3246: 3205: 3156: 3113: 3095: 3054: 3005: 2946: 2828: 2784: 2735: 2713: 2670: 2585: 2528: 2487: 2438: 2397: 2356: 2305: 2278: 2199: 2158: 2127: 2084: 2033: 1982: 898:Orders of magnitude (radiation) 723:is unclear. FDG PET imaging of 439:, which are all used to detect 379: 153:PET scanners can incorporate a 7562:Radioactive iodine uptake test 6528:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 5410:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 4229:. Computational Imaging VIII. 3802:10.1080/01621459.1985.10477119 3514:. Springer. pp. 157–194. 3122:Journal of Orthopaedic Science 3018:Science Translational Medicine 2535:Cendes, Fernando (June 2013). 2059:10.1002/14651858.CD012643.pub3 1941: 1898: 1855: 1812: 1741: 1688: 1611:Medicare Benefits Schedule Fee 1500:Massachusetts General Hospital 1459:A PET scanner released in 2003 1417: 1289:or other domain), such as via 1252:total variation regularization 1110:decay (also known as positive 1106:As the radioisotope undergoes 912:Radionuclides and radiotracers 863:Together with sodium floride, 851:) compared to techniques like 727:to detect patients at risk of 447:for Alzheimer's in the brain. 1: 7542:Radionuclide ventriculography 7016:Lower gastrointestinal series 7008:Upper gastrointestinal series 6856:Nuclear technology portal 4517:10.1016/S0959-8049(99)00229-4 4406:"A Close Look Into the Brain" 3231:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-04-2626 2656:10.1016/S0960-894X(01)00734-X 1723:Carlson N (22 January 2012). 1700:hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu 1651: 1228:corrections described above. 1065: 693: 608: 7838:Positron emission tomography 7733:Optical coherence tomography 7655:Myocardial perfusion imaging 7243:Dental panoramic radiography 6718:Field-reversed configuration 6328:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 4953:Positron emission tomography 4561:Phelps M (16 January 2013). 4327:10.1097/rli.0b013e318283292f 3948:Geman S, McClure DE (1985). 3030:10.1126/scitranslmed.3009815 2980:10.1371/journal.pone.0107951 2849:10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.042 1950:Positron Emission Tomography 906: 719:of PET for this role versus 390: 54:Positron emission tomography 24:Positron emission tomography 7: 6675:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5860: 5622:States with nuclear weapons 4909:Prekeges, Jennifer (2012). 4649:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3913:. NS-32(5) (5): 3864–3872. 3880:10.1088/0031-9155/51/15/R01 3387:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3169:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2887:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2598:The Journal of Neuroscience 2423:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.02.025 2288:Physics in Nuclear Medicine 2140:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 1958:10.1007/978-1-61779-062-1_3 1628: 1285:-based regularization in a 1114:), it emits a positron, an 1085: 931:Isotopes used in PET scans 399:PET scan of the human brain 234: 155:computed tomography scanner 10: 7894: 7843:3D nuclear medical imaging 7537:Ventilation/perfusion scan 7012:Small-bowel follow-through 6688: 6513:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5637:Tests in the United States 4824:"PET Scan: PET/CT History" 4563:"PET History and Overview" 4505:European Journal of Cancer 3103:"Rat Conscious Animal PET" 1876:10.1007/s00247-019-04529-8 1833:10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.06.002 1477:University of Pennsylvania 1450: 1384:Brain PET-MRI fusion image 1361: 915: 834: 820: 697: 419:Brain pathologies such as 383: 217:magnetic resonance imaging 7807: 7786: 7778:Dynamic angiothermography 7758: 7714: 7663: 7640: 7630: 7595: 7522: 7512: 7503: 7446:Abdominal ultrasonography 7354: 7270: 7230: 7149: 7108: 7099: 6952: 6943: 6929: 6843: 6799: 6751: 6708: 6698: 6650: 6638:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6551: 6533:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6498: 6481: 6421: 6348: 6340:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 6314: 6305: 6257: 6237: 6190: 6172: 6128: 6033: 6015: 5883: 5870: 5855: 5842: 5797: 5730: 5675: 5666: 5614: 5522: 5513: 5480: 5423: 5385: 5376: 5297: 5229: 5152: 5094: 5090: 5008:10.1186/s40644-016-0091-3 4978:Resources in your library 4374:10.1007/s10334-012-0353-4 4179:10.1109/ICIP.2010.5649600 3653:10.2967/jnumed.111.092098 3613:10.2967/jnumed.110.086520 3563:10.2967/jnumed.111.089557 3520:10.1515/9783110685701-012 3434:10.1088/0143-0815/7/4/003 3181:10.2967/jnumed.118.208710 3061:Laruelle M (March 2000). 2331:10.1007/s13311-016-0474-y 2285:Cherry, Simon R. (2012). 2256:10.1007/s00259-009-1294-7 2105:10.1007/s00259-002-1025-9 1568:This section needs to be 1278:{\displaystyle \ell _{1}} 871: 646:, reuptake transporter), 628:, reuptake transporter), 591:Avid Radiopharmaceuticals 343:progression-free survival 40: 28: 23: 16:Medical imaging technique 7868:Medicinal radiochemistry 7768:Non-contact thermography 7547:Radionuclide angiography 7399:Doppler echocardiography 6543:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6159:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5495:Electron-beam processing 3984:10.1109/tmi.1987.4307831 3927:10.1109/TNS.1985.4334521 3837:10.1109/TMI.1982.4307558 3496:6 September 2011 at the 3457:Chemical Society Reviews 3218:Clinical Cancer Research 3165:"F-Fluoride PET/CT SUV?" 1989:Chao F, Zhang H (2012). 1821:Cancer Treatment Reviews 1352:Time-of-flight (TOF) PET 1242:Research has shown that 1221:Filtered back projection 1035:(or glucose analogues), 918:List of PET radiotracers 858: 817:Musculo-skeletal imaging 764:Bio-distribution studies 739:Imaging infections with 686:PET can also be used in 575:University of Pittsburgh 7552:Radioisotope renography 6658:Organic nuclear reactor 5830:Nuclear power phase-out 5753:Nuclear decommissioning 5693:Reactor-grade plutonium 5443:Targeted alpha-particle 5322:Accidents and incidents 4741:10.1002/jlcr.2580140204 4315:Investigative Radiology 4227:SPIE Electronic Imaging 4079:10.1109/PROC.1987.13825 4067:Proceedings of the IEEE 2547:(3 Epilepsy): 623–642. 2410:Epilepsy & Behavior 1635:Diffuse optical imaging 1604:National Health Service 1550: 573:(PiB) developed at the 207:Alternative methods of 167: 116:medical scintillography 7587:Gastric emptying study 4410:Jülich Research Centre 4163:. pp. 4177–4180. 4127:10.1073/pnas.88.8.3223 2837:Schizophrenia Research 2760:10.1038/jcbfm.2009.269 2463:10.1515/raon-2016-0032 2451:Radiology and Oncology 2222:Cite journal requires 1919:10.1055/s-0037-1616618 1775:10.1073/pnas.74.9.3735 1754:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1725:Physiology of Behavior 1526: 1460: 1385: 1377: 1305:Attenuation correction 1279: 1256:Laplacian distribution 1095: 927: 713:hibernating myocardium 498:serotonin transporters 400: 248: 157:(CT) and are known as 7248:X-ray motion analysis 7131:X-ray microtomography 7050:Hysterosalpingography 6957:Pneumoencephalography 5820:Anti-nuclear movement 4538:Fratt L (July 2003). 3692:. Springer. pp. 3306:10.1378/chest.07-2840 3271:Managing Patient Does 3134:10.1007/s007760300009 2184:10.1161/01.HYP.38.1.6 1523: 1458: 1383: 1375: 1280: 1175:signal-to-noise ratio 1165:rather than about 10 1093: 925: 821:Further information: 799:avalanche photodiodes 660:cholinergic receptors 571:Pittsburgh compound B 537:hippocampal sclerosis 443:plaques, a potential 433:Pittsburgh compound B 398: 242: 76:activities including 7773:Contact thermography 7483:Emergency ultrasound 7421:Transcranial Doppler 7172:Abdominal and pelvis 6728:Reversed field pinch 6523:Traveling-wave (TWR) 6007:Supercritical (SCWR) 5505:Gemstone irradiation 4715:10.1039/C29690000077 4550:on 20 November 2008. 3489:Bracco Diagnostics, 2691:10.1212/wnl.52.4.691 2382:10.1148/rg.335125152 1481:Michel Ter-Pogossian 1429:rubidium-82 chloride 1331:2D/3D reconstruction 1262: 1181:Image reconstruction 1142:center of mass frame 865:PET for bone imaging 845:vastus intermedialis 823:PET for bone imaging 777:Small animal imaging 688:image guided surgery 583:acetylcholinesterase 469:desmethoxyfallypride 328:non-Hodgkin lymphoma 290:. Less often, other 180:within the field of 7873:Armenian inventions 7848:American inventions 7740:Confocal microscopy 7618:Indium-111 WBC scan 7441:Echoencephalography 7177:Virtual colonoscopy 5893:Aqueous homogeneous 5688:Reprocessed uranium 5361:Safety and security 5039:11 May 2019 at the 4812:(5): 449. May 1985. 4589:. 28 December 2010. 4239:2010SPIE.7533E..0RH 4118:1991PNAS...88.3223M 3919:1985ITNS...32.3864S 3872:2006PMB....51R.541Q 3426:1986CPPM....7..333W 2971:2014PLoSO...9j7951G 2008:10.1155/2012/783739 1864:Pediatric Radiology 1766:1977PNAS...74.3735B 1593:Cancer Care Ontario 1591:As of August 2008, 1191:computed tomography 932: 735:Infectious diseases 630:serotonin receptors 421:Alzheimer's disease 292:radioactive tracers 176:and the search for 124:radiopharmaceutical 70:metabolic processes 35:Cardiac PET scanner 7728:Optical tomography 7577:Dacryoscintigraphy 7572:Immunoscintigraphy 7211:Whole body imaging 6962:Dental radiography 6807:Dense plasma focus 5722:Actinide chemistry 5187:Isotope separation 5084:Nuclear technology 3684:Phelps ME (2006). 3469:10.1039/C7CS00014F 3277:, 30 October 2009. 2729:The New York Times 2506:(Suppl 4): 19–33. 1696:"Nuclear Medicine" 1527: 1509:Charles University 1467:was introduced by 1461: 1386: 1378: 1275: 1212:photons, detector 1096: 930: 928: 878:ionizing radiation 758:Enterobacteriaceae 717:cost-effectiveness 615:dopamine receptors 401: 307:glucose metabolism 276:Metabolic trapping 253:fluorodeoxyglucose 249: 245:fluorodeoxyglucose 118:technique used in 88:Fluorodeoxyglucose 62:functional imaging 7863:Radiation therapy 7825: 7824: 7787:Target conditions 7710: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7626: 7625: 7567:Bone scintigraphy 7532:Scintimammography 7527:Cholescintigraphy 7372:contrast-enhanced 7266: 7265: 7226: 7225: 7216:Full-body CT scan 7116:General operation 7095: 7094: 7065:Angiocardiography 6889: 6888: 6839: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6786:Magnetized-target 6683: 6682: 6646: 6645: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6472: 6417: 6416: 6301: 6300: 6233: 6232: 5838: 5837: 5793: 5792: 5662: 5661: 5649:Weapon-free zones 5476: 5475: 5468:Radiopharmacology 4964:Library resources 4511:(13): 1773–1782. 4257:10.1117/12.850771 4188:978-1-4244-7992-4 4013:Green PJ (1990). 3703:978-0-387-34946-6 3606:(10): 1601–1607. 3556:(10): 1580–1584. 3024:(259): 259ra146. 2806:10.1002/syn.10128 2318:Neurotherapeutics 1967:978-1-61779-061-4 1870:(11): 1545–1564. 1681:978-1-85233-798-8 1646:Molecular imaging 1589: 1588: 1489:Edward J. Hoffman 1485:Michael E. Phelps 1475:and later at the 1248:prior probability 1108:positron emission 1029: 1028: 741:molecular imaging 579:polymethylpentene 522:enzyme substrates 459:subtypes such as 182:clinical oncology 112:imaging technique 51: 50: 7885: 7815: 7814: 7638: 7637: 7520: 7519: 7510: 7509: 7394:Echocardiography 7253:Hounsfield scale 7106: 7105: 7025:Cholecystography 6950: 6949: 6941: 6940: 6916: 6909: 6902: 6893: 6892: 6877: 6876: 6865: 6864: 6854: 6853: 6852: 6764: 6723:Levitated dipole 6693: 6685: 6684: 6633:Helium gas (GFR) 6496: 6495: 6491: 6428: 6427: 6312: 6311: 6262: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6250: 6249: 6031: 6030: 6027: 6026: 5865: 5857: 5856: 5849:Nuclear reactors 5844: 5843: 5743:High-level (HLW) 5673: 5672: 5520: 5519: 5500:Food irradiation 5490:Atomic gardening 5383: 5382: 5366:Nuclear meltdown 5192:Nuclear material 5182:Fissile material 5177:Fertile material 5092: 5091: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5054: 5053: 5030: 5020: 5010: 4939: 4938: 4922: 4907: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4835: 4830:on 14 April 2012 4820: 4814: 4813: 4796: 4790: 4789: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4723: 4717: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4640: 4634: 4633: 4614:10.1148/114.1.89 4597: 4591: 4590: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4567: 4558: 4552: 4551: 4546:. 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However, the 709:atherosclerosis 702: 696: 684: 672:substance abuse 662:(nicotinic and 644: 637: 627: 622: 611: 603: 509: 486: 479: 393: 388: 382: 237: 209:medical imaging 170: 159:PET-CT scanners 136:beta plus decay 98:Sodium fluoride 72:, and in other 47: 36: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7891: 7881: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7845: 7840: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7808: 7805: 7804: 7802: 7801: 7796: 7790: 7788: 7784: 7783: 7781: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7764: 7762: 7756: 7755: 7753: 7752: 7747: 7745:Endomicroscopy 7742: 7737: 7736: 7735: 7724: 7722: 7712: 7711: 7708: 7707: 7704: 7703: 7701: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7674: 7672: 7661: 7660: 7658: 7657: 7651: 7649: 7635: 7628: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7621: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7599: 7597: 7593: 7592: 7590: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7507: 7501: 7500: 7498: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7490: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7453: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7417: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7391: 7390: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7360: 7358: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7342: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7305: 7304: 7294: 7289: 7288: 7287: 7276: 7274: 7268: 7267: 7264: 7263: 7261: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7234: 7232: 7228: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7218: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7197: 7196: 7191: 7181: 7180: 7179: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7162: 7153: 7151: 7147: 7146: 7144: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7112: 7110: 7103: 7097: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7018: 7005: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6938: 6927: 6926: 6919: 6918: 6911: 6904: 6896: 6887: 6886: 6884: 6883: 6871: 6859: 6844: 6841: 6840: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6817:Muon-catalyzed 6814: 6809: 6803: 6801: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6766: 6757: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6714: 6712: 6706: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6681: 6680: 6678: 6677: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6665: 6654: 6652: 6648: 6647: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6557: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6508:Integral (IFR) 6505: 6499: 6493: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6436: 6434: 6425: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6403: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6372: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6354: 6352: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6323: 6321: 6317: 6309: 6303: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6274: 6272: 6267: 6259: 6252: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6227: 6226: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6199: 6197: 6193: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6184: 6178: 6176: 6170: 6169: 6167: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6149: 6138: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6078: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6063: 6060: 6057: 6043: 6041: 6036: 6028: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5982: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5927: 5922: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5895: 5889: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5872: 5871: 5868: 5867: 5853: 5852: 5840: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5825:Uranium mining 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5787: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5775: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5707: 5702: 5701: 5700: 5698:Minor actinide 5695: 5690: 5679: 5677: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5634: 5624: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5596: 5591: 5590: 5589: 5584: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5526: 5524: 5517: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5486: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5474: 5473: 5471: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5395:Autoradiograph 5391: 5389: 5380: 5374: 5373: 5371: 5370: 5369: 5368: 5358: 5357: 5356: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5303: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5235: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5210: 5209: 5204: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5158: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5139: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5117:Atomic nucleus 5114: 5109: 5104: 5098: 5096: 5088: 5087: 5080: 5079: 5072: 5065: 5057: 5050: 5049: 5043: 5031: 4995:Cancer Imaging 4985: 4981: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4962: 4961: 4941: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4929:External links 4927: 4924: 4923: 4902: 4880: 4858: 4855:, pp. iii 4841: 4815: 4791: 4776: 4761: 4746: 4735:(2): 175–183. 4718: 4698: 4687: 4666: 4635: 4592: 4578: 4553: 4530: 4494: 4479: 4453: 4438: 4423: 4412:. 7 March 2014 4397: 4348: 4321:(5): 323–332. 4305: 4270: 4217: 4202: 4187: 4151: 4092: 4073:(7): 892–907. 4057: 4005: 3962: 3940: 3901: 3850: 3831:(2): 113–122. 3815: 3780: 3753: 3727: 3724:on 4 May 2012. 3709: 3702: 3676: 3627: 3585: 3533: 3502: 3482: 3447: 3404: 3377: 3352: 3320: 3279: 3263: 3245: 3204: 3175:(3): 322–327. 3155: 3112: 3094: 3053: 3004: 2965:(9): e107951. 2945: 2904: 2893:(7): 1146–54. 2870: 2827: 2783: 2734: 2712: 2669: 2633: 2584: 2527: 2486: 2457:(3): 247–253. 2437: 2396: 2355: 2304: 2297: 2277: 2233: 2224:|journal= 2198: 2157: 2126: 2083: 2032: 1981: 1966: 1940: 1907:Nuklearmedizin 1897: 1854: 1811: 1799: 1740: 1734:978-0205239399 1733: 1712: 1687: 1680: 1656: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1643: 1637: 1630: 1627: 1618: 1615: 1587: 1586: 1567: 1565: 1558: 1552: 1549: 1491:and others at 1452: 1449: 1419: 1416: 1359: 1356: 1345: 1344: 1341: 1272: 1268: 1182: 1179: 1149: 1146: 1087: 1084: 1067: 1064: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 999: 996: 990: 989: 984: 979: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 916:Main article: 913: 910: 908: 905: 873: 870: 860: 857: 836: 833: 818: 815: 778: 775: 765: 762: 736: 733: 698:Main article: 695: 692: 683: 680: 676:mood disorders 642: 635: 625: 620: 610: 607: 602: 599: 507: 504:for serotonin 484: 477: 392: 389: 384:Main article: 381: 378: 360:origin. Also, 358:adrenocortical 320:Warburg effect 315:phosphorylated 236: 233: 169: 166: 108: 107: 101: 95: 49: 48: 41: 38: 37: 34: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7890: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7818: 7810: 7809: 7806: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7791: 7789: 7785: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7765: 7763: 7761: 7757: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7734: 7731: 7730: 7729: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7656: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7629: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7613:Ga-68-DOTATOC 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7594: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7502: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7485: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7426:Intravascular 7424: 7422: 7419: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7396: 7395: 7392: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7353: 7347: 7346:Synthetic MRI 7344: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7303: 7300: 7299: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7286: 7283: 7282: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7273: 7269: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7217: 7214: 7213: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7186: 7185: 7182: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7170: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7154: 7152: 7148: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7136:Electron beam 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7088: 7087:Orbital x-ray 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6983: 6982:Bronchography 6980: 6979: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6917: 6912: 6910: 6905: 6903: 6898: 6897: 6894: 6882: 6881: 6872: 6870: 6869: 6860: 6858: 6857: 6846: 6845: 6842: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6798: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6775: 6774:electrostatic 6772: 6771: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6715: 6713: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6697: 6692: 6686: 6676: 6673: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6660: 6659: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6649: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6554: 6553:Generation IV 6550: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6503:Breeder (FBR) 6501: 6500: 6497: 6494: 6489: 6480: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6433: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6420: 6408: 6405: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6364: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6356: 6355: 6353: 6351: 6347: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6320: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6263: 6260: 6256: 6253: 6248: 6241: 6236: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6205: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6196: 6189: 6183: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6135: 6127: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6070: 6067: 6064: 6061: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6032: 6029: 6025: 6018: 6014: 6008: 6005: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5900: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5876: 5869: 5864: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5845: 5841: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5805:Nuclear power 5803: 5802: 5800: 5796: 5786: 5785:Transmutation 5783: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5720: 5716: 5713: 5712: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5685: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5582:high-altitude 5580: 5579: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5572:Proliferation 5570: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5512: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5479: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5458:Brachytherapy 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5375: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5359: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5343: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5296: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5254:Cross section 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5228: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5073: 5071: 5066: 5064: 5059: 5058: 5055: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4987: 4986: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4956: 4955: 4954: 4948: 4944: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4906: 4890: 4884: 4868: 4862: 4854: 4853: 4845: 4829: 4825: 4819: 4811: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4795: 4787: 4780: 4772: 4765: 4757: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4722: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4702: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4678: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4655:(3): 210–24. 4654: 4650: 4646: 4639: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4588: 4582: 4571: 4564: 4557: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4498: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4480:9780444534972 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4457: 4449: 4442: 4434: 4427: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4368:(1): 99–113. 4367: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4309: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4286:(6): 804–14. 4285: 4281: 4274: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4213: 4206: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4112:(8): 3223–7. 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3978:(3): 228–38. 3977: 3973: 3966: 3958: 3951: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3796:(389): 8–37. 3795: 3791: 3784: 3776: 3772: 3769:(2): 306–16. 3768: 3764: 3757: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3718:"PET Imaging" 3713: 3705: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3689: 3680: 3672: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3589: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3495: 3492: 3486: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3420:(4): 333–43. 3419: 3415: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3393:(4): 608–13. 3392: 3388: 3381: 3366: 3362: 3356: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3276: 3272: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3159: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3073:(3): 423–51. 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2875: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2800:(3): 170–88. 2799: 2795: 2787: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2754:(5): 985–93. 2753: 2749: 2745: 2738: 2731: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2637: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2604:(24): RC189. 2603: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2531: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2490: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2369:RadioGraphics 2366: 2359: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2300: 2298:9781416051985 2294: 2290: 2289: 2281: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2250:(3): 484–93. 2249: 2245: 2237: 2229: 2216: 2208: 2202: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2153: 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Kuhl 1466: 1457: 1448: 1444: 1442: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1424: 1415: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1382: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1291:Ulf Grenander 1288: 1270: 1266: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1178: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1145: 1143: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1101: 1092: 1083: 1080: 1076: 1071: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1003: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 991: 988: 985: 983: 980: 978: 975: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 934: 924: 919: 904: 901: 899: 894: 890: 885: 883: 879: 869: 866: 856: 854: 850: 846: 842: 832: 830: 824: 814: 811: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 774: 772: 761: 759: 755: 751: 747: 742: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 701: 691: 689: 679: 677: 673: 669: 668:schizophrenia 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 638: 631: 623: 616: 606: 598: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 559: 554: 549: 546: 542: 538: 533: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 480: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457:neuroreceptor 455:for specific 454: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 417: 413: 411: 407: 397: 387: 377: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 346: 344: 340: 335: 333: 329: 325: 321: 316: 312: 308: 304: 299: 297: 293: 289: 285: 282: 277: 273: 269: 268:mitochondrial 265: 261: 258: 254: 246: 241: 232: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 205: 202: 197: 194: 189: 187: 183: 179: 175: 165: 162: 160: 156: 151: 149: 148:gamma cameras 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 105: 102: 99: 96: 93: 89: 86: 85: 84: 83:For example: 81: 79: 75: 74:physiological 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 45: 39: 32: 27: 22: 19: 7858:Neuroimaging 7794:Acute stroke 7760:Thermography 7664: 7515:scintigraphy 7505:Radionuclide 7493:pre-hospital 7339:Tractography 7258:Radiodensity 7160:calcium scan 7121:Quantitative 6878: 6866: 6847: 6827:Pyroelectric 6781:Laser-driven 6561:Sodium (SFR) 6488:fast-neutron 6327: 5873: 5763:Reprocessing 5644:WMD treaties 5463:Radiosurgery 5433:Fast-neutron 5414: 5405:Scintigraphy 4998: 4994: 4968: 4951: 4950: 4949:profile for 4946: 4910: 4905: 4893:. Retrieved 4889:"MBS online" 4883: 4871:. Retrieved 4861: 4851: 4844: 4832:. Retrieved 4828:the original 4818: 4809: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4779: 4770: 4764: 4755: 4749: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4706: 4701: 4690: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4652: 4648: 4638: 4608:(1): 89–98. 4605: 4601: 4595: 4581: 4570:the original 4556: 4548:the original 4543: 4540:"Technology" 4533: 4508: 4504: 4497: 4462: 4456: 4447: 4441: 4432: 4426: 4414:. Retrieved 4400: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4318: 4314: 4308: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4211: 4205: 4160: 4154: 4109: 4105: 4095: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4028:(1): 84–93. 4025: 4021: 4008: 3975: 3971: 3965: 3956: 3943: 3910: 3904: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3828: 3824: 3818: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3766: 3762: 3756: 3744:. Retrieved 3740:the original 3730: 3722:the original 3712: 3687: 3679: 3644: 3640: 3630: 3603: 3599: 3588: 3553: 3549: 3536: 3511: 3505: 3491:CardioGen-82 3485: 3460: 3456: 3450: 3417: 3413: 3407: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3368:. 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Retrieved 1699: 1690: 1670: 1620: 1608: 1601: 1598: 1590: 1577: 1569: 1542: 1540: 1532:Zang-Hee Cho 1528: 1505: 1497: 1462: 1445: 1425: 1421: 1409: 1398: 1387: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1335: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1309: 1304: 1303: 1241: 1231: 1230: 1219: 1207: 1188: 1184: 1158: 1154: 1151: 1137:scintillator 1125:annihilation 1116:antiparticle 1105: 1097: 1072: 1069: 1061: 1049: 1045:radiotracers 1030: 993: 936: 902: 886: 875: 862: 838: 826: 808:In 2018 the 807: 780: 767: 738: 703: 685: 612: 604: 595:radionuclide 557: 553:non-invasive 550: 534: 449: 441:amyloid-beta 429:flutemetamol 418: 414: 402: 380:Neuroimaging 347: 336: 300: 250: 229:radioligands 223:(fMRI), and 206: 201:gamma camera 198: 190: 171: 163: 152: 128:radioisotope 109: 82: 66:radiotracers 57: 53: 52: 18: 7683:Cardiac PET 7456:renal tract 7431:Gynecologic 7363:Techniques 7334:restriction 7309:Angiography 7292:Neurography 7238:Fluoroscopy 7184:Angiography 7165:angiography 7109:Techniques: 7070:Aortography 7060:Angiography 7040:Cystography 7030:Mammography 6972:Myelography 6967:Sialography 6936:radiography 6738:Stellarator 6702:confinement 6596:Superphénix 6423:Molten-salt 6375:VHTR (HTGR) 6152:HW BLWR 250 6118:R4 Marviken 6047:Pressurized 6017:Heavy water 6001:many others 5930:Pressurized 5885:Light water 5587:underground 5545:Disarmament 5453:Tomotherapy 5448:Proton-beam 5312:Power plant 5274:Temperature 5107:Engineering 4873:22 December 3746:22 February 3365:www.nrc.gov 2918:Circulation 1705:11 December 1514:Abass Alavi 1418:Limitations 1412:N-localizer 1258:leading to 1167:nanoseconds 1163:picoseconds 1053:rubidium-82 893:chest X-ray 700:Cardiac PET 530:AADC enzyme 488:receptors; 437:florbetaben 425:florbetapir 332:lung cancer 296:fluorine-18 7832:Categories 7596:Full body: 7382:endoscopic 7356:Ultrasound 7285:functional 7082:Lymphogram 7077:Venography 7045:Arthrogram 6763:(acoustic) 6380:PBR (PBMR) 5768:Spent fuel 5758:Repository 5738:Fuel cycle 5705:Activation 5482:Processing 5349:Propulsion 5307:by country 5239:Activation 4919:1449645372 4895:16 October 4677:Nucleonics 4233:: 75330R. 2177:(1): 6–8. 2001:: 783739. 1652:References 1465:tomography 1433:myocardial 1394:registered 1225:shot noise 1112:beta decay 1075:daclizumab 1066:Immuno-PET 787:anesthesia 771:endogenous 705:Cardiology 694:Cardiology 664:muscarinic 609:Psychiatry 541:flumazenil 465:fallypride 461:raclopride 435:(PiB) and 370:Iobenguane 362:fluorodopa 354:metomidate 352:-labelled 284:metastasis 264:hexokinase 225:ultrasound 219:(MRI) and 193:anatomical 178:metastases 144:gamma rays 78:blood flow 7799:Pregnancy 7678:Brain PET 7646:gamma ray 7582:DMSA scan 7436:Obstetric 7329:diffusion 7324:Sequences 7302:perfusion 7194:Pulmonary 7141:Cone beam 7035:Pyelogram 6733:Spheromak 6432:Fluorides 6096:IPHWR-700 6091:IPHWR-540 6086:IPHWR-220 5875:Moderator 5555:Explosion 5530:Arms race 5317:Economics 5269:Reflector 5264:Radiation 5259:Generator 5214:Plutonium 5167:Deuterium 5132:Radiation 5102:Chemistry 5001:(1): 35. 4921:. p. 189. 4834:13 August 4709:(2): 77. 4602:Radiology 4243:CiteSeerX 4165:CiteSeerX 4030:CiteSeerX 3528:233679785 2679:Neurology 2541:Continuum 2500:Epilepsia 1927:0029-5566 1892:204707264 1849:195772317 1827:: 44–56. 1436:perfusion 1317:gamma ray 1299:I.J. Good 1267:ℓ 1214:dead-time 1210:scattered 1203:sinograms 1193:(CT) and 1010:67.81 min 994:Half-life 907:Operation 587:premortem 510:receptors 445:biomarker 410:cyclotron 406:half-life 391:Neurology 368:than the 311:phosphate 274:tumors). 272:malignant 186:dementias 104:Oxygen-15 7878:Positron 7817:Category 7669:positron 7189:Coronary 6868:Category 6822:Polywell 6753:Inertial 6710:Magnetic 6465:TMSR-LF1 6460:TMSR-500 6440:Fuji MSR 6400:THTR-300 6240:Graphite 6103:PHWR KWU 6069:ACR-1000 5997:IPWR-900 5980:ACPR1000 5975:HPR-1000 5965:CPR-1000 5940:APR-1400 5731:Disposal 5683:Actinide 5676:Products 5535:Delivery 5378:Medicine 5207:depleted 5202:enriched 5172:Helium-3 5137:ionizing 5037:Archived 5027:27756360 4684:: 40–45. 4525:10673991 4489:24112882 4416:14 April 4392:23179594 4343:21553206 4335:23442772 4087:23733140 4052:18222753 4000:30033603 3992:18244025 3959:: 12–18. 3896:40488776 3888:16861768 3845:18238264 3810:17836207 3671:21908391 3622:21865288 3580:21902223 3572:21890880 3494:Archived 3477:29557435 3399:15809483 3315:18460535 3240:15837727 3199:30042160 3150:23698288 3142:12560887 3089:10724107 3048:25338757 2999:25243851 2959:PLOS ONE 2940:12057982 2899:15235060 2865:45446283 2857:16713185 2822:24852944 2814:12325044 2778:20029452 2707:11057426 2699:10078712 2664:11814781 2628:11734604 2579:19026991 2571:23739101 2562:10564042 2522:22946718 2481:27679539 2432:19236949 2391:24025925 2350:27571940 2272:10147392 2264:19862519 2193:11463751 2152:15181132 2121:23744095 2113:12634969 2078:31930780 2027:22577296 1976:21331927 1935:21791308 1884:31620854 1841:31260900 1640:Hot cell 1629:See also 1321:positron 1244:Bayesian 1199:data set 1120:electron 1086:Emission 1079:erenumab 1025:1.3 min 847:and the 795:primates 754:sorbitol 528:for the 524:(e.g. 6- 473:dopamine 288:dementia 235:Oncology 211:include 140:positron 7716:Optical 7698:PET-MRI 7478:Carotid 7473:Scrotal 7367:doppler 7297:Cardiac 7206:Thyroid 7150:Targets 7101:CT scan 6880:Commons 6791:Z-pinch 6761:Bubble 6743:Tokamak 6606:FBR-600 6586:CFR-600 6581:BN-1200 6247:coolant 6174:Organic 6059:CANDU 9 6056:CANDU 6 6024:coolant 5985:ACP1000 5960:CAP1400 5898:Boiling 5863:Fission 5710:Fission 5654:Weapons 5594:Warfare 5577:Testing 5567:History 5560:effects 5515:Weapons 5425:Therapy 5400:RadBall 5387:Imaging 5279:Thermal 5244:Capture 5231:Neutron 5219:Thorium 5197:Uranium 5162:Tritium 5142:braking 5122:Fission 5112:Physics 5095:Science 5018:5067887 4943:Scholia 4661:1113170 4630:1208874 4622:4251398 4383:3572388 4265:7172003 4235:Bibcode 4146:2014243 4114:Bibcode 3935:2112617 3915:Bibcode 3868:Bibcode 3775:6608535 3662:3537833 3442:3791879 3422:Bibcode 3370:21 June 3190:6424232 3039:4327834 2990:4171493 2967:Bibcode 2794:Synapse 2769:2949183 2619:6763047 2472:5024661 2341:5233621 2069:6984446 2018:3346692 1762:Bibcode 1570:updated 1451:History 1399:At the 1368:PET-MRI 1312:photons 1287:wavelet 1133:photons 1118:of the 1100:isotope 1041:ammonia 1033:glucose 1007:110 min 937:Isotope 835:Muscles 829:NaF-F18 791:rodents 750:maltose 563:amyloid 558:in-vivo 490:McN5652 453:ligands 372:(MIBG) 266:(whose 257:glucose 60:) is a 7693:PET-CT 7468:Breast 7463:Rectal 7387:duplex 7319:Breast 7156:Heart 6691:Fusion 6651:Others 6591:Phénix 6576:BN-800 6571:BN-600 6566:BN-350 6395:HTR-PM 6390:HTR-10 6370:UHTREX 6335:Magnox 6330:(UNGG) 6223:Lucens 6218:KS 150 5955:ATMEA1 5935:AP1000 5918:Kerena 5798:Debate 5550:Ethics 5540:Design 5523:Topics 5354:rocket 5332:Fusion 5327:Policy 5289:Fusion 5249:Poison 5127:Fusion 5025: 5015: 4966:about 4945:has a 4917: 4659: 4628: 4620: 4523: 4487: 4477: 4390: 4380: 4341: 4333: 4300:315970 4298: 4263: 4245: 4197:246589 4195: 4185: 4167: 4144: 4134: 4085: 4050: 4032: 3998: 3990: 3933: 3894: 3886: 3843: 3808: 3773: 3700: 3669: 3659: 3620: 3578: 3570: 3526: 3500:, 2000 3475: 3440: 3397: 3313: 3238: 3197: 3187: 3148: 3140: 3087: 3046: 3036: 2997: 2987: 2938: 2897: 2863: 2855: 2820: 2812: 2776: 2766: 2705: 2697: 2662: 2626: 2616: 2577: 2569: 2559: 2520: 2479: 2469: 2430: 2389: 2348: 2338: 2295: 2270: 2262: 2191: 2150: 2119: 2111: 2076: 2066: 2025: 2015: 1974: 1964: 1933: 1925: 1890: 1882: 1847: 1839: 1794:198801 1792: 1785:431708 1782: 1731: 1678: 1525:X-ray. 1401:Jülich 1364:PET-CT 1140:their 1022:78.4 h 1019:17.5 h 1013:12.7 h 1001:10 min 998:20 min 872:Safety 729:stroke 514:nifene 512:; 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