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advent (introduction) of mechanical refrigeration. Freezing has been successfully employed for long term preservation of many foods providing a significantly extended shelf-life. Freezing preservation is generally regarded as superior to canning and dehydration with respect to retention in sensory attributes and nutritive attributes.
38:
361:, produce specialized proteins that serve as potent ice nucleators, which they use to force ice formation on the surface of various fruits and plants at about −2 °C. The freezing causes injuries in the epithelia and makes the nutrients in the underlying plant tissues available to the bacteria.
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The size of substances increases or expands on being heated. This increase in the size of a body due to heating is called thermal expansion .. Thermal expansion takes place in all objects and in all states of matter. However, different substances have different rates of expansion for the same rise in
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of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, and nucleation does not proceed. Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. In presence
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growth. Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation; since as long ago as 1842, freezing has been used in an ice and salt brine. In freezing, flavours, smell and nutritional content generally remain unchanged. Freezing became commercially applicable after the
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process, meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat and pressure are released. This is often seen as counter-intuitive, since the temperature of the material does not rise during freezing, except if the liquid were
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may occur, where some energy is released by the partial destruction of the previous interface, raising the supercooling point to be near or equal to the melting point. The melting point of
306:. Amorphous materials, as well as some polymers, do not have a freezing point, as there is no abrupt phase change at any specific temperature. Instead, there is a gradual change in their
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For most substances, the melting and freezing points are the same temperature; however, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures. For example,
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249:. But this can be understood since heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the freezing process will stop. The energy released upon freezing is a
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201:. The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase. Some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the
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Many living organisms are able to tolerate prolonged periods of time at temperatures below the freezing point of water. Most living organisms accumulate
131:, the freezing is greatly slowed and the temperature will not drop anymore once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes.
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of irregularities on the surface of the containing vessel, solid or gaseous impurities, pre-formed solid crystals, or other nucleators,
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by sharp ice crystals. Most plants, in particular, can safely reach temperatures of −4 °C to −12 °C. Certain
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also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.8 K. This means that, at appropriate constant pressures, heat must be
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123:, which means that as long as solid and liquid coexist, the temperature of the whole system remains very nearly equal to the
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Jeffery CA, Austin PH (November 1997). "Homogeneous nucleation of supercooled water: Results from a new equation of state".
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and freezing point. It melts at 85 °C (185 °F) and solidifies from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F).
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properties over a range of temperatures. Such materials are characterized by a glass transition that occurs at a
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due to the slow removal of heat when in contact with air, which is a poor heat conductor. Because of the
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at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K), and in the presence of
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means the solidification phase change of a liquid or the liquid content of a substance, usually due to
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the freezing point of water is close to the melting point, but in the absence of nucleators water can
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Zachariassen KE, Kristiansen E (December 2000). "Ice nucleation and antinucleation in nature".
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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Philosophical
Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences
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to −40 °C (−40 °F; 233 K) before freezing. Under high pressure (2,000
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temperatures. Other nematodes that survive at temperatures below 0 °C include
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https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/free-resources/ashrae-terminology
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Experimental attempts to freeze human beings for later revival are known as
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Rapid formation of ice crystals in supercool water (home freezer experiment)
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can survive freezing and are viable for up to 10 years, a process known as
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146:" is the step wherein the molecules start to gather into clusters, on the
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789:"Physiological and ecological significance of biological ice nucleators"
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scale, arranging in a defined and periodic manner that defines the
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Maki LR, Galyan EL, Chang-Chien MM, Caldwell DR (September 1974).
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has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K.
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from the uniform liquid. This is a first-order thermodynamic
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429:. Many species of reptiles and amphibians survive freezing.
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962:(4th ed.), W. H. Freeman and Company, p. 236,
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Video of an intermetallic compound solidifying/freezing
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347:, polyols, and glucose to protect themselves against
302:, may harden without crystallizing; these are called
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Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of
838:"Nucleation of ice and its management in ecosystems"
257:and is exactly the same as the energy required to
268:is the only known exception to the general rule.
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1009:"Ice nucleation induced by pseudomonas syringae"
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984:Chemical Thermodynamics: Advanced Applications
473:. Besides the effect of lower temperatures on
134:Crystallization consists of two major events,
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469:that slows both food decay and the growth of
280:to these substances in order to freeze them.
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1153:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
960:Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight
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477:, freezing makes water less available for
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710:International Dictionary of Refrigeration
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395:Many plants undergo a process called
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27:Phase transition of liquid to solid
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986:. Academic Press. pp. 92–93.
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982:Ott JB, Boerio-Goates J (2000).
855:(1804): 557–74, discussion 574.
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943:What is an exothermic reaction?
900:Journal of Geophysical Research
465:Freezing is a common method of
413:can survive 44 weeks frozen at
378:Chryseobacterium greenlandensis
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1113:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
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1025:10.1128/aem.28.3.456-459.1974
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240:Freezing is almost always an
372:Carnobacterium pleistocenium
329:Freezing of living organisms
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312:glass transition temperature
187:second law of thermodynamics
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369:Three species of bacteria,
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294:Certain materials, such as
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32:Freezing (disambiguation)
787:Lundheim R (July 2002).
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518:Freezing air temperature
345:anti-nucleating proteins
208:heterogeneous nucleation
44:dripping from a slab of
836:Franks F (March 2003).
1070:10.1006/cryo.2000.2289
869:10.1098/rsta.2002.1141
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436:and 2-, 4- and 8-cell
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384:Herminiimonas glaciei
216:nucleating substances
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129:latent heat of fusion
74:is lowered below its
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1103:at Wikimedia Commons
1013:Applied Microbiology
906:(D21): 25269–25280.
498:Directional freezing
426:Panagrolaimus davidi
410:Haemonchus contortus
358:Pseudomonas syringae
30:For other uses, see
946:Scientific American
912:1997JGR...10225269J
861:2003RSPTA.361..557F
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508:Fractional freezing
1126:2015-12-10 at the
1116:. Merriam-Webster.
739:ASHRAE Terminology
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528:Micro-pulling-down
255:enthalpy of fusion
236:Enthalpy of fusion
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1143:Phase transitions
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969:978-0-7167-7355-9
930:10.1029/97JD02243
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467:food preservation
455:Food preservation
195:activation energy
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185:In spite of the
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335:Cryobiology
251:latent heat
247:supercooled
224:atmospheres
93:displays a
72:temperature
62:in which a
1137:Categories
1108:"Freezing"
773:2011-04-27
744:2022-11-03
735:"freezing"
720:2022-11-03
706:"freezing"
692:References
668:Ionization
656:Deposition
355:, notably
242:exothermic
144:Nucleation
136:nucleation
95:hysteresis
916:CiteSeerX
397:hardening
318:Expansion
220:supercool
148:nanometer
70:when its
1124:Archived
1101:Freezing
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877:12662454
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637:Freezing
486:See also
479:bacteria
449:cryonics
365:Bacteria
353:bacteria
343:such as
300:glycerol
274:Helium-4
270:Helium-3
80:freezing
56:Freezing
1043:4371331
908:Bibcode
857:Bibcode
814:1693005
674:Plasma
633:Liquid
620:Melting
513:Freezer
438:embryos
434:gametes
403:Animals
97:in its
84:cooling
50:icicles
18:Freezes
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432:Human
391:Plants
266:helium
64:liquid
881:S2CID
593:Solid
545:Table
523:Frost
296:glass
278:added
212:water
68:solid
58:is a
42:Water
1074:PMID
1039:PMID
988:ISBN
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652:Gas
588:From
423:and
381:and
298:and
259:melt
138:and
91:agar
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1029:PMC
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