Ice - Knowledge

2162: 1401:. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (255 K; 0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus". Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (238 K; −31 °F). In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor – what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective, although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei are used in 954:" -i.e. the blade of an ice skate, upon exerting pressure on the ice, would melt a thin layer, providing sufficient lubrication for the blade to glide across the ice. Yet, 1939 research by Frank P. Bowden and T. P. Hughes found that skaters would experience a lot more friction than they actually do if it were the only explanation. Further, the optimum temperature for figure skating is −5.5 °C (22 °F; 268 K) and −9 °C (16 °F; 264 K) for hockey; yet, according to pressure melting theory, skating below −4 °C (25 °F; 269 K) would be outright impossible. Instead, Bowden and Hughes argued that heating and melting of the ice layer is caused by friction. However, this theory does not sufficiently explain why ice is slippery when standing still even at below-zero temperatures. 2695: 1119: 1781: 1687: 1651: 1487: 1159: 44: 2883:, the ice-free land would eventually become 301 m (987 ft 6 in) higher in Greenland and 494 m (1,620 ft 9 in) in Antarctica, on average. Areas in the center of each landmass would become up to 783 m (2,568 ft 11 in) and 936 m (3,070 ft 10 in) higher, respectively. The impact on global temperatures from losing West Antartica, mountain glaciers and the Greenland ice sheet is estimated at 0.05 °C (0.090 °F), 0.08 °C (0.14 °F) and 0.13 °C (0.23 °F), respectively, while the lack of the East Antarctic ice sheet would increase the temperatures by 0.6 °C (1.1 °F). 2275: 1703: 2603: 654: 1639: 792: 2576: 1747: 2118: 702: 2362: 936: 4960:

Gogineni, P.; Griggs, J. A.; Hindmarsh, R. C. A.; Holmlund, P.; Holt, J. W.; Jacobel, R. W.; Jenkins, A.; Jokat, W.; Jordan, T.; King, E. C.; Kohler, J.; Krabill, W.; Riger-Kusk, M.; Langley, K. A.; Leitchenkov, G.; Leuschen, C.; Luyendyk, B. P.; Matsuoka, K.; Mouginot, J.; Nitsche, F. O.; Nogi, Y.; Nost, O. A.; Popov, S. V.; Rignot, E.; Rippin, D. M.; Rivera, A.; Roberts, J.; Ross, N.; Siegert, M. J.; Smith, A. M.; Steinhage, D.; Studinger, M.; Sun, B.; Tinto, B. K.; Welch, B. C.; Wilson, D.; Young, D. A.; Xiangbin, C.; Zirizzotti, A. (28 February 2013).

1723: 1171: 2013: 1978: 2860: 1191: 2828: 1107: 1143: 1273: 1920: 2704: 800: 773: 1375: 718: 572: 10502: 9381: 1773: 1515: 975: 9403: 2239:, effective thickness varies with load - i.e. a vehicle with 9-ton total weight requires a thickness of 20 in (51 cm). Notably, the speed limit for a vehicle moving at a road which meets its minimum safe thickness is 25 km/h (15 mph), going up to 35 km/h (25 mph) if the road's thickness is 2 or more times larger than the minimum safe value. There is a known instance where a railroad has been built on ice. 966:. Thus, the mechanism controlling the frictional properties of ice is still an active area of scientific study. A comprehensive theory of ice friction must take into account all of the aforementioned mechanisms to estimate friction coefficient of ice against various materials as a function of temperature and sliding speed. 2014 research suggests that frictional heating is the most important process under most typical conditions. 1092: 2941: 1671: 1735: 9392: 7737: 7672: 1318: 2432: 7956: 2663:(wood fibers mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a vessel immune to torpedoes, and a large deck, could be constructed by ice. A small-scale prototype was built, but it soon turned out the project would cost far more than a conventional aircraft carrier while being many times slower and also vulnerable to melting. 1256:- layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic stream valleys. Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the frozen layer. This water then freezes, causing the water table to rise further and repeat the cycle. The result is a stratified ice deposit, often several meters thick. 1438: 2204: 1502:

maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F), and becomes vanishingly small much below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).

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likely disappear even if the warming does not progress further, although it could take around 2,000 years before its loss is complete. The Greenland ice sheet will most likely be lost with the sustained warming between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 2.3 °C (4.1 °F), although its total loss requires around 10,000 years. Finally, the

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Since absorption is cumulative, the color effect intensifies with increasing thickness or if internal reflections cause the light to take a longer path through the ice. Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather than the ice itself. For instance,

1808:. When ice melts it absorbs as much energy as would be required to heat an equivalent amount of water by 80 °C. While melting, the temperature of the ice surface remains constant at 0 °C. The rate of the melting process depends on the efficiency of the energy exchange process. An ice surface in 2831:

Potential regional warming caused by the loss of all land ice outside of East Antarctica, and by the disappearance of Arctic sea ice every year starting from June. While plausible, consistent sea ice loss would likely require relatively high warming, and the loss of all ice in Greenland would require

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Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer spreading across the surface, and then downward. Ice on lakes is generally four types: primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate. Primary ice forms first. Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction parallel to the direction of

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As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an oxygen–hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch. Compared with water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener tint than liquid water.

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as the freezing point is reached. This is due to hydrogen bonding dominating the intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid. The density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm at −180 °C (93 K).

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By 2100, at least a quarter of mountain glaciers outside of Greenland and Antarctica would melt, and effectively all ice caps on non-polar mountains are likely to be lost around 200 years after global warming reaches 2 °C (3.6 °F). The West Antarctic ice sheet is highly vulnerable and will

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is likely to lose effectively all of its sea ice during at least some Septembers (the end of the ice melting season), although some of the ice would refreeze during the winter. I.e. an ice-free September is likely to occur once in every 40 years if global warming is at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), but

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instead of glaze. Soft rime has a density between a quarter and two thirds that of pure ice, due to a high proportion of trapped air, which also makes soft rime appear white. Hard rime is denser, more transparent, and more likely to appear on ships and aircraft. Cold wind specifically causes what is

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Subsequent research suggested that ice molecules at the interface cannot properly bond with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are free to move like molecules of liquid water). These molecules remain in a semi-liquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice

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For aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers. As an aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of different temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation. If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely affect the flying qualities of the aircraft.

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were flooded during the winter, and ice harvested in carts and stored inter-seasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses, and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters. This was allegedly copied by an Englishman who had

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released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to

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code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) and GS for smaller. Stones of 19 millimetres (0.75 in), 25 millimetres (1.0 in) and 44 millimetres (1.75 in) are the most frequently reported hail sizes in North America. Hailstones can

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which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more. The ice within permafrost is divided into four categories: pore ice, vein ice (also known as ice wedges), buried surface ice and intrasedimental ice (from the freezing of underground waters). One example of ice formation

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as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C (176 °F). During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C (32 °F). While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the

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produce three basic types of fragmentary ice: flake, tubular and plate, using a variety of techniques. Large batch ice makers can produce up to 75 tons of ice per day. In 2002, there were 426 commercial ice-making companies in the United States, with a combined value of shipments of $ 595,487,000.

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clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C (32 °F). Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration. The growth rate is

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Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in nineteen separate known crystalline phases at various densities, along with hypothetical proposed phases of ice that have not been observed. With care, at least fifteen of these phases (one of the known exceptions being ice X)

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of ice is 0.9167–0.9168 g/cm at 0 °C and standard atmospheric pressure (101,325 Pa), whereas water has a density of 0.9998–0.999863 g/cm at the same temperature and pressure. Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm, at 4 °C and begins to lose its density as the

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form. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, proton ordering, and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are Ice IV and Ice XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. In 2006, Ice XIII and Ice XIV were discovered.

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cooling. Thus, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carburetor will be colder, and tend to ice up. This will block the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail. Between 1969 and 1975, 468 such instances were recorded, causing 75 aircraft losses, 44 fatalities and 202 serious injuries.

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region is known as the Earth's "Third Pole" due to the large number of glaciers it contains. They cover an area of around 80,000 km (31,000 sq mi), and have a combined volume of between 3,000-4,700 km. These glaciers are nicknamed "Asian water towers", because their meltwater

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of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporative cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher

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Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; Bell, R.; Bianchi, C.; Bingham, R. G.; Blankenship, D. D.; Casassa, G.; Catania, G.; Callens, D.; Conway, H.; Cook, A. J.; Corr, H. F. J.; Damaske, D.; Damm, V.; Ferraccioli, F.; Forsberg, R.; Fujita, S.; Gim, Y.;

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Because ice is less dense than liquid water, it floats, and this prevents bottom-up freezing of the bodies of water. Instead, a sheltered environment for animal and plant life is formed beneath the floating ice, which protects the underside from short-term weather extremes such as

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and methane emissions once it thaws and begins to decompose, ice melting liqufies the ground, causing anything built above the former permafrost to collapse. By 2050, the economic damages from such infrastructure loss are expected to cost tens of billions of dollars.

2206: 7790:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S. S.; Edwards, T. L.; Golledge, N. R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R. E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). 1931:

engineers had already developed techniques for ice storage in the desert through the summer months. During the winter, ice was transported from harvesting pools and nearby mountains in large quantities to be stored in specially designed, naturally cooled

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is formed when floating pieces of ice are driven by the wind piling up on the windward shore. This kind of ice may contain large air pockets under a thin surface layer, which makes it particularly hazardous to walk across it. Another dangerous form of

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Rounce, David R.; Hock, Regine; Maussion, Fabien; Hugonnet, Romain; Kochtitzky, William; Huss, Matthias; Berthier, Etienne; Brinkerhoff, Douglas; Compagno, Loris; Copland, Luke; Farinotti, Daniel; Menounos, Brian; McNabb, Robert W. (5 January 2023).

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Earth lost 28 trillion tonnes of ice between 1994 and 2017, with melting grounded ice (ice sheets and glaciers) raising the global sea level by 34.6 ±3.1 mm. The rate of ice loss has risen by 57% since the 1990s−from 0.8 to 1.2 trillion tonnes per

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Podolskiy, Evgeny Andreevich; Nygaard, Bjørn Egil Kringlebotn; Nishimura, Kouichi; Makkonen, Lasse; Lozowski, Edward Peter (27 June 2012). "Study of unusual atmospheric icing at Mount Zao, Japan, using the Weather Research and Forecasting model".

438:), up to three types of amorphous ice can form. Interstellar ice is overwhelmingly low-density amorphous ice (LDA), which likely makes LDA ice the most abundant type in the universe. When cooled slowly, correlated proton tunneling occurs below 2298: – large masses of ice floating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) – can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway. Icebergs have been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most famous being the 2327:(Norway). Harbors which are not ice-free are opened up using specialized vessels, called icebreakers. Icebreakers are also used to open routes through the sea ice for other vessels, as the only alternative is to find the openings called " 2208: 2806:

are very important for the global climate. A continuation of high meltwater flows may cause a severe disruption (up to a point of a "collapse") of either circulation, or even both of them. Either event would be considered an example of

1287:(sometimes called "ice dams"), when broken chunks of ice pile up, are the greatest ice hazard on rivers. Ice jams can cause flooding, damage structures in or near the river, and damage vessels on the river. Ice jams can cause some 1344:

to traverse on foot is candle ice, which develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake. Because it lacks a firm horizontal structure, a person who has fallen through has nothing to hold onto to pull themselves out.

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thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the

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Lenton, T. M.; Armstrong McKay, D.I.; Loriani, S.; Abrams, J.F.; Lade, S.J.; Donges, J.F.; Milkoreit, M.; Powell, T.; Smith, S.R.; Zimm, C.; Buxton, J.E.; Daube, Bruce C.; Krummel, Paul B.; Loh, Zoë; Luijkx, Ingrid T. (2023).

2845:. Because ice is highly reflective of solar energy, persistent sea ice cover lowers local temperatures. Once that ice cover melts, the darker ocean waters begin to absorb more heat, which also helps to melt the remaining ice. 811:

temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: for some pressures higher than 1 atm (0.10 MPa), water freezes at a temperature

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when it collides with objects. When it occurs on plants, it often causes damage to them. Various methods exist to protect agricultural crops from frost - from simply covering them to using wind machines. In recent decades,

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blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more. Within

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between the water molecules. The ordering of the molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid melts to become a liquid. This is achieved by increasing the internal energy of the ice beyond the

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von Schuckmann, Karina; Minière, Audrey.; Gues, Flora; Cuesta-Valero, Francisco José; Kirchengast, Gottfried; Adusumilli, Susheel; Straneo, Flammetta; Ablain, Michaël; Allen, Richard P.; Barker, Paul M. (17 April 2023).

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have been calibrated to spray just enough water to preemptively create a layer of ice that would form slowly and so avoid a sudden temperature shock to the plant, and not be so thick as to cause damage with its weight.

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A "magnetic analogue" of ice is also realized in some insulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments mimic the position of protons in water ice and obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler

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Höning, Dennis; Willeit, Matteo; Calov, Reinhard; Klemann, Volker; Bagge, Meike; Ganopolski, Andrey (27 March 2023). "Multistability and Transient Response of the Greenland Ice Sheet to Anthropogenic CO2 Emissions".

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made from sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash. The mortar was resistant to heat transfer, helping to keep the ice cool enough not to melt; it was also impenetrable by water. Yakhchals often included a

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until the dock reaches a depth of about 22 feet (6.7 m). Ice piers are inherently temporary structures, although some can last as long as 10 years. Once a pier is no longer usable, it is towed to sea with an

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in 1973. Such ice piers are used during cargo operations to load and offload ships. Fleet operations personnel make the floating pier during the winter. They build upon naturally occurring frozen seawater in

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Bolch, Tobias; Shea, Joseph M.; Liu, Shiyin; Azam, Farooq M.; Gao, Yang; Gruber, Stephan; Immerzeel, Walter W.; Kulkarni, Anil; Li, Huilin; Tahir, Adnan A.; Zhang, Guoqing; Zhang, Yinsheng (5 January 2019).

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Lau, Sally C. Y.; Wilson, Nerida G.; Golledge, Nicholas R.; Naish, Tim R.; Watts, Phillip C.; Silva, Catarina N. S.; Cooke, Ira R.; Allcock, A. Louise; Mark, Felix C.; Linse, Katrin (21 December 2023).

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For ships, ice presents two distinct hazards. Firstly, spray and freezing rain can produce an ice build-up on the superstructure of a vessel sufficient to make it unstable, potentially to the point of

2856:, when the Sun is constantly shining), temperatures in the Arctic would increase by over 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), while the global temperatures would increase by around 0.19 °C (0.34 °F). 2294:. Earlier, crewmembers were regularly forced to manually hack off ice build-up. After 1980s, spraying de-icing chemicals or melting the ice through hot water/steam hoses became more common. Secondly, 7256:

Carburetor heat is an anti-icing system that preheats the air before it reaches the carburetor and is intended to keep the fuel-air mixture above freezing to prevent the formation of carburetor ice.

2811:, because it would be extremely difficult to reverse. AMOC is generally not expected to collapse during the 21st century, while there is only limited knowledge about the Southern Ocean circulation. 1562:) also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching −40 °C (−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air. 5037:

Lacelle, Denis; Fisher, David A.; Verret, Marjolaine; Pollard, Wayne (17 February 2022). "Improved prediction of the vertical distribution of ground ice in Arctic-Antarctic permafrost sediments".

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If all the ice on Earth melted, it would result in about 70 m (229 ft 8 in) of sea level rise, with some 53.3 m (174 ft 10 in) coming from East Antarctica. Due to

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Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).

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of 2 or less, but the hardness increases to about 4 at a temperature of −44 °C (−47 °F) and to 6 at a temperature of −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F), the vaporization point of solid

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Ice is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing, concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged ice. Most commercial

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in water, even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar. However, the dissolution rate is limited by salt concentration and is therefore slower than melting.

1070:) varies dramatically, with the smallest measured in centimeters and the largest in hundreds of kilometers. An area which is over 70% ice on its surface is said to be covered by pack ice. 1333:

occurs when ice movement, caused by ice expansion and/or wind action, occurs to the extent that ice pushes onto the shores of lakes, often displacing sediment that makes up the shoreline.

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Humans have been using ice for various purposes for thousands of years. Some historic structures designed to hold ice to provide cooling are over 2,000 years old. Before the invention of

2263: 2009:, who became known as the "Ice King", worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice, especially to the tropics; this became known as the ice trade. 900:

is dominated by amorphous ice, making it likely the most common form of water in the universe. Low-density ASW (LDA), also known as hyperquenched glassy water, may be responsible for

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particularly dangerous because it is very difficult to see. It is both very transparent, and often forms specifically in shaded (and therefore cooler and darker) areas, i.e. beneath

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Salzmann, Christoph G.; Radaelli, Paolo G.; Hallbrucker, Andreas; Mayer, Erwin; Finney, John L. (24 March 2006). "The Preparation and Structures of Hydrogen Ordered Phases of Ice".

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of vehicles. Often, snow melts, re-freezes, and forms a fragmented layer of ice which effectively "glues" snow to the window. In this case, the frozen mass is commonly removed with

1118: 2726:, 1% is retained in the atmosphere and 3-4% goes to melt major parts of the cryosphere. Between 1994 and 2017, 28 trillion tonnes of ice were lost around the globe as the result. 3229: 2841:

would occur once in every 8 years at 2 °C (3.6 °F) and once in every 1.5 years at 3 °C (5.4 °F). This would affect the regional and global climate due to the

1650: 2867:. Second and third states would result in 1.8 m (6 ft) and 2.4 m (8 ft) of sea level rise, while the fourth state is equivalent to 6.9 m (23 ft). 1142: 5520: 4728:

Roach, Lettie A.; Horvat, Christopher; Dean, Samuel M.; Bitz, Cecilia M. (6 May 2018). "An Emergent Sea Ice Floe Size Distribution in a Global Coupled Ocean-Sea Ice Model".

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Pan, Qingmin; Lu, Yongzong; Hu, Huijie; Hu, Yongguang (15 December 2023). "Review and research prospects on sprinkler irrigation frost protection for horticultural crops".

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Wagner, Wolfgang; Saul, A.; Pruss, A. (May 1994). "International Equations for the Pressure Along the Melting and Along the Sublimation Curve of Ordinary Water Substance".

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the heat flow. Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow. An

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Sanders, Kristopher J.; Barjenbruch, Brian L. (1 August 2016). "Analysis of Ice-to-Liquid Ratios during Freezing Rain and the Development of an Ice Accumulation Model".

1598:. Inside buildings, this can be seen as ice on the surface of un-insulated windows. Hoar frost is common in the environment, particularly in the low-lying areas such as 4171:; Salzmann, Christoph; Kohl, Ingrid; Mayer, Erwin; Hallbrucker, Andreas (2001). "A second distinct structural "state" of high-density amorphous ice at 77 K and 1 bar". 2161: 4500: 2386:

encountered such icing conditions – Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto the wing several times to remove ice which was covering the engine air intakes of the

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Because ice in natural environments is usually close to its melting temperature, its hardness shows pronounced temperature variations. At its melting point, ice has a

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When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water). The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of

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Christner, Brent C.; Morris, Cindy E.; Foreman, Christine M.; Cai, Rongman; Sands, David C. (29 February 2008). "Ubiquity of Biological Ice Nucleators in Snowfall".

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Slater, Thomas; Lawrence, Isobel R.; Otosaka, Inès N.; Shepherd, Andrew; Gourmelen, Noel; Jakob, Livia; Tepes, Paul; Gilbert, Lin; Nienow, Peter (25 January 2021).

950:" because it has a low coefficient of friction. This subject was first scientifically investigated in the 19th century. The preferred explanation at the time was " 2417:

freezing and forming ice crystals, which can potentially clog up fuel intake to the engine. Fuel heaters and/or de-icing additives are used to address the issue.

2192:. A thin layer of ice crystals can also form on the inside surface of car windows during sufficiently cold weather. In the 1970s and 1980s, some vehicles such as 1550:

ends up between colder and drier atmospheric layers. There, raindrops would both freeze and shrink in size due to evaporative cooling. So-called snow pellets, or

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Lübken, F.-J.; Lautenbach, J.; Höffner, J.; Rapp, M.; Zecha, M. (March 2009). "First continuous temperature measurements within polar mesosphere summer echoes".

713:. The crystals form at temperatures below −30 °C (−22 °F) and contain a lot of trapped air, making them light enough to be supported by the thin branch 7799:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3313: 1944:). Yakhchals were large underground spaces (up to 5000 m) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made of a specific type of mortar called 1686: 3834: 1158: 6747: 2096: 1959:

that could lower internal temperatures to frigid levels, even during the heat of the summer. One use for the ice was to create chilled treats for royalty.

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Klotz, S.; Besson, J. M.; Hamel, G.; Nelmes, R. J.; Loveday, J. S.; Marshall, W. G. (1999). "Metastable ice VII at low temperature and ambient pressure".

877:, V, and XII respectively. In 2009, ice XV was found at extremely high pressures and −143 °C. At even higher pressures, ice is predicted to become a 8176:

Riihelä, Aku; Bright, Ryan M.; Anttila, Kati (28 October 2021). "Recent strengthening of snow and ice albedo feedback driven by Antarctic sea-ice loss".

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could be upgraded with heated windshields as the result. This technology fell out of style as it was too expensive and prone to damage, but rear-window

238: 8324: 2012: 1058:. As they become somewhat larger and more consistent in shape and cover, the water surface begins to look "oily" from above, so this stage is called 5810: 5559: 615:

between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond, it is nonetheless critical in controlling the structure of both water and ice.

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Gold, L.W. (1993). "The Canadian Habbakuk Project: a Project of the National Research Council of Canada". International Glaciological Society.

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Dhyani, Abhishek; Choi, Wonjae; Golovin, Kevin; Tuteja, Anish (4 May 2022). "Surface design strategies for mitigating ice and snow accretion".

2262:. The trucks moved hundreds of thousands tonnes of supplies into the city, and hundreds of thousands of civilians were evacuated. It is now a 1264:

are two related concepts, in that snow fields accumulate on top of and ablate away to the equilibrium point (the snow line) in an ice deposit.

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Ice from a theorized superionic water may possess two crystalline structures. At pressures in excess of 500,000 bars (7,300,000 psi) such

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will take at least 10,000 years to melt entirely, which requires a warming of between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F).

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to be built. Some regulations specify that the minimum safe thickness is 4 in (10 cm) for a person, 7 in (18 cm) for a

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up to 12 metres (39 ft) tall. On the other hand, active wave activity can reduce sea ice to small, regularly shaped pieces, known as

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concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybia attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known.

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balls of ice, which are usually smaller than hailstones. This form of precipitation is also referred to as "sleet" by the United States

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Mintu, Shafiul; Molyneux, David (15 August 2022). "Ice accretion for ships and offshore structures. Part 1 - State of the art review".

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Hosseini, Bahareh; Namazian, Ali (2012). "An Overview of Iranian Ice Repositories, an Example of Traditional Indigenous Architecture".

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Dionne, J (November 1979). "Ice action in the lacustrine environment. A review with particular reference to subarctic Quebec, Canada".

2905:

point lies above or around 100 K (−173 °C; −280 °F) (assuming standard atmospheric pressure). The best known example is

7121:

Sahari, Aaro; Matala, Saara (9 December 2021). "Of a titan, winds and power: Transnational development of the icebreaker, 1890-1954".

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Huryn, Alexander D.; Gooseff, Michael N.; Hendrickson, Patrick J.; Briggs, Martin A.; Tape, Ken D.; Terry, Neil C. (13 October 2020).

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Bernal, J. D.; Fowler, R. H. (1933). "A Theory of Water and Ionic Solution, with Particular Reference to Hydrogen and Hydroxyl Ions".

2184:

Whenever there is freezing rain or snow which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the

5784: 4002: 1702: 1423:. In the United States, a quarter of winter weather events produce glaze ice, and utilities need to be prepared to minimize damages. 650:. It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes. 7268:

Schmitz, Mathias; Schmitz, Gerhard (15 August 2022). "Experimental study on the accretion and release of ice in aviation jet fuel".

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Harvey, Allan H. (2017). "Properties of Ice and Supercooled Water". In Haynes, William M.; Lide, David R.; Bruno, Thomas J. (eds.).

8349:

Carlson, Anders E; Walczak, Maureen H; Beard, Brian L; Laffin, Matthew K; Stoner, Joseph S; Hatfield, Robert G (10 December 2018).

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In salty ambient conditions, dissolution rather than melting often causes the ablation of ice. For example, the temperature of the

5947: 5524: 3979: 7240: 6627: 6033: 5921: 4524: 2213: 6773: 3599:

Iglev, H.; Schmeisser, M.; Simeonidis, K.; Thaller, A.; Laubereau, A. (2006). "Ultrafast superheating and melting of bulk ice".

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Sea ice forms in several stages. At first, small, millimeter-scale crystals accumulate on the water surface in what is known as

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processes, which could then increase the SLR expected for the end of the century (between 30 cm (1 ft) and 1 m (

2343:

underneath the protruding bow, as the typical rear propellers were incapable of effectively steering the ship through the ice

8090: 7054:

Rashid, Taimur; Khawaja, Hassan Abbas; Edvardsen, Kåre (17 August 2016). "Review of marine icing and anti-/de-icing systems".

1047:

or a coastal glacier may become an iceberg. The aftermath of calving events produces a loose mixture of snow and ice known as

7563: 7470: 7102: 6985: 6873: 6757: 6395: 5901: 5720: 5442: 4774: 4474: 4426: 3373: 3009: 2863:

Possible equilibrium states of the Greenland ice sheet in response to different equilibrium carbon dioxide concentrations in

2848:

Global losses of sea ice between 1992 and 2018, almost all of them in the Arctic, have already had the same impact as 10% of

2088: 8672:

Ramirez, A. P.; Hayashi, A.; Cava, R.J.; Siddharthan, R.; Shastry, B. S. (27 May 1999). "Zero-point entropy in 'spin ice'".

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structure. However, at pressures in excess of 1,000,000 bars (15,000,000 psi) the structure may shift to a more stable

7331: 4790:

Leppäranta, Matti; Hakala, Risto (25 April 1991). "The structure and strength of first-year ice ridges in the Baltic Sea".

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industrial facilities to completely shut down. An ice dam is a blockage from the movement of a glacier which may produce a

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On average, climate change has lowered the thickness of land ice with every year, and reduced the extent of sea ice cover.

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is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice. The phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing

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Scott, Christopher A.; Zhang, Fan; Mukherji, Aditi; Immerzeel, Walter; Mustafa, Daanish; Bharati, Luna (5 January 2019).

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or LDA at GPa pressures. Very-high-density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly warmed to 160 K under 1–2 GPa pressures.

8474:

Bochow, Nils; Poltronieri, Anna; Robinson, Alexander; Montoya, Marisa; Rypdal, Martin; Boers, Niklas (18 October 2023).

6055:

Makkonen, Lase (15 November 2000). "Models for the growth of rime, glaze, icicles and wet snow deposits on structures".

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over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.

2814:

Another example of ice-related tipping point is permafrost thaw. While the organic content in the permafrost causes CO

1213:. These ice sheets have an average thickness of over 1 km (0.6 mi) and have existed for millions of years. 10355: 7626: 6958: 6931: 6733: 3209: 3110: 1998:

seen the same activity in China. Ice was imported into England from Norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823.

1006: 670:

of bacterial and algal colonies. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain

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are built out of large chunks of ice or by spraying water The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with

9979: 7525: 3669:

La Placa, S. J.; Hamilton, W. C.; Kamb, B.; Prakash, A. (1972). "On a nearly proton ordered structure for ice IX".

3545: 2648:, drilling holes in rock structures and then pouring water during cold weather is an accepted alternative to using 1130: 927:

lattice. It is speculated that superionic ice could compose the interior of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune.

6794: 2508:, where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to 2036:

was built with 18 large towers, one of those towers is called the 'Ice Tower'. Its sole purpose was to store Ice.

990:

The term that collectively describes all of the parts of the Earth's surface where water is in frozen form is the

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Militzer, Burkhard; Wilson, Hugh F. (2 November 2010). "New Phases of Water Ice Predicted at Megabar Pressures".

3826: 1722: 7303:

Dichter, Heather L.; Teetzel, Sarah (23 March 2021). "The Winter Olympics: A Century of Games on Ice and Snow".

6895:

Daly, Steven; Connor, Billy; Garron, Jessica; Stuefer, Svetlana; Belz, Nathan; Bjella, Kevin (1 February 2023).

5768: 5743: 2084:

service during the summer. The advent of artificial refrigeration technology made the delivery of ice obsolete.

1066:. Ice floes are the basic building blocks of sea ice cover, and their horizontal size (defined as half of their 622:—is approximately 8.3% less dense than its liquid form; this is equivalent to a volumetric expansion of 9%. The 566: 10546: 7589: 6903: 6287:"Time to chill: effects of simulated global change on leaf ice nucleation temperatures of subarctic vegetation" 6000: 5325: 5305: 2735: 2335:". A widespread production of icebreakers began during the 19th century. Earlier designs simply had reinforced 507: 8531: 6579: 2544:

can be used to cool drinks. As the ice melts, it absorbs heat and keeps the drink near 0 °C (32 °F).

2125:

The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is by the 13th-century writings of Arab historian

1554:, form when multiple water droplets freeze onto snowflakes until a soft ball-like shape is formed. So-called " 958:

exerted by any object. However, the significance of this hypothesis is disputed by experiments showing a high

908:

of water vapor in cold or vacuum conditions. High-density ASW (HDA) is formed by compression of ordinary ice I

9496: 8788: 7703: 2393:

One vulnerability effected by icing that is associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines is the

2029: 1486: 997:

Ice is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle. Glaciers and

526:

and in the mountains located outside of the polar regions. The loss of grounded ice (as opposed to floating

495: 460: 431: 6285:

Beerling, D. J.; Terry, A. C.; Mitchell, P. L.; Callaghan, T. V.; Gwynn-Jones, D.; Lee, J. A. (April 2001).

5684:"P9.5 Evaluation of an Alberta Hail Growth Model Using Severe Hail Proximity Soundings in the United States" 4215: 356:. As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered to be a 10048: 9883: 2770: 2684: 2680: 2548: 2397:. As air is sucked through the carburetor into the engine, the local air pressure is lowered, which causes 8838: 7485: 2852:

emissions over the same period. If all the Arctic sea ice was gone every year between June and September (

2666:

Ice has even been used as the material for a variety of musical instruments, for example by percussionist

2250:. It operated in the winters of 1941–1942 and 1942–1943, when it was the only land route available to the 21:

This article is about water ice. For the broader concept of "ices" as used in the planetary sciences, see

10372: 5814: 5547: 4043: 2413:

Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but they can be affected by the moisture inherently present in

1582:, which stops melt water from draining properly and potentially leads to damaging leaks. More generally, 1478:

grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb). In large hailstones,

1309:, and their position results in asymmetric melting, which makes them continuously rotate at a low speed. 611:, or H–O–H. However, many of the physical properties of water and ice are controlled by the formation of 7833:

Hjort, Jan; Streletskiy, Dmitry; Doré, Guy; Wu, Qingbai; Bjella, Kevin; Luoto, Miska (11 January 2022).

2274: 1283:

Ice which forms on moving water tends to be less uniform and stable than ice which forms on calm water.

10505: 10389: 10333: 9425: 4281: 2072:

were used to store ice formed in the winter, to make ice available all year long, and an early type of

2002: 628: 7510: 7356: 7001: 6645: 4592: 2588:

Engineers used the substantial strength of pack ice when they constructed Antarctica's first floating

9920: 9185: 7391: 6649: 6563: 5169: 3333: 3293: 2730:

accounted for the single largest loss (7.6 trillion tonnes), followed by the melting of Antarctica's

2489:. Many of the different sports played on ice get international attention every four years during the 2379: 1982: 1503: 587:

O ice molecules (b) located on lattice points within the two-dimensional hexagonal space lattice (a).

145: 8756: 6605:"Gwrych Castle: The astonishing fantasy castle saved by the dreams and bravery of a 12-year-old boy" 5480: 2566:) to reduce swelling (by decreasing blood flow) and pain by pressing it against an area of the body. 9905: 8417: 5129:

Johnson, Chris; Affolter, Matthew D.; Inkenbrandt, Paul; Mosher, Cam (1 July 2017). "14 Glaciers".

2873: 2803: 2762: 2754: 2715: 2711: 1603: 1535: 653: 380: 6604: 6134: 1091: 10080: 9969: 8940: 6086: 4571: 2973: 2922: 2902: 2892: 2339:

in a spoon-like or diagonal shape to effectively crush the ice. Later designs attached a forward

1793: 963: 959: 853: 22: 8614: 8091:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 7203:

Newman, Richard L. (1981). "Carburetor Ice Flight Testing: Use of an Anti-Icing Fuel Additive".

5130: 4454: 4406: 3257:

Akyurt, M.; Zaki, G.; Habeebullah, B. (15 May 2002). "Freezing phenomena in ice–water systems".

2005:, in 1799, and by the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting had become a big business. 1670: 10483: 10326: 10198: 8994: 8368:"Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the twenty-first century" 7895:

Wunderling, Nico; Willeit, Matteo; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (27 October 2020).

7418: 5475: 2727: 2602: 1661: 951: 791: 261: 8558:"Total isostatic response to the complete unloading of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets" 8350: 7460: 7168:

We Freeze to Please: A History of NASA's Icing Research Tunnel and the Quest for Flight Safety

6975: 5969: 3363: 2575: 1993:

There were thriving industries in 16th–17th century England whereby low-lying areas along the

1081:. Sometimes, wind and wave activity "polishes" sea ice to perfectly spherical pieces known as 43: 10556: 10280: 10275: 10070: 10011: 5891: 5624: 5202: 4764: 3337: 1306: 979: 885: 747:

containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, grey or green.

6896: 6158:"Observation of "yukimarimo" on the snow surface of the inland plateau, Antarctic ice sheet" 6006: 5660: 3752: 3651: 2365:

Rime ice on the leading edge of an aircraft wing. When the build-up is too large, the black

10474: 10446: 10411: 10338: 10138: 10075: 9893: 9714: 9395: 9276: 8828: 8681: 8626: 8569: 8487: 8432: 8379: 8271: 8185: 8132: 7968: 7908: 7846: 7745: 7680: 7277: 7063: 7028: 6471: 6424: 6215: 6169: 5889: 5837: 5755: 5683: 5590: 5467: 5347: 5247: 5046: 4973: 4830: 4737: 4661: 4622: 4375: 4338: 4249: 4180: 4142: 4100: 4058: 3936: 3875: 3783: 3713: 3678: 3608: 3505: 3466: 3402: 3266: 3166: 3131: 2913:. Its sublimation/deposition point occurs at 194.7 K (−78.5 °C; −109.2 °F). 2490: 2383: 2069: 2059: 1628: 1074: 1001:

are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or melt.

619: 213: 165: 26: 9402: 8833: 5788: 4017: 3494:"Review of the vapour pressures of ice and supercooled water for atmospheric applications" 2761:(SLR) and they are expected to intensify in the future. In particular, the melting of the 2223:

In sufficiently cold places, the layers of ice on water surfaces can get thick enough for

2117: 795:

An alternative formulation of the phase diagram for certain ices and other phases of water

8: 10561: 10536: 10469: 10377: 10365: 10255: 10208: 10016: 9939: 9665: 9456: 9281: 6824: 5868: 3574: 2842: 2743: 2739: 2320: 2081: 1734: 1543: 1457: 1062:. Then, ice continues to clump together, and solidify into flat cohesive pieces known as 935: 924: 920: 897: 291: 8685: 8630: 8573: 8508: 8491: 8475: 8436: 8383: 8275: 8189: 8136: 7972: 7912: 7850: 7749: 7684: 7281: 7067: 7032: 6475: 6428: 6219: 6173: 6108: 5943: 5759: 5594: 5471: 5351: 5251: 5224:

Dorbolo, S; Adami, N.; Dubois, C.; Caps, H.; Vandewalle, N.; Barbois-Texier, B. (2016).

5050: 4977: 4926: 4843: 4834: 4818: 4741: 4665: 4626: 4379: 4342: 4253: 4184: 4146: 4104: 4062: 3971: 3940: 3879: 3787: 3717: 3682: 3612: 3509: 3470: 3406: 3270: 3170: 3135: 888:(ASW) of varying densities. In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice is present in the 860:. In an experiment, ice at −3 °C was superheated to about 17 °C for about 250 10551: 10531: 10479: 10464: 10394: 10350: 10240: 9826: 9731: 9486: 9384: 8919: 8590: 8557: 8456: 8397: 8305: 8239: 8153: 8116: 8060: 7984: 7929: 7896: 7872: 7492:

23 February 2011 at Wikiwix Antarctic Sun. 8 January 2006; McMurdo Station, Antarctica.

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are lost and can no longer buttress the glaciers. This would trigger poorly understood

2723: 2611: 2255: 1753: 901: 185: 124: 49: 8259: 8014: 5431: 4387: 3278: 701: 506:. The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is 10541: 10451: 9915: 9821: 9794: 9641: 9591: 9527: 9481: 8781: 8642: 8638: 8595: 8513: 8460: 8448: 8418:"Genomic evidence for West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse during the Last Interglacial" 8401: 8325:"Discovery of recent Antarctic ice sheet collapse raises fears of a new global flood" 8309: 8297: 8243: 8158: 8064: 8052: 8044: 7934: 7876: 7585: 7466: 7171: 7098: 6981: 6977:

The Leningrad Blockade, 1941–1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives

6954: 6927: 6770: 6753: 6729: 6557: 6491: 6391: 6314: 6187: 5897: 5493: 5438: 5359: 5321: 5301: 5283: 5271: 5115: 5103: 5066: 4901: 4860: 4848: 4803: 4770: 4695: 4677: 4484: 4470: 4436: 4422: 4319: 3956: 3891: 3799: 3624: 3527: 3424: 3369: 3205: 3182: 3106: 3092: 3049: 3005: 2880: 2864: 2509: 2439: 2361: 2312: 1928: 1591: 1587: 1149: 1010: 942:

figure skating - an act which is only possible due to ice's low frictional properties

657:

This iceberg can stay afloat in spite of its size because it is less dense than water

383: 8729: 7988: 7189: 5505: 5146: 4650:"Thinning sea ice weakens buttressing force of iceberg mélange and promotes calving" 4634: 4200: 3903: 3811: 1977: 1606:

is increased to the point hoarfrost on snow sticks together when blown by wind into

1009:

defines several kinds of ice depending on origin, size, shape, influence and so on.

311:

The properties of ice vary substantially with temperature, purity and other factors.

10401: 10360: 10343: 10230: 10128: 9660: 9564: 9448: 9160: 8689: 8634: 8585: 8577: 8503: 8495: 8440: 8387: 8287: 8279: 8231: 8201: 8193: 8148: 8140: 8034: 8026: 7976: 7924: 7916: 7862: 7854: 7819: 7763: 7753: 7698: 7688: 7603: 7312: 7289: 7285: 7212: 7130: 7071: 7040: 7036: 6854: 6514: 6479: 6442: 6432: 6344: 6298: 6223: 6177: 6064: 5763: 5598: 5485: 5355: 5263: 5255: 5093: 5054: 4991: 4981: 4838: 4799: 4745: 4685: 4669: 4630: 4547: 4462: 4414: 4383: 4346: 4257: 4188: 4150: 4108: 4066: 3944: 3887: 3883: 3791: 3733: 3721: 3686: 3636: 3616: 3513: 3474: 3410: 3274: 3174: 3139: 3078: 3046:

Translation of: "The mechanical properties of ice" ("Mekhanicheskie svoistva l'da")

2656: 2559:

when power is out and standard (electrically powered) air conditioners do not work.

2486: 2356: 2352: 2336: 2259: 2193: 1923:

A schematic showing how the ancient yakhchals used ice to provide radiative cooling

1237:

run-off feeds into rivers which provide water for an estimated two billion people.

905: 722: 691: 671: 402: 373: 353: 83: 8260:"Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters" 7553: 7316: 7075: 6348: 5716: 5082:"Aufeis fields as novel groundwater-dependent ecosystems in the arctic cryosphere" 2859: 2827: 646:

weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from

393:(spoken as "ice one h"). Depending on temperature and pressure, at least nineteen 10418: 10384: 10270: 10250: 10160: 9809: 9775: 9709: 9506: 9491: 8810: 7530: 6948: 6777: 6723: 6385: 4874: 4515: 4504: 4168: 3317: 3178: 2580: 2403: 2315:, being ice-free, ideally all year long, is an important advantage. Examples are 2126: 1813: 1539: 1292: 1272: 939: 893: 5012: 4466: 4418: 4407:"Status and Change of the Cryosphere in the Extended Hindu Kush Himalaya Region" 4154: 3105:

Physics of Ice, V. F. Petrenko, R. W. Whitworth, Oxford University Press, 1999,

3052: 2324: 2080:

was cooled using a block of ice placed inside it. Many cities had a regular ice

1837:

is equal to or greater than 3.98 °C, with the rate being proportional to (T

1013:

are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice.

881:; this has been variously estimated to occur at 1.55 TPa or 5.62 TPa. 10459: 10406: 10316: 10235: 10220: 10215: 10167: 10055: 9851: 9799: 9782: 9616: 9365: 9355: 9165: 8581: 8499: 8392: 8367: 8197: 8144: 7920: 7858: 7768: 7741: 7676: 6858: 6518: 5259: 5058: 4508: 4366:

Makkonen, Lasse; Tikanmäki, Maria (June 2014). "Modeling the friction of ice".

3948: 2910: 2849: 2758: 2747: 2667: 2496:

Small boat-like craft can be mounted on blades and be driven across the ice by

2407: 2332: 2017: 2006: 1994: 1800: 1693: 1579: 1578:-like structures on the ground. On sloped roofs, buildup of ice can produce an 1405:. The droplet then grows by condensation of water vapor onto the ice surfaces. 1382: 1322: 896:

are expected to mainly consist of other crystalline forms of ice. Water in the

755: 735: 667: 531: 519: 398: 137: 8015:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 7980: 7758: 7723: 7134: 6483: 6182: 6157: 5946:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. 5920:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. 4351: 4314: 4085: 3439: 3415: 3390: 3083: 3066: 2976: – Type of technology to produce and use fluids or secondary refrigerants 2897:

The solid phases of several other volatile substances are also referred to as

2703: 1295:. Heavy ice flows in rivers can also damage vessels and require the use of an 1048: 824:, which is exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C) at a pressure of 611.657 666:. Sufficiently thin floating ice allows light to pass through, supporting the 10520: 10423: 10260: 10150: 10107: 9888: 9765: 9651: 9601: 9465: 9180: 9132: 9117: 8985: 8646: 8048: 7787: 7440:"California utility augments 1,800 air conditioning units with "ice battery"" 7170:. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. p. 10. 6191: 5107: 4852: 4681: 2790:

Ice loss in Greenland and Antarctica also produces large quantities of fresh

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MacMahon, J. M. (1970). "Ground-State Structures of Ice at High-Pressures".

3795: 2001:

In the United States, the first cargo of ice was sent from New York City to

10526: 10225: 10183: 9959: 9910: 9846: 9702: 9606: 9190: 9102: 9097: 9092: 8990: 8960: 8774: 8751: 8741: 8599: 8556:

Paxman, Guy J. G.; Austermann, Jacqueline; Hollyday, Andrew (6 July 2022).

8517: 8452: 8301: 8162: 8056: 7938: 7834: 7693: 7658: 7622: 7444: 6944: 6318: 6068: 5497: 5275: 4699: 4070: 3895: 3803: 3628: 3186: 2946: 2837: 2501: 2466: 2450: 2387: 2366: 2251: 2243: 2073: 2063: 1895: 1555: 1498: 947: 884:

As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as

857: 821: 817: 695: 635: 554: 542: 541:

technology, the only way to safely store food without modifying it through

8712:

Ice: From Mixed Drinks to Skating Rinks--A Cool History of a Hot Commodity

8012: 7897:"Global warming due to loss of large ice masses and Arctic summer sea ice" 5399: 4986: 4962:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica" 4961: 3668: 3361: 2216:

film explaining how the ice of Lake Ladoga became the Road of Life during

1374: 1190: 1073:

Fully formed sea ice can be forced together by currents and winds to form

10321: 10265: 10087: 10065: 10060: 9927: 9804: 9770: 9758: 9646: 9569: 9360: 9266: 9150: 9122: 9112: 9107: 9045: 9030: 9015: 9000: 8924: 8888: 8235: 8206: 7387: 6263: 6241: 6227: 4749: 3541: 2961: 2731: 2552: 2541: 2462: 2446: 2445:

Ice plays a central role in winter recreation and in many sports such as

2299: 2283: 2247: 2189: 1968: 1956: 1809: 1583: 1531: 1479: 1453: 1432: 1305:

are circular formations of ice floating on river water. They form within

1078: 1040: 889: 799: 772: 717: 706: 643: 592: 571: 511: 499: 9296: 8366:

A. Naughten, Kaitlin; R. Holland, Paul; De Rydt, Jan (23 October 2023).

8292: 8039: 7867: 5890:

Downing, Thomas E.; Olsthoorn, Alexander A.; Tol, Richard S. J. (1999).

4673: 4551: 3703: 3620: 518:. In the recent decades, ice volume on Earth has been decreasing due to 10428: 10245: 10203: 10145: 10114: 9753: 9685: 9623: 9596: 9559: 9350: 9230: 9215: 9175: 9170: 9050: 9025: 8975: 8950: 8854: 8352:

Absence of the West Antarctic ice sheet during the last interglaciation

6532: 6447: 6310: 6286: 5267: 4216:"New phase of water could dominate the interiors of Uranus and Neptune" 2967: 2955: 2787: ft), depending on future warming), by tens of centimeters more. 2641:

are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow.

2630: 2505: 2454: 2426: 2394: 2279: 2232: 2228: 2150: 1611: 1607: 1575: 1547: 1508: 1420: 1341: 1296: 1288: 1261: 1240: 1233: 1225: 1210: 1098: 1059: 1055: 1036: 992: 869: 861: 663: 604: 483: 455: 426: 349: 337: 8746: 7724:"Heat stored in the Earth system 1960-2020: where does the energy go?" 7720: 7239:. US Dept. of Transportation, FAA. 2016. pp. 7–10. Archived from 5813:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 19 October 2004. Archived from 5098: 5081: 4996: 4262: 4237: 4112: 3690: 3143: 2504:, and it had been practiced for centuries. Another vehicular sport is 1514: 1148:

A first-year sea ice ridge in the Central Arctic, photographed by the

974: 10311: 10193: 10001: 9996: 9974: 9863: 9856: 9675: 9670: 9577: 9554: 9322: 9312: 9291: 9220: 9065: 9040: 9020: 8955: 8945: 8914: 8909: 8874: 8115:

Dai, Aiguo; Luo, Dehai; Song, Mirong; Liu, Jiping (10 January 2019).

6926:

Makkonen, L. (1994) "Ice and Construction". E & FN Spon, London.

6798: 4595:(Report). Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization. 2014. 4192: 3518: 3478: 2925:

of the proton configuration in water ice. These materials are called

2918: 2853: 2791: 2766: 2634: 2614: 2563: 2556: 2474: 2398: 2340: 2291: 2197: 2174: 2092: 1972: 1677: 1416: 1408: 1390: 1378: 1369: 1336: 1330: 1257: 1221: 1206: 1202: 1044: 1028: 479: 471: 435: 53: 9417: 7216: 6413:"Impact of Thermally Driven Turbulence on the Bottom Melting of Ice" 6302: 5742:

Brimelow, Julian C.; Reuter, Gerhard W.; Poolman, Eugene R. (2002).

3493: 2555:

fans to blow hot air over the ice. This is especially useful during

1772: 1657: 10438: 10006: 9932: 9873: 9868: 9816: 9726: 9697: 9690: 9680: 9611: 9585: 9581: 9573: 9332: 9327: 9317: 9286: 9250: 9245: 9235: 9087: 9035: 9010: 8869: 8864: 8117:"Arctic amplification is caused by sea-ice loss under increasing CO 7785: 7558: 6556: 5374: 5242: 4930: 4333: 2926: 2746:(2.5 trillion tonnes) and the limited losses of the sea ice in the 2649: 2589: 2537: 2513: 2414: 2316: 2224: 2178: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2112: 2021: 1937: 1767: 1709: 1618: 1398: 1302: 1248: 1082: 1067: 1063: 1032: 1002: 998: 596: 550: 546: 475: 361: 325: 9406: 8693: 7816: 3931: 3870: 3725: 2054:; Switzerland, to France; and Germany sometimes was supplied from 1546:.) Ice pellets typically form alongside freezing rain, when a wet 618:

An unusual property of water is that its solid form—ice frozen at

10306: 10102: 10097: 10043: 9949: 9878: 9721: 9522: 9342: 9240: 9210: 9155: 9145: 8970: 8904: 8899: 8884: 8879: 8859: 8476:"Overshooting the critical threshold for the Greenland ice sheet" 7894: 7801:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US. 7740:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

7675:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

7459:

Deuster, Patricia A.; Singh, Anita; Pelletier, Pierre A. (2007).

6363:"Wind machines for minimizing cold injury to horticultural crops" 6204: 6003:

Electron Microscopy Unit, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center

5867:. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from 5787:. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from 5714: 5650: 2940: 2906: 2660: 2618: 2478: 2470: 2328: 2295: 2055: 2039: 1789: 1713: 1551: 1507:

frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the

1469: 1284: 1277: 1229: 1217: 1022: 744: 679: 675: 631: 623: 527: 515: 441: 412: 357: 333: 66: 8473: 7955:

Sigmond, Michael; Fyfe, John C.; Swart, Neil C. (2 April 2018).

6135:"Weather Facts: Frost hollow – Weather UK – weatheronline.co.uk" 5128: 4715:

Field Measurements of Arctic Grease Ice Properties and Processes

3773: 3598: 1927:

Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. In 400 BC Iran,

10155: 10120: 9944: 9900: 9748: 9546: 9271: 8894: 7089:

Halpern, Samuel; Weeks, Charles (2011). Halpern, Samuel (ed.).

6717: 3157:

Bjerrum, N (11 April 1952). "Structure and Properties of Ice".

2645: 2531: 2308: 2185: 2149:

or crushed ice. The first such device was presented in 1965 by

2077: 1946: 1599: 1571: 1491: 1253: 983: 829: 710: 600: 523: 448: 419: 341: 6284: 4958: 2901:; generally a volatile is classed as an ice if its melting or 1483:

be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.

1124:

Ice eggs (diameter 5–10 cm) on Stroomi Beach, Tallinn, Estonia

10188: 10028: 9954: 9741: 9225: 9140: 9055: 8980: 8814: 8807: 8671: 7736: 7671: 7656: 5079: 3568:"Information for users about the proposed revision of the SI" 2753:

Other than the sea ice (which already displaces water due to

2638: 2497: 2458: 2431: 2236: 2051: 2047: 2043: 1986: 1952: 1903: 1595: 1523: 1474: 1449: 1317: 878: 683: 503: 345: 329: 321: 8365: 5681: 1816:

with a rate that depends linearly on the water temperature,

1441:

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.4 in) in diameter

1394: 868:

can be recovered at ambient pressure and low temperature in

10133: 9989: 9984: 9964: 9838: 9789: 9633: 9060: 9005: 8965: 8084: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8076: 8074: 7360: 6057:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A

5835: 5769:

10.1175/1520-0434(2002)017<1048:MMHSIA>2.0.CO;2

4717:. Cold Regions Science and Technology 44. pp. 171–183. 4452: 4132: 3573:. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. Archived from 2719: 2607: 2482: 2217: 2170: 1899: 1465: 1461: 1445: 1365: 1244: 1194: 873:

Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen-ordered forms of ices I

856:

in May 2019. Unlike most other solids, ice is difficult to

729: 487: 365: 8256: 7332:"Explore the History of Ice Yachting in the Hudson Valley" 7233:

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAA-H-8083-25B

6620:"The secrets and symbols of Hungary's Parliament building" 6155: 5036: 3121: 1437: 1205:

which almost completely cover the world's largest island,

986:. A large ice circle can be clearly seen floating on water 549:

accessible to land transport during winter, and dedicated

9736: 8719:

Of Ice and Men: How We've Used Cold to Transform Humanity

8348: 8220: 7357:"IDNIYRA | International DN Ice Yacht Racing Association" 6623: 6583: 6156:

Kameda, T.; Yoshimi, H.; Azuma, N.; Motoyama, H. (1999).

5457: 4167: 1617:

Sometimes, drops of water crystallize on cold objects as

369: 8555: 8071: 6745:

Rydzewski, A.J. "Mechanical Refrigeration: Ice Making."

6411:

Keitzl, Thomas; Mellado, Juan Pedro; Notz, Dirk (2016).

4608:"Calving processes and the dynamics of calving glaciers" 4570:, U.S. Geological Survey, 31 August 2009, archived from 2530:

Ice is still used to cool and preserve food in portable

332:

state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 °

7957:"Ice-free Arctic projections under the Paris Agreement" 6894: 6844: 6027: 5618: 5518: 892:, but is extremely rare otherwise. Even icy moons like 8766: 8414: 8008: 8006: 8004: 8002: 8000: 7998: 7832: 7742:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

7677:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

7053: 5226:"Rotation of melting ice disks due to melt fluid flow" 5223: 4875:"'Ice eggs' cover Finland beach in rare weather event" 4762: 4315:"Nanorheology of Interfacial Water during Ice Gliding" 2659:

was an Allied programme which investigated the use of

7835:"Impacts of permafrost degradation on infrastructure" 7781: 7779: 7716: 7714: 7458: 7155:. November 1931. p. 28 – via Google Books. 6950:

The Siege of Leningrad, 1941–1944: 900 Days of Terror

6922: 6920: 6702:

Ice Creams, Sorbets & Gelati:The Definitive Guide

5744:"Modeling Maximum Hail Size in Alberta Thunderstorms" 4819:"Ocean Wave Interactions with Sea Ice: A Reappraisal" 3972:"Astronomers Contemplate Icy Volcanoes in Far Places" 3498:

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society

3362:

Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William Charles (2001).

3256: 2742:(3.8 trillion tonnes) and finally the melting of the 2141:

Home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in

1602:. In Antarctica, the temperatures can be so low that 545:

was to use ice. Sufficiently solid surface ice makes

466:

Ice is abundant on the Earth's surface, particularly

8532:"How would sea level change if all glaciers melted?" 8175: 7192:. The Aviation History On-Line Museum. 22 July 2014. 5296:

Petrenko, Victor F. and Whitworth, Robert W. (1999)

4135:

Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

2936: 2406:

were developed. Further, reciprocating engines with

2200:

are cheaper to maintain and so are more widespread.

2097:

Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival

1005:

is an important source of seasonal fresh water. The

7995: 7792:"Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change" 7601: 6462:Woods, Andrew W. (1992). "Melting and dissolving". 5719:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 5715:National Severe Storms Laboratory (23 April 2007). 5651:Alaska Air Flight Service Station (10 April 2007). 5195:"Crop Circles in the Ice: How Do Ice Circles Form?" 5011:McGee, David; Gribkoff, Elizabeth (4 August 2022). 4727: 4207: 4044:"Coupled Orbital and Thermal Evolution of Ganymede" 4000: 3751:. University of Wisconsin Green Bay. Archived from 2652:, as the rock cracks when the water expands as ice. 1902:and water molecules, similar to the dissolution of 1570:As water drips and re-freezes, it can form hanging 1530:) are a form of precipitation consisting of small, 7890: 7888: 7886: 7776: 7711: 7002:"Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments" 6917: 5838:"Severe Thunderstorm Images of the Month Archives" 5580: 5430: 2964: – Structural damage caused by freezing water 1830:is less than 3.98 °C, and superlinearly when 567:Water (properties) § Density of water and ice 553:may be maintained. Ice also plays a major role in 7704:20.500.11820/df343a4d-6b66-4eae-ac3f-f5a35bdeef04 7620: 7462:The U.S. Navy Seal Guide to Fitness and Nutrition 7305:The International Journal of the History of Sport 6871: 6748:Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers 6567:. New York: P. F. Collier & Son Company. 6410: 6032:. American Meteorological Society. Archived from 5682:Jewell, Ryan; Brimelow, Julian (17 August 2004). 5623:. American Meteorological Society. Archived from 5523:. American Meteorological Society. Archived from 5428: 4605: 4365: 4231: 4229: 4084:Debennetti, Pablo G.; Stanley, H. Eugene (2003). 4083: 682:. In turn, they provide food for animals such as 10518: 7954: 7190:"Capt. John Alcock and Lt. Arthur Whitten Brown" 6504: 6266:. American Meteorological Society. 30 March 2024 6244:. American Meteorological Society. 30 March 2024 5782: 5659:via the Internet Wayback Machine. Archived from 4927:"How Greenland would look without its ice sheet" 4789: 4712: 4403: 3291: 3067:"Dielectric Properties of Ice and Snow–a Review" 1201:The largest ice formations on Earth are the two 848:of the difference between this triple point and 807:Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at 8615:"The sublimation temperature of carbon dioxide" 8088: 7950: 7948: 7883: 6821:"What Is Black Ice And Why Is It So Dangerous?" 6639: 6637: 5375:"Dangerous shelf ice forms along Lake Michigan" 4954: 4952: 4540:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 4448: 4446: 3916: 3459:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 3456: 2637:exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. 2633:), and not practical for long-term habitation. 2410:do not require carburetors in the first place. 2165:Ice formation on exterior of vehicle windshield 2062:building used ice harvested in the winter from 1868:much greater than 8 °C, and α = 1027:Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of 7652: 7650: 7648: 7646: 7644: 7302: 7267: 7116: 7114: 6973: 5300:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 27–29, 4899: 4713:Smedsrud, Lars H.; Skogseth, Ragnheid (2006). 4538:Englezos, Peter (1993). "Clathrate hydrates". 4399: 4397: 4226: 3969: 3855: 3824: 2970: – Irregular jagged ice formed over water 1590:and then freezing results in various forms of 1164:Ice mélange on Greenland's western coast, 2012 1112:Loose drift ice on the east coast of Greenland 510:. These processes plays a key role in Earth's 372:, it can appear transparent or a more or less 9433: 8782: 8359: 8114: 7018: 6872:Braithwaite-Smith, Gavin (14 December 2022). 5451: 5010: 4763:Qin Zhang; Roger Skjetne (13 February 2018). 3643: 3544:. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 3440:"Verwiebe's '3-D' Ice phase diagram reworked" 3368:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 161–. 3320:. Acecrc.sipex.aq. Retrieved 30 October 2011. 3204:(86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. 3099: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 2958: – Historical scarcity of commercial ice 2765:may accelerate substantially as the floating 690:, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as 8747:MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice 8342: 8169: 7945: 7812: 7810: 7808: 7120: 7088: 6663: 6634: 6208:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 5167: 4949: 4443: 4359: 4275: 4273: 3252: 3250: 3223: 3221: 3004:(97th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 2674: 575:The three-dimensional crystal structure of H 522:. The largest declines have occurred in the 8467: 8214: 8089:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 7641: 7554:"What house-builders can learn from igloos" 7551: 7523: 7486:"Unique ice pier provides harbor for ships" 7111: 6752:11th ed. McGraw Hill: New York. pp. 19–24. 6507:METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture 4394: 4035: 2796:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 1909: 1799:The melting of ice entails the breaking of 1411:is a type of winter storm characterized by 1216:Other major ice formations on land include 787:correspond to some ice phases listed below. 474:, where it can aggregate from snow to form 9440: 9426: 8789: 8775: 8355:. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting. 7826: 7415:"Why Don't Other Countries Use Ice Cubes?" 6974:Bidlack, Richard; Lomagin, Nikita (2012). 6874:"A brief history of the heated windshield" 6792: 6713: 6711: 6330: 6328: 5862: 4606:Benn, D.; Warren, C.; Mottram, R. (2007). 4282:"Explaining Ice: The Answers Are Slippery" 3227: 3018: 2738:(6.1 trillion tonnes), the melting of the 2644:Engineers can also use ice to destroy. In 1644:Grass partially covered in hoarfrost, 2008 705:So-called feather ice on the plateau near 379:Virtually all of the ice on Earth is of a 42: 8589: 8507: 8391: 8291: 8205: 8152: 8038: 7928: 7866: 7805: 7767: 7757: 7702: 7692: 7123:International Journal of Maritime History 6446: 6436: 6334: 6181: 5767: 5479: 5241: 5097: 4995: 4985: 4842: 4689: 4350: 4332: 4270: 4261: 4235: 3930: 3869: 3517: 3414: 3247: 3218: 3082: 2570: 2376:first non-stop flight across the Atlantic 2121:Layout of a late 19th-century ice factory 2099:each year from the frozen surface of the 2058:lakes. From 1930s and up until 1994, the 1359: 409:occurs when liquid water is cooled below 8408: 8108: 7465:. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. p. 117. 6699: 6554: 6383: 6054: 6021: 5646: 5644: 5642: 5614: 5612: 4537: 3652:"Exotic crystals of 'ice 19' discovered" 3649: 3357: 3355: 2858: 2826: 2802:, respectively. These two halves of the 2702: 2693: 2601: 2574: 2512:). The sport has even been modified for 2430: 2420: 2360: 2278:Channel through ice for ship traffic on 2273: 2202: 2160: 2116: 2106: 2011: 1976: 1918: 1779: 1771: 1513: 1485: 1436: 1419:of ice on surfaces, including roads and 1373: 1316: 1271: 1267: 1189: 973: 934: 816:0 °C (32 °F). Ice, water, and 798: 790: 771: 716: 700: 652: 570: 7659:"Review article: Earth's ice imbalance" 6818: 6708: 6677:. AFP. 13 November 2008. Archived from 6643: 6550: 6548: 6546: 6325: 5372: 4919: 4525:Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute 4077: 4041: 3388: 3156: 3043: 2579:Ice pier during 1983 cargo operations. 2131:Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba 1039:if attached to the seafloor. Ice which 10519: 8752:Estimating the bearing capacity of ice 8612: 8322: 7839:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 7629:from the original on 24 September 2013 7503:"Ocean Disposal of Man-Made Ice Piers" 7412: 7329: 7202: 6943: 6671:"Ice is money in China's coldest city" 6577: 6145:from the original on 12 February 2013. 6083:"Dealing with and preventing ice dams" 5836:Bath, Michael; Degaura, Jimmy (1997). 5545: 5337: 5039:Communications Earth & Environment 4816: 4312: 3837:from the original on 14 September 2009 3491: 3328: 3326: 3150: 2999: 2800:Southern Ocean overturning circulation 2242:The most famous ice road had been the 1776:Different stages of ice melt in a pond 1456:water droplets freeze on contact with 930: 560: 16:Frozen water: the solid state of water 9447: 9421: 8770: 7820:The Global Tipping Points Report 2023 7602:Sir Charles Goodeve (19 April 1951). 7165: 7149:"Overshoes For Planes End Ice Danger" 6461: 6390:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 27. 6365:. Ontario state government. June 2010 6264:"soft rime (Glossary of Meteorology)" 6242:"hard rime (Glossary of Meteorology)" 6115:from the original on 10 December 2007 6028:Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). 5976:from the original on 30 November 2007 5950:from the original on 18 February 2007 5924:from the original on 27 November 2007 5639: 5609: 5562:from the original on 10 November 2016 5422: 5316:Eranti, E. and Lee, George C. (1986) 4647: 4294:from the original on 11 December 2008 4279: 3437: 3391:"Hardness of Ice at Low Temperatures" 3352: 3202:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 3064: 3002:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 2995: 2993: 2991: 2757:), these losses are a major cause of 2722:. About 90% of that heat is added to 2524: 2269: 1586:depositing onto surfaces due to high 599:of water, which consists of a single 281:= absolute value of temperature in °C 9391: 8762:The Surprisingly Cool History of Ice 8726:A Cold Spell: A Human History of Ice 7524:O'Brien, Harriet (19 January 2007). 7507:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 6700:Weir, Caroline; Weir, Robin (2010). 6578:Hutton, Mercedes (23 January 2020). 6543: 4937:from the original on 7 December 2023 4766:Sea Ice Image Processing with MATLAB 4648:Robel, Alexander A. (1 March 2017). 4213: 3825:Sanders, Laura (11 September 2009). 3199: 2809:tipping points in the climate system 2714:from human activities unbalance the 1299:vessel to keep navigation possible. 969: 239:Linear thermal expansion coefficient 8757:High-temperature, high-pressure ice 7384:"Racing Fast 'n' Cheap: Ice Racing" 6819:Donegan, Brian (15 December 2016). 6793:Wroclawski, Daniel (21 July 2015). 6617: 6580:"The icy side to Hong Kong history" 5865:"Meso-Analyst Severe Weather Guide" 5723:from the original on 10 August 2009 4900:geographyrealm (14 November 2019). 4844:10.1146/annurev-fluid-010719-060301 4792:Cold Regions Science and Technology 4491: 4368:Cold Regions Science and Technology 4280:Chang, Kenneth (21 February 2006). 4173:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 3323: 2231:and 15 in (38 cm) for an 1788:Ablation of ice refers to both its 1348: 728:When ice melts, it absorbs as much 13: 8704: 8619:British Journal of Applied Physics 7566:from the original on 11 March 2009 7509:. 10 February 2023. Archived from 7381: 7359:. 27 December 2017. Archived from 7330:Levine, David (19 November 2013). 6555:Reynolds, Francis J., ed. (1921). 5970:"What causes ice pellets (sleet)?" 5783:Marshall, Jacque (10 April 2000). 5373:Schwarz, Phil (19 February 2018). 5318:Cold region structural engineering 5201:. 22 December 2015. Archived from 4459:The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment 4455:"Water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya" 4411:The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment 4010:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest 3970:Chang, Kenneth (9 December 2004). 3300:from the original on 26 July 2011. 3228:Richardson, Eliza (20 June 2021). 2988: 904:on Earth and is usually formed by 803:Pressure dependence of ice melting 627:water molecules begin to form the 48:An ice block, photographed at the 14: 10573: 8735: 8653:from the original on 29 June 2021 8323:Voosen, Paul (18 December 2018). 7623:"Terje Isungset Iceman Is Review" 7552:Cruickshank, Dan (2 April 2008). 7097:. Stroud, UK: The History Press. 6897:Design and Operation of Ice Roads 6533:"Yakhchal: Ancient Refrigerators" 5844:from the original on 13 July 2011 5548:"Does cloud seeding really work?" 4520:World Meteorological Organization 4388:10.1016/j.coldregions.2014.03.002 3746: 3548:from the original on 16 July 2012 1841: − 3.98 °C), with 1007:World Meteorological Organization 10501: 10500: 9401: 9390: 9380: 9379: 8665: 8606: 8549: 8524: 8316: 8250: 7735: 7670: 7621:Talkington, Fiona (3 May 2005). 7614: 7595: 7578: 7545: 7517: 7495: 7479: 7452: 7432: 7406: 7375: 7349: 7323: 7296: 7270:Aerospace Science and Technology 7261: 7223: 7196: 7182: 7159: 7141: 7082: 7047: 7012: 6994: 6967: 6937: 6888: 6865: 6838: 6812: 6786: 6763: 6739: 6693: 6611: 6597: 6571: 6525: 6498: 6455: 6404: 6377: 6355: 5619:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 5519:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 5320:. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 51, 5168:Staff writer (7 February 2006). 4823:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 3389:Walters, S. Max (January 1946). 3259:Energy Conversion and Management 2939: 2718:and so cause an accumulation of 2323:(Russia, formerly Finland), and 1745: 1733: 1721: 1701: 1685: 1669: 1649: 1637: 1197:image of the Antarctic ice sheet 1169: 1157: 1141: 1129: 1117: 1105: 1090: 1016: 530:) is the primary contributor to 434:. When water is cooled rapidly ( 8536:United States Geological Survey 7822:(Report). University of Exeter. 7413:Bramen, Lisa (12 August 2011). 7230:"Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems". 7091:Report into the Loss of the SS 6644:Prewitt, Laura (23 July 2023). 6278: 6256: 6234: 6198: 6149: 6127: 6101: 6075: 6048: 5988: 5962: 5936: 5910: 5883: 5856: 5829: 5811:"Hail storms rock southern Qld" 5803: 5776: 5735: 5708: 5696:from the original on 7 May 2009 5675: 5657:Federal Aviation Administration 5574: 5539: 5512: 5408:American Meteorological Society 5392: 5366: 5331: 5310: 5290: 5217: 5187: 5170:"Ice Dams: Taming An Icy River" 5161: 5139: 5122: 5073: 5030: 5004: 4893: 4867: 4810: 4783: 4756: 4721: 4706: 4641: 4635:10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.02.002 4599: 4585: 4558: 4531: 4313:Canale, L. 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Depending on the presence of 7290:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.111501 7041:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.111501 6904:University of Alaska Fairbanks 6618:Kay, Nathan (3 January 2019). 6001:U.S. Department of Agriculture 5863:Wolf, Pete (16 January 2003). 4086:"Supercooled and Glassy Water" 3888:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.195701 3650:Metcalfe, Tom (9 March 2021). 3193: 3115: 3058: 3048:, Academy of Sciences (USSR), 2822: 2547:Ice can be used as part of an 2438:by 17th century Dutch painter 2156: 1565: 1518:An accumulation of ice pellets 1393:cloud droplets (about 10 1176:Anchor ice on the seafloor at 721:Frozen waterfall in southeast 686:and specialized fish like the 1: 7317:10.1080/09523367.2020.1866474 7076:10.1080/20464177.2016.1216734 6795:"How Does an Ice Maker Work?" 6728:Inch-Pound Edition. p. 34-1. 6349:10.1016/j.scienta.2023.112775 5896:. Routledge. pp. 41–43. 5552:Chemical and Engineering News 5546:Pelley, Janet (30 May 2016). 5149:. Nws.noaa.gov. 13 March 2013 3444:Chemistry Education Materials 3438:David, Carl (8 August 2016). 3279:10.1016/S0196-8904(01)00129-7 2981: 2689: 2519: 2404:carburetor air intake heaters 2346: 2089:ice and snow sculpture events 2030:Lloyd Hesketh Bamford Hesketh 2028:Between 1812 and 1822, under 1962: 1426: 1389:Snow crystals form when tiny 1136:Ice floes in Antarctica, 1919 583:(c) is composed of bases of H 461:macroscopic quantum phenomena 432:standard atmospheric pressure 401:) can exist. The most common 9466:Pollution / quality 8714:(G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2023). 8224:Geophysical Research Letters 7006:Unesco World Heritage Centre 5360:10.1016/0012-8252(79)90082-5 4804:10.1016/0165-232X(92)90036-T 4214:Zyga, Lisa (25 April 2013). 4001:Prockter, Louise M. (2005). 3179:10.1126/science.115.2989.385 2886: 2771:marine ice sheet instability 2736:retreat of mountain glaciers 2685:Climate change in Antarctica 2681:Climate change in the Arctic 2562:Ice can be used (like other 2145:, which will typically make 1884:for in between temperatures 1321:Candle ice in Lake Otelnuk, 7: 7526:"Ice Hotels: Cold comforts" 6953:. Staplehurst: Spellmount. 6384:Paterson, W. S. B. (1994). 4467:10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_8 4419:10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_7 4155:10.1016/j.jastp.2008.06.001 3671:Journal of Chemical Physics 3334:"Ice – a special substance" 2932: 2734:(6.5 trillion tonnes), the 2390:aircraft they were flying. 2235:lighter than 5 tonnes. For 2095:is used to get ice for the 2087:Ice is still harvested for 1784:The melting of floating ice 1761: 1312: 10: 10578: 8742:Webmineral listing for Ice 8730:online review of this book 8639:10.1088/0508-3443/17/3/312 8613:Barber, C R (March 1966). 8582:10.1038/s41598-022-15440-y 8500:10.1038/s41586-023-06503-9 8393:10.1038/s41558-023-01818-x 8198:10.1038/s41561-021-00841-x 8145:10.1038/s41467-018-07954-9 7921:10.1038/s41467-020-18934-3 7859:10.1038/s43017-021-00247-8 7166:Leary, William M. (2002). 7095:: A Centennial Reappraisal 6859:10.1016/j.matt.2022.04.012 6771:"Ice manufacturing: 2002." 6564:Collier's New Encyclopedia 6519:10.4305/METU.JFA.2012.2.10 6291:American Journal of Botany 5429:Mason, Basil John (1971). 5260:10.1103/PhysRevE.93.033112 5132:An Introduction to Geology 5086:Limnology and Oceanography 5059:10.1038/s43247-022-00367-z 4817:Squire, Vernon A. (2020). 4498:"WMO SEA-ICE NOMENCLATURE" 4236:Rosenberg, Robert (2005). 3949:10.1103/PhysRevB.84.220104 2890: 2678: 2424: 2350: 2110: 2003:Charleston, South Carolina 1966: 1914: 1765: 1544:a mixture of rain and snow 1490:Soft hail, or graupel, in 1430: 1363: 1352: 1185: 1020: 765: 564: 490:, ice is a common form of 20: 10496: 10437: 10302: 10295: 10176: 10037:Types / location 10036: 10027: 9837: 9632: 9545: 9515: 9464: 9455: 9374: 9341: 9305: 9259: 9203: 9186:Short-track speed skating 9131: 9083: 9074: 8933: 8847: 8821: 8804: 8095:climatetippingpoints.info 7981:10.1038/s41558-018-0124-y 7759:10.5194/essd-15-1675-2023 7728:Earth System Science Data 7135:10.1177/08438714211062493 6980:. Yale University Press. 6675:The Sydney Morning Herald 6650:Science History Institute 6484:10.1017/S0022112092004476 6183:10.1017/S0022143000001891 4528:. Retrieved 8 April 2012. 4352:10.1103/PhysRevX.9.041025 4003:"Ice in the Solar System" 3827:"A Very Special Snowball" 3416:10.1017/S003224740004239X 3365:Color and light in nature 3296:. haydenplanetarium.org. 3200:Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). 3084:10.3189/S0022143000018840 2675:Impacts of climate change 2500:. This sport is known as 2369:inflates to shake it off 852:, though this definition 761: 674:such as bacteria, algae, 344:. It occurs naturally on 310: 290: 285: 260: 237: 212: 207: 184: 180:24 to 60 kg-force/cm 164: 144: 123: 118: 104: 99: 82: 65: 60: 41: 36: 5972:. Weatherquestions.com. 5944:"Sleet (glossary entry)" 5893:Climate, change and risk 4593:WMO Sea-ice Nomenclature 4567:Gas Hydrate: What is it? 4016:(2): 175. Archived from 2874:East Antarctic ice sheet 2804:thermohaline circulation 2763:West Antarctic ice sheet 2712:Greenhouse gas emissions 1910:Role in human activities 1604:electrostatic attraction 1536:National Weather Service 1035:fixed to a shoreline or 978:Frozen landscape in the 591:Ice possesses a regular 160:5 to 18 kg-force/cm 8796: 8445:10.1126/science.ade0664 8284:10.1126/science.abo1324 8031:10.1126/science.abn7950 6438:10.1175/JPO-D-15-0126.1 6087:University of Minnesota 5918:"Hail (glossary entry)" 5748:Weather and Forecasting 5603:10.1175/WAF-D-15-0118.1 5490:10.1126/science.1149757 5404:Glossary of Meteorology 3858:Physical Review Letters 3796:10.1126/science.1123896 3230:"Ice, Water, and Vapor" 2974:Pumpable ice technology 2923:geometrical frustration 2893:Volatile (astrogeology) 2750:(0.9 trillion tonnes). 2549:air conditioning system 1252:in permafrost areas is 1209:, and the continent of 1031:floating in the water, 964:atomic force microscopy 960:coefficient of friction 595:structure based on the 348:, on other planets, in 23:Volatile (astrogeology) 7694:10.5194/tc-15-233-2021 6069:10.1098/rsta.2000.0690 4238:"Why Is Ice Slippery?" 4071:10.1006/icar.1997.5778 3492:Murphy, D. M. (2005). 3292:Tyson, Neil deGrasse. 3234:LibreTexts Geosciences 2868: 2833: 2728:Arctic sea ice decline 2708: 2700: 2621: 2584: 2571:As structural material 2442: 2370: 2287: 2220: 2166: 2122: 2066:for air conditioning. 2025: 1990: 1924: 1785: 1777: 1728:Fern frost on a window 1662:North Rhine-Westphalia 1656:Frost on a thistle in 1519: 1494: 1442: 1386: 1360:Snow and freezing rain 1325: 1280: 1198: 987: 943: 804: 796: 788: 725: 714: 658: 588: 262:Specific heat capacity 25:. For other uses, see 10547:Transparent materials 8721:(Pegasus Books, 2022) 8372:Nature Climate Change 8125:Nature Communications 7961:Nature Climate Change 7901:Nature Communications 7604:"The Ice Ship Fiasco" 6720:. "Ice Manufacture". 6337:Scientia Horticulture 6162:Journal of Glaciology 5717:"Aggregate hailstone" 5340:Earth-Science Reviews 4987:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013 4654:Nature Communications 4615:Earth-Science Reviews 4514:14 April 2012 at the 3338:European Space Agency 3316:21 March 2012 at the 3071:Journal of Glaciology 2862: 2830: 2794:, which disrupts the 2755:Archimedes' principle 2716:Earth's energy budget 2706: 2697: 2655:During World War II, 2605: 2578: 2434: 2421:Recreation and sports 2364: 2351:Further information: 2277: 2211: 2164: 2120: 2107:Artificial production 2015: 1980: 1922: 1783: 1775: 1756:, Antarctica, in 2008 1629:irrigation sprinklers 1610:-like balls known as 1517: 1497:Hail forms in strong 1489: 1440: 1431:Further information: 1377: 1320: 1275: 1268:On rivers and streams 1232:. In particular, the 1193: 1043:(breaks off) from an 980:Northwest Territories 977: 938: 886:amorphous solid water 802: 794: 779:pressure-temperature 775: 720: 704: 656: 574: 565:Further information: 494:, and it may also be 384:crystalline structure 376:bluish-white color. 364:such as particles of 286:Electrical properties 119:Mechanical properties 10412:remnant natural area 10049:storage and recovery 9715:habitat conservation 9533:Deforestation (REDD) 8236:10.1029/2022GL101827 8230:(6): e2022GL101827. 6781:2002 Economic Census 6776:22 July 2017 at the 6769:U.S. Census Bureau. 6646:"A Chilling History" 6228:10.1029/2011JD017042 6109:"What causes frost?" 4933:. 14 December 2017. 4902:"How Ice Balls Form" 4750:10.1029/2017JC013692 4461:. pp. 257–299. 4413:. pp. 209–255. 4042:Showman, A. (1997). 3044:Voitkovskii, K. F., 2909:, the solid form of 2551:, using battery- or 2491:Winter Olympic Games 2384:Arthur Whitten Brown 2374:In 1919, during the 2060:Hungarian Parliament 1740:Hoar frost atop snow 620:atmospheric pressure 468:in the polar regions 214:Thermal conductivity 166:Compressive strength 27:Ice (disambiguation) 10366:Earth Overshoot Day 9940:Marine conservation 9921:non-timber products 9282:Iceman (occupation) 8728:(Bloomsbury, 2023) 8686:1999Natur.399..333R 8631:1966BJAP...17..391B 8574:2022NatSR..1211399P 8492:2023Natur.622..528B 8437:2023Sci...382.1384L 8431:(6677): 1384–1389. 8384:2023NatCC..13.1222N 8276:2023Sci...379...78R 8190:2021NatGe..14..832R 8137:2019NatCo..10..121D 7973:2018NatCC...8..404S 7913:2020NatCo..11.5177W 7851:2022NRvEE...3...24H 7769:20.500.11850/619535 7750:2023ESSD...15.1675V 7685:2021TCry...15..233S 7363:on 27 December 2017 7282:2022OcEng.25811501M 7205:Journal of Aircraft 7068:2016JMEnT..15...79R 7033:2022OcEng.25811501M 6825:The Weather Channel 6607:. 11 November 2020. 6539:. 9 September 2009. 6476:1992JFM...239..429W 6429:2016JPO....46.1171K 6387:Physics of Glaciers 6220:2012JGRD..11712106P 6174:1999JGlac..45..394K 6139:weatheronline.co.uk 6063:(1776): 2913–2939. 5760:2002WtFor..17.1048B 5595:2016WtFor..31.1041S 5583:Weather Forecasting 5472:2008Sci...319.1214C 5437:. Clarendon Press. 5352:1979ESRv...15..185D 5252:2016PhRvE..93c3112D 5051:2022ComEE...3...31L 4978:2013TCry....7..375F 4835:2020AnRFM..52...37S 4769:. CRC. p. 43. 4742:2018JGRC..123.4322R 4674:10.1038/ncomms14596 4666:2017NatCo...814596R 4627:2007ESRv...82..143B 4552:10.1021/ie00019a001 4503:5 June 2013 at the 4380:2014CRST..102...84M 4343:2019PhRvX...9d1025C 4254:2005PhT....58l..50R 4185:2001PCCP....3.5355L 4147:2009JASTP..71..453L 4105:2003PhT....56f..40D 4063:1997Icar..129..367S 3941:2011PhRvB..84v0104M 3880:2010PhRvL.105s5701M 3788:2006Sci...311.1758S 3782:(5768): 1758–1761. 3718:1999Natur.398..681K 3683:1973JChPh..58..567L 3621:10.1038/nature04415 3613:2006Natur.439..183I 3510:2005QJRMS.131.1539M 3471:1994JPCRD..23..515W 3407:1946PoRec...4..344. 3271:2002ECM....43.1773A 3171:1952Sci...115..385B 3136:1933JChPh...1..515B 2843:ice-albedo feedback 2836:In the future, the 2832:multiple millennia. 2744:Antarctic ice sheet 2740:Greenland ice sheet 2477:and sled racing on 2264:World Heritage Site 1985:unloading ice from 1696:after freezing rain 1458:condensation nuclei 1415:, which produces a 931:Friction properties 925:face-centered cubic 921:body-centered cubic 898:interstellar medium 820:can coexist at the 561:Physical properties 292:Dielectric constant 233:= temperature in °C 100:Chemical properties 61:Physical properties 10351:Ecosystem services 9474:Ambient standards 8834:Crystalline phases 8562:Scientific Reports 8025:(6611): eabn7950. 7246:on 6 December 2022 6537:Earth Architecture 5996:"Rime and Graupel" 5791:on 15 October 2009 5410:. 20 February 2012 5017:MIT Climate Portal 4287:The New York Times 3976:The New York Times 3755:on 16 October 2016 3580:on 21 January 2018 3504:(608): 1539–1565. 3065:Evans, S. (1965). 2869: 2834: 2724:ocean heat content 2709: 2701: 2622: 2585: 2525:As thermal ballast 2443: 2371: 2288: 2270:Water-borne travel 2256:Siege of Leningrad 2221: 2167: 2123: 2026: 2016:Harvesting ice on 1991: 1925: 1786: 1778: 1754:South Pole Station 1542:"sleet" refers to 1520: 1495: 1443: 1387: 1326: 1281: 1199: 1097:Grease ice in the 1011:Clathrate hydrates 988: 944: 902:noctilucent clouds 805: 797: 789: 726: 715: 672:sympagic organisms 659: 589: 399:packing geometries 273:0.5057 − 0.001863 225:0.0053(1 + 0.0015 208:Thermal properties 78:0.9167–0.9168 g/cm 10514: 10513: 10492: 10491: 10291: 10290: 9970:genetic resources 9906:genetic resources 9541: 9540: 9449:Natural resources 9415: 9414: 9396:Wikimedia Commons 9199: 9198: 8486:(7983): 528–536. 8378:(11): 1222–1228. 8178:Nature Geoscience 7788:Hewitt, Helene T. 7472:978-1-60239-030-0 7311:(13): 1215–1235. 7104:978-0-7524-6210-3 7056:Ocean Engineering 7021:Ocean Engineering 6987:978-0-300-11029-6 6758:978-0-07-142867-5 6681:on 2 October 2009 6630:on 17 March 2019. 6417:J. Phys. Oceanogr 6397:978-0-7506-4742-7 5903:978-0-415-17031-4 5785:"Hail Fact Sheet" 5444:978-0-19-851603-3 5433:Physics of Clouds 5174:Popular Mechanics 5099:10.1002/lno.11626 4881:. 7 November 2019 4776:978-1-351-06918-2 4476:978-3-319-92287-4 4428:978-3-319-92287-4 4320:Physical Review X 4263:10.1063/1.2169444 4179:(24): 5355–5357. 4113:10.1063/1.1595053 3919:Physical Review B 3712:(6729): 681–684. 3691:10.1063/1.1679238 3607:(7073): 183–186. 3375:978-0-521-77504-5 3265:(14): 1773–1789. 3165:(2989): 385–390. 3144:10.1063/1.1749327 3011:978-1-4987-5429-3 2921:arising from the 2881:isostatic rebound 2865:parts per million 2510:dirt track racing 2440:Hendrick Avercamp 2209: 2091:. For example, a 1592:atmospheric icing 1588:relative humidity 1150:MOSAiC expedition 970:Natural formation 459:) giving rise to 315: 314: 50:Duluth Canal Park 10569: 10504: 10503: 10455: 10402:Natural heritage 10361:overexploitation 10300: 10299: 10034: 10033: 9980:herbal medicines 9960:FAO Plant Treaty 9500: 9477: 9462: 9461: 9442: 9435: 9428: 9419: 9418: 9405: 9394: 9393: 9383: 9382: 9081: 9080: 8791: 8784: 8777: 8768: 8767: 8698: 8697: 8669: 8663: 8662: 8660: 8658: 8610: 8604: 8603: 8593: 8553: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8542: 8528: 8522: 8521: 8511: 8471: 8465: 8464: 8422: 8412: 8406: 8405: 8395: 8363: 8357: 8356: 8346: 8340: 8339: 8337: 8335: 8320: 8314: 8313: 8295: 8254: 8248: 8247: 8218: 8212: 8211: 8209: 8173: 8167: 8166: 8156: 8112: 8106: 8105: 8103: 8101: 8086: 8069: 8068: 8042: 8010: 7993: 7992: 7952: 7943: 7942: 7932: 7892: 7881: 7880: 7870: 7830: 7824: 7823: 7814: 7803: 7802: 7796: 7786:Fox-Kemper, B.; 7783: 7774: 7773: 7771: 7761: 7739: 7718: 7709: 7708: 7706: 7696: 7674: 7654: 7639: 7638: 7636: 7634: 7618: 7612: 7611: 7608:Evening Standard 7599: 7593: 7582: 7576: 7575: 7573: 7571: 7549: 7543: 7542: 7540: 7538: 7521: 7515: 7514: 7499: 7493: 7483: 7477: 7476: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7436: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7425: 7410: 7404: 7403: 7401: 7399: 7390:. Archived from 7379: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7353: 7347: 7346: 7344: 7342: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7300: 7294: 7293: 7265: 7259: 7258: 7253: 7251: 7245: 7238: 7227: 7221: 7220: 7200: 7194: 7193: 7186: 7180: 7179: 7163: 7157: 7156: 7145: 7139: 7138: 7118: 7109: 7108: 7086: 7080: 7079: 7051: 7045: 7044: 7016: 7010: 7009: 6998: 6992: 6991: 6971: 6965: 6964: 6945:Glantz, David M. 6941: 6935: 6924: 6915: 6914: 6912: 6910: 6901: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6869: 6863: 6862: 6853:(5): 1423–1454. 6842: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6831: 6816: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6790: 6784: 6767: 6761: 6743: 6737: 6726:: Refrigeration. 6715: 6706: 6705: 6697: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6667: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6656: 6641: 6632: 6631: 6626:. Archived from 6615: 6609: 6608: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6560: 6552: 6541: 6540: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6440: 6423:(4): 1171–1187. 6408: 6402: 6401: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6359: 6353: 6352: 6332: 6323: 6322: 6282: 6276: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6260: 6254: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6238: 6232: 6231: 6202: 6196: 6195: 6185: 6168:(150): 394–396. 6153: 6147: 6146: 6131: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6120: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6096: 6094: 6079: 6073: 6072: 6052: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6041: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6014: 6005:. Archived from 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5955: 5940: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5929: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5871:on 20 March 2003 5860: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5807: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5754:(5): 1048–1062. 5739: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5695: 5688: 5679: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5648: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5616: 5607: 5606: 5589:(4): 1041–1060. 5578: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5527:on 15 March 2012 5516: 5510: 5509: 5483: 5455: 5449: 5448: 5436: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5396: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5335: 5329: 5314: 5308: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5245: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5205:on 8 August 2017 5191: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5180: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5143: 5137: 5136: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5101: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4989: 4956: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4912: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4846: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4760: 4754: 4753: 4736:(6): 4322–4337. 4725: 4719: 4718: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4693: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4621:(3–4): 143–179. 4612: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4546:(7): 1251–1274. 4535: 4529: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4450: 4441: 4440: 4401: 4392: 4391: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4336: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4277: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4233: 4224: 4223: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4193:10.1039/b108676f 4169:Loerting, Thomas 4165: 4159: 4158: 4141:(3–4): 453–463. 4130: 4124: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4090: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4048: 4039: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4023:on 19 March 2015 4022: 4007: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3934: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3873: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3747:Dutch, Stephen. 3744: 3738: 3737: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3579: 3572: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3521: 3519:10.1256/qj.04.94 3489: 3483: 3482: 3479:10.1063/1.555947 3454: 3448: 3447: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3418: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3359: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3330: 3321: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3254: 3245: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3225: 3216: 3215: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3119: 3113: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3086: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3041: 3016: 3015: 2997: 2949: 2944: 2943: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2778: 2657:Project Habbakuk 2357:Carburetor icing 2353:Icing conditions 2260:Army Group North 2210: 2194:Ford Thunderbird 2032:'s instruction, 1955:and a system of 1883: 1881: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1860: 1858: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1812:melts solely by 1749: 1737: 1725: 1705: 1689: 1680:covered in frost 1673: 1653: 1641: 1349:As precipitation 1173: 1161: 1145: 1133: 1121: 1109: 1094: 952:pressure melting 919:would take on a 847: 845: 844: 841: 838: 692:emperor penguins 458: 451: 444: 429: 422: 415: 403:phase transition 354:interstellar ice 352:objects, and as 303: 270: 256: 254: 247: 229:) cal/(cm s K), 222: 203: 201: 194: 177: 157: 146:Tensile strength 133: 114: 105:Chemical formula 92: 84:Refractive index 75: 46: 34: 33: 10577: 10576: 10572: 10571: 10570: 10568: 10567: 10566: 10517: 10516: 10515: 10510: 10488: 10453: 10433: 10419:Systems ecology 10385:Natural capital 10287: 10172: 10161:reclaimed water 10023: 9985:UPOV Convention 9833: 9628: 9537: 9511: 9507:Ozone depletion 9498: 9475: 9451: 9446: 9416: 9411: 9370: 9337: 9301: 9255: 9195: 9127: 9076: 9070: 8941:Albedo feedback 8929: 8843: 8829:Amorphous solid 8817: 8800: 8795: 8738: 8707: 8705:Further reading 8702: 8701: 8670: 8666: 8656: 8654: 8611: 8607: 8554: 8550: 8540: 8538: 8530: 8529: 8525: 8472: 8468: 8420: 8413: 8409: 8364: 8360: 8347: 8343: 8333: 8331: 8321: 8317: 8270:(6627): 78–83. 8255: 8251: 8219: 8215: 8184:(11): 832–836. 8174: 8170: 8120: 8113: 8109: 8099: 8097: 8087: 8072: 8011: 7996: 7953: 7946: 7893: 7884: 7831: 7827: 7815: 7806: 7794: 7784: 7777: 7734:(4): 1675-1709 7719: 7712: 7655: 7642: 7632: 7630: 7619: 7615: 7600: 7596: 7583: 7579: 7569: 7567: 7550: 7546: 7536: 7534: 7531:The Independent 7522: 7518: 7513:on 1 July 2023. 7501: 7500: 7496: 7484: 7480: 7473: 7457: 7453: 7438: 7437: 7433: 7423: 7421: 7411: 7407: 7397: 7395: 7382:Markus, Frank. 7380: 7376: 7366: 7364: 7355: 7354: 7350: 7340: 7338: 7328: 7324: 7301: 7297: 7266: 7262: 7249: 7247: 7243: 7236: 7229: 7228: 7224: 7217:10.2514/3.57458 7201: 7197: 7188: 7187: 7183: 7164: 7160: 7153:Popular Science 7147: 7146: 7142: 7119: 7112: 7105: 7087: 7083: 7052: 7048: 7017: 7013: 7000: 6999: 6995: 6988: 6972: 6968: 6961: 6942: 6938: 6925: 6918: 6908: 6906: 6899: 6893: 6889: 6879: 6877: 6870: 6866: 6843: 6839: 6829: 6827: 6817: 6813: 6803: 6801: 6791: 6787: 6778:Wayback Machine 6768: 6764: 6744: 6740: 6724:ASHRAE Handbook 6716: 6709: 6698: 6694: 6684: 6682: 6669: 6668: 6664: 6654: 6652: 6642: 6635: 6616: 6612: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6588: 6586: 6576: 6572: 6553: 6544: 6531: 6530: 6526: 6503: 6499: 6460: 6456: 6409: 6405: 6398: 6382: 6378: 6368: 6366: 6361: 6360: 6356: 6333: 6326: 6303:10.2307/2657062 6283: 6279: 6269: 6267: 6262: 6261: 6257: 6247: 6245: 6240: 6239: 6235: 6203: 6199: 6154: 6150: 6133: 6132: 6128: 6118: 6116: 6107: 6106: 6102: 6092: 6090: 6081: 6080: 6076: 6053: 6049: 6039: 6037: 6036:on 3 April 2009 6026: 6022: 6012: 6010: 6009:on 11 July 2017 5994: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5977: 5968: 5967: 5963: 5953: 5951: 5942: 5941: 5937: 5927: 5925: 5916: 5915: 5911: 5904: 5888: 5884: 5874: 5872: 5861: 5857: 5847: 5845: 5834: 5830: 5820: 5818: 5817:on 6 March 2010 5809: 5808: 5804: 5794: 5792: 5781: 5777: 5740: 5736: 5726: 5724: 5713: 5709: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5686: 5680: 5676: 5666: 5664: 5649: 5640: 5630: 5628: 5627:on 25 July 2010 5617: 5610: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5563: 5544: 5540: 5530: 5528: 5521:"Cloud seeding" 5517: 5513: 5481:10.1.1.714.4002 5456: 5452: 5445: 5427: 5423: 5413: 5411: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5383: 5381: 5379:abc7chicago.com 5371: 5367: 5336: 5332: 5315: 5311: 5295: 5291: 5222: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5178: 5176: 5166: 5162: 5152: 5150: 5145: 5144: 5140: 5127: 5123: 5078: 5074: 5035: 5031: 5021: 5019: 5009: 5005: 4957: 4950: 4940: 4938: 4925: 4924: 4920: 4910: 4908: 4906:Geography Realm 4898: 4894: 4884: 4882: 4873: 4872: 4868: 4815: 4811: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4761: 4757: 4726: 4722: 4711: 4707: 4646: 4642: 4610: 4604: 4600: 4591: 4590: 4586: 4577: 4575: 4574:on 14 June 2012 4564: 4563: 4559: 4536: 4532: 4516:Wayback Machine 4505:Wayback Machine 4496: 4492: 4477: 4451: 4444: 4429: 4402: 4395: 4364: 4360: 4311: 4307: 4297: 4295: 4278: 4271: 4234: 4227: 4212: 4208: 4166: 4162: 4131: 4127: 4117: 4115: 4088: 4082: 4078: 4046: 4040: 4036: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4005: 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3968: 3964: 3915: 3911: 3854: 3850: 3840: 3838: 3823: 3819: 3772: 3768: 3758: 3756: 3749:"Ice Structure" 3745: 3741: 3702: 3698: 3667: 3663: 3648: 3644: 3597: 3593: 3583: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3549: 3542:"SI base units" 3540: 3539: 3535: 3490: 3486: 3455: 3451: 3436: 3432: 3401:(31): 344–345. 3387: 3383: 3376: 3360: 3353: 3343: 3341: 3340:. 16 April 2013 3332: 3331: 3324: 3318:Wayback Machine 3311:Sea Ice Ecology 3309: 3305: 3290: 3286: 3255: 3248: 3238: 3236: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3198: 3194: 3155: 3151: 3120: 3116: 3104: 3100: 3077:(42): 773–792. 3063: 3059: 3042: 3019: 3012: 2998: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2945: 2938: 2935: 2895: 2889: 2825: 2817: 2798:(AMOC) and the 2783: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2692: 2687: 2677: 2625:Structures and 2581:McMurdo Station 2573: 2527: 2522: 2429: 2423: 2382:and Lieutenant 2359: 2349: 2272: 2254:to relieve the 2203: 2169:Ice forming on 2159: 2127:Ibn Abu Usaybia 2115: 2109: 1975: 1967:Main articles: 1965: 1917: 1912: 1890: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1840: 1836: 1829: 1822: 1814:free convection 1770: 1764: 1757: 1750: 1741: 1738: 1729: 1726: 1717: 1706: 1697: 1690: 1681: 1674: 1665: 1654: 1645: 1642: 1624:advection frost 1568: 1558:", (METAR code 1540:British English 1448:forms in storm 1435: 1429: 1372: 1364:Main articles: 1362: 1357: 1351: 1315: 1293:proglacial lake 1276:A small frozen 1270: 1188: 1181: 1174: 1165: 1162: 1153: 1152:on July 4, 2020 1146: 1137: 1134: 1125: 1122: 1113: 1110: 1101: 1095: 1075:pressure ridges 1025: 1019: 972: 940:Takahiko Kozuka 933: 911: 876: 842: 839: 836: 835: 833: 832:was defined as 770: 764: 586: 582: 578: 569: 563: 453: 446: 439: 424: 417: 410: 408: 391: 301: 294: 264: 252: 250: 241: 216: 199: 197: 188: 186:Poisson's ratio 175: 168: 155: 148: 136:3400 to 37,500 127: 125:Young's modulus 112: 108: 86: 69: 56: 30: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10575: 10565: 10564: 10559: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10512: 10511: 10509: 10508: 10497: 10494: 10493: 10490: 10489: 10487: 10486: 10477: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10454:(perpetuation) 10449: 10443: 10441: 10435: 10434: 10432: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10416: 10415: 10414: 10407:Nature reserve 10404: 10399: 10398: 10397: 10392: 10382: 10381: 10380: 10370: 10369: 10368: 10363: 10353: 10348: 10347: 10346: 10341: 10331: 10330: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10314: 10303: 10297: 10293: 10292: 10289: 10288: 10286: 10285: 10284: 10283: 10278: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10218: 10213: 10212: 10211: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10180: 10178: 10174: 10173: 10171: 10170: 10165: 10164: 10163: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10142: 10141: 10131: 10126: 10125: 10124: 10112: 10111: 10110: 10105: 10100: 10090: 10085: 10084: 10083: 10078: 10073: 10063: 10058: 10053: 10052: 10051: 10040: 10038: 10031: 10025: 10024: 10022: 10021: 10020: 10019: 10014: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9993: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9936: 9935: 9925: 9924: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9898: 9897: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9884:climate change 9876: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9852:Bioprospecting 9849: 9843: 9841: 9835: 9834: 9832: 9831: 9830: 9829: 9824: 9814: 9813: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9787: 9786: 9785: 9780: 9779: 9778: 9773: 9763: 9762: 9761: 9756: 9746: 9745: 9744: 9734: 9729: 9719: 9718: 9717: 9707: 9706: 9705: 9695: 9694: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9668: 9663: 9658: 9657: 9656: 9655: 9654: 9638: 9636: 9630: 9629: 9627: 9626: 9621: 9620: 9619: 9614: 9604: 9599: 9594: 9589: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9551: 9549: 9543: 9542: 9539: 9538: 9536: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9519: 9517: 9513: 9512: 9510: 9509: 9504: 9503: 9502: 9497:Clean Air Act 9489: 9484: 9479: 9470: 9468: 9459: 9453: 9452: 9445: 9444: 9437: 9430: 9422: 9413: 9412: 9410: 9409: 9398: 9387: 9375: 9372: 9371: 9369: 9368: 9366:Snowball Earth 9363: 9358: 9356:Little Ice Age 9353: 9347: 9345: 9339: 9338: 9336: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9320: 9315: 9309: 9307: 9303: 9302: 9300: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9284: 9279: 9274: 9269: 9263: 9261: 9257: 9256: 9254: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9207: 9205: 9201: 9200: 9197: 9196: 9194: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9166:Figure skating 9163: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9137: 9135: 9129: 9128: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9084: 9078: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8951:Circle or disc 8948: 8943: 8937: 8935: 8931: 8930: 8928: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8851: 8849: 8845: 8844: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8825: 8823: 8819: 8818: 8805: 8802: 8801: 8794: 8793: 8786: 8779: 8771: 8765: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8737: 8736:External links 8734: 8733: 8732: 8724:Leonard, Max. 8722: 8715: 8706: 8703: 8700: 8699: 8680:(3): 333–335. 8664: 8625:(3): 391–397. 8605: 8548: 8523: 8466: 8407: 8358: 8341: 8315: 8249: 8213: 8168: 8118: 8107: 8070: 7994: 7967:(5): 404–408. 7944: 7882: 7825: 7804: 7775: 7710: 7663:The Cryosphere 7640: 7613: 7594: 7577: 7544: 7516: 7494: 7478: 7471: 7451: 7431: 7405: 7394:on 4 June 2011 7374: 7348: 7322: 7295: 7260: 7222: 7195: 7181: 7158: 7140: 7129:(4): 722–747. 7110: 7103: 7081: 7046: 7011: 6993: 6986: 6966: 6959: 6936: 6916: 6887: 6864: 6837: 6811: 6785: 6762: 6738: 6707: 6704:. p. 217. 6692: 6662: 6633: 6610: 6596: 6570: 6542: 6524: 6513:(2): 223–234. 6497: 6454: 6403: 6396: 6376: 6354: 6324: 6297:(4): 628–633. 6277: 6255: 6233: 6197: 6148: 6126: 6100: 6074: 6047: 6030:"Diamond Dust" 6020: 5987: 5961: 5935: 5909: 5902: 5882: 5855: 5828: 5802: 5775: 5734: 5707: 5674: 5638: 5608: 5573: 5538: 5511: 5466:(5867): 1214. 5450: 5443: 5421: 5391: 5365: 5346:(3): 185–212. 5330: 5309: 5298:Physics of ice 5289: 5216: 5186: 5160: 5138: 5121: 5092:(3): 607–624. 5072: 5029: 5003: 4972:(1): 375–393. 4966:The Cryosphere 4948: 4918: 4892: 4866: 4809: 4798:(3): 295–311. 4782: 4775: 4755: 4720: 4705: 4640: 4598: 4584: 4557: 4530: 4509:Multi-language 4490: 4475: 4442: 4427: 4393: 4358: 4305: 4269: 4225: 4206: 4160: 4125: 4076: 4057:(2): 367–383. 4034: 3993: 3962: 3925:(22): 220104. 3909: 3864:(19): 195701. 3848: 3817: 3766: 3739: 3696: 3677:(2): 567–580. 3661: 3642: 3591: 3559: 3533: 3484: 3465:(3): 515–527. 3449: 3430: 3381: 3374: 3351: 3322: 3303: 3294:"Water, Water" 3284: 3246: 3217: 3210: 3192: 3149: 3114: 3098: 3057: 3017: 3010: 2986: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2934: 2931: 2911:carbon dioxide 2891:Main article: 2888: 2885: 2850:greenhouse gas 2824: 2821: 2815: 2759:sea level rise 2748:Southern Ocean 2691: 2688: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2668:Terje Isungset 2664: 2653: 2642: 2627:ice sculptures 2600: 2599: 2572: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2560: 2545: 2535: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2425:Main article: 2422: 2419: 2408:fuel injection 2348: 2345: 2271: 2268: 2258:by the German 2158: 2155: 2111:Main article: 2108: 2105: 2018:Lake St. Clair 2007:Frederic Tudor 1995:Thames Estuary 1964: 1961: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1888: 1865: 1838: 1834: 1827: 1820: 1801:hydrogen bonds 1766:Main article: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1752:Yukimarimo at 1751: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1720: 1718: 1707: 1700: 1698: 1694:deciduous tree 1691: 1684: 1682: 1675: 1668: 1666: 1655: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1636: 1567: 1564: 1468:. The storm's 1428: 1425: 1383:Wilson Bentley 1361: 1358: 1353:Main article: 1350: 1347: 1323:Quebec, Canada 1314: 1311: 1269: 1266: 1247:or underwater 1187: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1175: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1156: 1154: 1147: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1104: 1102: 1096: 1089: 1021:Main article: 1018: 1015: 971: 968: 962:for ice using 932: 929: 917:superionic ice 909: 874: 785:Roman numerals 783:of water. The 766:Main article: 763: 760: 756:carbon dioxide 736:heat of fusion 668:photosynthesis 613:hydrogen bonds 609:hydrogen atoms 607:bonded to two 584: 580: 576: 562: 559: 532:sea level rise 520:climate change 470:and above the 406: 389: 368:or bubbles of 313: 312: 308: 307: 304: 299: 288: 287: 283: 282: 271: 258: 257: 248: 235: 234: 223: 210: 209: 205: 204: 195: 182: 181: 178: 173: 162: 161: 158: 153: 142: 141: 134: 121: 120: 116: 115: 110: 106: 102: 101: 97: 96: 93: 80: 79: 76: 63: 62: 58: 57: 47: 39: 38: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10574: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10524: 10522: 10507: 10499: 10498: 10495: 10485: 10484:Non-renewable 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10450: 10448: 10445: 10444: 10442: 10440: 10436: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10424:Urban ecology 10422: 10420: 10417: 10413: 10410: 10409: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10387: 10386: 10383: 10379: 10376: 10375: 10374: 10371: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10358: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10336: 10335: 10332: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10309: 10308: 10305: 10304: 10301: 10298: 10294: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10273: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10256:Privatization 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10217: 10214: 10210: 10207: 10206: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10181: 10179: 10175: 10169: 10166: 10162: 10159: 10158: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10151:Surface water 10149: 10147: 10144: 10140: 10137: 10136: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10123: 10122: 10118: 10117: 10116: 10113: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10095: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10082: 10079: 10077: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10068: 10067: 10064: 10062: 10059: 10057: 10054: 10050: 10047: 10046: 10045: 10042: 10041: 10039: 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9635: 9631: 9625: 9622: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9609: 9608: 9605: 9603: 9600: 9598: 9595: 9593: 9590: 9587: 9583: 9579: 9575: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9552: 9550: 9548: 9544: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9520: 9518: 9514: 9508: 9505: 9501: 9495: 9494: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9472: 9471: 9469: 9467: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9443: 9438: 9436: 9431: 9429: 9424: 9423: 9420: 9408: 9404: 9399: 9397: 9388: 9386: 9377: 9376: 9373: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9348: 9346: 9344: 9340: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9321: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9310: 9308: 9304: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9264: 9262: 9258: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9208: 9206: 9204:Constructions 9202: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9181:Speed skating 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 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BBC Music. 7624: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7598: 7591: 7587: 7581: 7565: 7561: 7560: 7555: 7548: 7533: 7532: 7527: 7520: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7498: 7491: 7487: 7482: 7474: 7468: 7464: 7463: 7455: 7448:. 4 May 2017. 7447: 7446: 7441: 7435: 7420: 7416: 7409: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7378: 7362: 7358: 7352: 7337: 7336:www.hvmag.com 7333: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7299: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7264: 7257: 7242: 7235: 7234: 7226: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7199: 7191: 7185: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7162: 7154: 7150: 7144: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7117: 7115: 7106: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7085: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7057: 7050: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7015: 7007: 7003: 6997: 6989: 6983: 6979: 6978: 6970: 6962: 6960:1-86227-124-0 6956: 6952: 6951: 6946: 6940: 6933: 6932:0-203-62726-1 6929: 6923: 6921: 6905: 6898: 6891: 6875: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6841: 6826: 6822: 6815: 6800: 6796: 6789: 6782: 6779: 6775: 6772: 6766: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6749: 6742: 6735: 6734:1-931862-86-9 6731: 6727: 6725: 6719: 6714: 6712: 6703: 6696: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6651: 6647: 6640: 6638: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6614: 6606: 6600: 6585: 6581: 6574: 6566: 6565: 6559: 6551: 6549: 6547: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6501: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6464:J. Fluid Mech 6458: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6407: 6399: 6393: 6389: 6388: 6380: 6364: 6358: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6331: 6329: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6265: 6259: 6243: 6237: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6201: 6193: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6152: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6130: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6088: 6084: 6078: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6051: 6035: 6031: 6024: 6008: 6004: 6002: 5997: 5991: 5975: 5971: 5965: 5949: 5945: 5939: 5923: 5919: 5913: 5905: 5899: 5895: 5894: 5886: 5870: 5866: 5859: 5843: 5839: 5832: 5816: 5812: 5806: 5790: 5786: 5779: 5770: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5738: 5722: 5718: 5711: 5692: 5685: 5678: 5663:on 1 May 2008 5662: 5658: 5654: 5647: 5645: 5643: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5613: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5577: 5561: 5558:(22): 18–21. 5557: 5553: 5549: 5542: 5526: 5522: 5515: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5454: 5446: 5440: 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2908: 2904: 2900: 2894: 2884: 2882: 2877: 2875: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2844: 2839: 2829: 2820: 2812: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2705: 2696: 2686: 2682: 2669: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2596: 2595:McMurdo Sound 2591: 2587: 2586: 2583:, Antarctica. 2582: 2577: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2554: 2553:solar-powered 2550: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2528: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2418: 2416: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2354: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2303: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2286:in background 2285: 2281: 2276: 2267: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2215: 2214:US propaganda 2201: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2163: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2119: 2114: 2104: 2102: 2101:Songhua River 2098: 2094: 2090: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2035: 2034:Gwrych Castle 2031: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1996: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1934:refrigerators 1930: 1921: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1864: 1845: = 1844: 1833: 1826: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1806:melting point 1802: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1782: 1774: 1769: 1755: 1748: 1743: 1736: 1731: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1708:Icicles on a 1704: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1683: 1679: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1652: 1647: 1640: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1522:Ice pellets ( 1516: 1512: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1493: 1488: 1484: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1439: 1434: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1413:freezing rain 1410: 1406: 1404: 1403:cloud seeding 1400: 1397:in diameter) 1396: 1392: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1356: 1355:Precipitation 1346: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1332: 1324: 1319: 1310: 1308: 1307:eddy currents 1304: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1279: 1274: 1265: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1196: 1192: 1180:, Antarctica. 1179: 1178:McMurdo Sound 1172: 1167: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1144: 1139: 1132: 1127: 1120: 1115: 1108: 1103: 1100: 1093: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1024: 1017:In the oceans 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 994: 985: 981: 976: 967: 965: 961: 955: 953: 949: 941: 937: 928: 926: 922: 918: 913: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 890:ice volcanoes 887: 882: 880: 871: 865: 863: 859: 855: 851: 850:absolute zero 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 810: 801: 793: 786: 782: 781:phase diagram 778: 774: 769: 768:Phases of ice 759: 757: 753: 752:Mohs hardness 748: 746: 740: 738: 737: 731: 724: 719: 712: 708: 703: 699: 697: 693: 689: 688:bald notothen 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 655: 651: 649: 648:frost heaving 645: 640: 637: 633: 630: 625: 621: 616: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 573: 568: 558: 556: 555:winter sports 552: 548: 544: 543:preservatives 540: 539:refrigeration 535: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492:precipitation 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 464: 462: 457: 454:−423.67 450: 443: 440:−253.15 437: 433: 428: 421: 414: 404: 400: 396: 392: 385: 382: 377: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 309: 305: 298: 293: 289: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 263: 259: 249: 245: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 215: 211: 206: 196: 192: 187: 183: 179: 172: 167: 163: 159: 152: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 126: 122: 117: 107: 103: 98: 94: 90: 85: 81: 77: 73: 68: 64: 59: 55: 51: 45: 40: 35: 32: 28: 24: 19: 10557:Oceanography 10482: / 10356:Exploitation 10241:Conservation 10184:Desalination 10119: 10092: 10012:conservation 9847:Biodiversity 9795:conservation 9642:Agricultural 9570:Fossil fuels 9191:Tour skating 8991:Frost flower 8822:Major phases 8797: 8725: 8718: 8711: 8710:Brady, Amy. 8677: 8673: 8667: 8655:. Retrieved 8622: 8618: 8608: 8568:(1): 11399. 8565: 8561: 8551: 8539:. Retrieved 8535: 8526: 8483: 8479: 8469: 8428: 8424: 8410: 8375: 8371: 8361: 8351: 8344: 8332:. Retrieved 8328: 8318: 8293:10852/108771 8267: 8263: 8252: 8227: 8223: 8216: 8181: 8177: 8171: 8128: 8124: 8110: 8098:. Retrieved 8094: 8040:10871/131584 8022: 8018: 7964: 7960: 7904: 7900: 7868:10138/344541 7845:(1): 24–38. 7842: 7838: 7828: 7798: 7731: 7727: 7666: 7662: 7631:. Retrieved 7616: 7607: 7597: 7580: 7568:. Retrieved 7557: 7547: 7535:. Retrieved 7529: 7519: 7511:the original 7497: 7481: 7461: 7454: 7445:Ars Technica 7443: 7434: 7422:. Retrieved 7408: 7398:30 September 7396:. Retrieved 7392:the original 7377: 7365:. Retrieved 7361:the original 7351: 7339:. Retrieved 7335: 7325: 7308: 7304: 7298: 7273: 7269: 7263: 7255: 7248:. 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