Genetically modified crops

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crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010).

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increased since 2005. Releases with agronomic properties (such as drought resistance) jumped from 1,043 in 2005 to 5,190 in 2013. As of September 2013, about 7,800 releases had been approved for corn, more than 2,200 for soybeans, more than 1,100 for cotton, and about 900 for potatoes. Releases were approved for herbicide tolerance (6,772 releases), insect resistance (4,809), product quality such as flavor or nutrition (4,896), agronomic properties like drought resistance (5,190), and virus/fungal resistance (2,616). The institutions with the most authorized field releases include Monsanto with 6,782, Pioneer/DuPont with 1,405, Syngenta with 565, and USDA's Agricultural Research Service with 370. As of September 2013 USDA had received proposals for releasing GM rice, squash, plum, rose, tobacco, flax, and chicory.

3873:"event" is a specific genetic modification in a specific species) have been issued by authorities, of which 1,321 are for food use (direct use or processing), 918 for feed use (direct use or processing) and 599 for environmental release or planting. Japan has the largest number (198), followed by the U.S.A. (165, not including "stacked" events), Canada (146), Mexico (131), South Korea (103), Australia (93), New Zealand (83), European Union (71 including approvals that have expired or under renewal process), Philippines (68), Taiwan (65), Colombia (59), China (55) and South Africa (52). Maize has the largest number (130 events in 27 countries), followed by cotton (49 events in 22 countries), potato (31 events in 10 countries), canola (30 events in 12 countries) and soybean (27 events in 26 countries). 3838:

Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. One of the key reasons for this widespread adoption is the perceived economic benefit the technology brings to farmers. For example, the system of planting glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged provided farmers with the opportunity to dramatically increase the yield from a given plot of land, since this allowed them to plant rows closer together. Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage. Likewise, using Bt seeds means that farmers do not have to purchase insecticides, and then invest time, fuel, and equipment in applying them. However critics have disputed whether yields are higher and whether chemical use is less, with GM crops. See

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of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants - mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape - without any observed adverse effects (ICSU).

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GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.

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research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques.

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Management(IRM) policies and prevent irresponsible planting practices; begun marketing seed bags with a set proportion of refuge (non-transgenic) seeds mixed in with the Bt seeds being sold. Coined "Refuge-In-a-Bag" (RIB), this practice is intended to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional labor needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand. This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt-resistance occurring for

51: 3566:(Bt) crops, the 1996 commercialization of transgenic cotton and maize came with a management strategy to prevent insects from becoming resistant. Insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any (recessive) resistance genes are diluted within the population. Resistance lowers evolutionary fitness in the absence of the stressor, Bt. In refuges, non-resistant strains outcompete resistant ones. 3846: 752:, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 1996 a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialised genetically modified crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported. 3609:(BMPs) to control weeds may help delay resistance. BMPs include applying multiple herbicides with different modes of action, rotating crops, planting weed-free seed, scouting fields routinely, cleaning equipment to reduce the transmission of weeds to other fields, and maintaining field borders. The most widely planted GM crops are designed to tolerate herbicides. By 2006 some weed populations had evolved to tolerate some of the same herbicides. 1129: 1196:(ISAAA), in 2014 approximately 18 million farmers grew biotech crops in 28 countries; about 94% of the farmers were resource-poor in developing countries. 53% of the global biotech crop area of 181.5 million hectares was grown in 20 developing countries. PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $ 14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries. 1185:

This was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby. Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus $ 240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21%), followed by US consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier,

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1990s and early 2000s, much of the GM crop grown each year is used for livestock feed and increased demand for meat leads to increased demand for GM feed crops. Feed grain usage as a percentage of total crop production is 70% for corn and more than 90% of oil seed meals such as soybeans. About 65 million metric tons of GM corn grains and about 70 million metric tons of soybean meals derived from GM soybean become feed.

2092:, a form of asexual reproduction that keeps the plant's DNA intact. This trait is apparently controlled by a single dominant gene, but traditional breeding has been unsuccessful in creating asexually-reproducing maize. Genetic engineering offers another route to this goal. Successful modification would allow farmers to replant harvested seeds that retain desirable traits, rather than relying on purchased seed. 1598:(CAM), which allows the plants to survive despite low water levels. This holds promise for water-heavy crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans and poplar to accelerate their adaptation to water-limited environments. Several salinity tolerance mechanisms have been identified in salt-tolerant crops. For example, rice, canola and tomato crops have been genetically modified to increase their tolerance to salt stress. 932: 3964: 3570:

of nontransgenic plants) adjacent to transgenic fields increases the likelihood that homozygous resistant (s/s) individuals and any surviving heterozygotes will mate with susceptible (S/S) individuals from the refuge, instead of with other individuals carrying the resistance allele. As a result, the resistance gene frequency in the population remains lower.

4690:. Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food ... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date. 3582:. The success of the high-dose/refuge strategy has successfully maintained the value of Bt crops. This success has depended on factors independent of management strategy, including low initial resistance allele frequencies, fitness costs associated with resistance, and the abundance of non-Bt host plants outside the refuges. 3940:

cause harm; a 2016 review that reanalyzed the data from six of these studies found that their statistical methodologies were flawed and did not demonstrate harm, and said that conclusions about GM crop safety should be drawn from "the totality of the evidence ... instead of far-fetched evidence from single studies".

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GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have

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Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far

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The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years

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Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views

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that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.

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crop that Monsanto produced (soybeans) expired in 2014 and the first harvest of off-patent soybeans occurs in the spring of 2015. Monsanto has broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include the glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products. About 150 companies have licensed the

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Participants in agriculture business markets include seed companies, agrochemical companies, distributors, farmers, grain elevators and universities that develop new crops/traits and whose agricultural extensions advise farmers on best practices. According to a 2012 review based on data from the late

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In 2013 the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked the EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water, and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU's "time-consuming and expensive regulatory

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Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the

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In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of

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The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process

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protein). These constitute "input-traits" that are aimed to financially benefit the producers, but may have indirect environmental benefits and cost benefits to consumers. The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimated in 2003 that 70–75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contained a GM ingredient.

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The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops between countries, with some of the most marked differences

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Combined features of increased yield, decreased land use, reduced use of fertilizer and reduced farming machinery use create a feedback loop that reduces carbon emissions related to farming. These reductions have been estimated at 7.5% of total agricultural emissions in the EU or 33 millions tons of

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Complicating factors can affect the success of the high-dose/refuge strategy. For example, if the temperature is not ideal, thermal stress can lower Bt toxin production and leave the plant more susceptible. More importantly, reduced late-season expression has been documented, possibly resulting from

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Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM

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A report issued by the scientific council of the American Medical Association (AMA) says that no long-term health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified foods, and that these foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts." "Crops

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Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the

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claim that risks related to GM food have not been adequately examined and managed, that GM crops are not sufficiently tested and should be labelled, and that regulatory authorities and scientific bodies are too closely tied to industry. Some studies have claimed that genetically modified crops can

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in the development of GM crops is also potentially problematic, as developed countries have gotten economic gain by using the genetic resources of developing countries. In the twentieth century, the International Rice Research Institute catalogued the genomes of almost 80,000 varieties of rice from

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In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically modified varieties. Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide-tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely Bt

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populations as a direct result of Bt corn and cotton. The establishment of minimum refuge requirements helped delay the evolution of Bt resistance. However, resistance appears to be developing to some Bt traits in some areas. In Columbia, GM cotton has reduced insecticide usage by 25% and herbicide

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With sufficiently high levels of transgene expression, nearly all of the heterozygotes (S/s), i.e., the largest segment of the pest population carrying a resistance allele, will be killed before maturation, thus preventing transmission of the resistance gene to their progeny. Refuges (i. e., fields

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GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $ 6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($ 4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn.

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The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially

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The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent

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A significant environmental concern about using genetically modified crops is possible cross-breeding with related crops, giving them advantages over naturally occurring varieties. One example is a glyphosate-resistant rice crop that crossbreeds with a weedy relative, giving the weed a competitive

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annually enter the marine environment from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities. Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists,

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This trait was developed because the herbicides used on grain and grass crops at the time were highly toxic and not effective against narrow-leaved weeds. Thus, developing crops that could withstand spraying with glyphosate would both reduce environmental and health risks, and give an agricultural

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to protect them from excessive amounts of sunlight. Plants can switch on the quenching mechanism almost instantaneously, but it takes much longer for it to switch off again. During the time that it is switched on, the amount of energy that is wasted increases. A genetic modification in three genes

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There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered

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According to the 2013 ISAAA brief: "a total of 36 countries (35 + EU-28) have granted regulatory approvals for biotech crops for food and/or feed use and for environmental release or planting since 1994 ... a total of 2,833 regulatory approvals involving 27 GM crops and 336 GM events (NB: an

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as well as water and chemical runoff. In addition, conservation tillage reduces the carbon footprint of agriculture. A 2014 review covering 12 states from 1996 to 2006, found that a 1% increase in herbicde-tolerant (HT) soybean adoption leads to a 0.21% increase in conservation tillage and a 0.3%

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by 22%, and increased farmer profits by 68%. This reduction in pesticide use has been ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse. Yield gains and pesticide reductions are larger for insect-resistant crops than for herbicide-tolerant crops. Yield and profit gains are higher in

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As of 2024, the cultivation of genetically engineered crops is banned in 38 countries, while 9 countries have banned their import. Europe grows relatively few genetically engineered crops with the exception of Spain, where one fifth of maize is genetically engineered, and smaller amounts in five

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In 2013, GM crops were planted in 27 countries; 19 were developing countries and 8 were developed countries. 2013 was the second year in which developing countries grew a majority (54%) of the total GM harvest. 18 million farmers grew GM crops; around 90% were small-holding farmers in developing

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The use of drought tolerant crops can increase yield in water-scarce locations, making farming possible in new areas. The adoption of drought tolerant maize in Ghana was shown to increase yield by more than 150% and boost commercialization intensity, although it did not significantly affect farm

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The number of USDA-approved field releases for testing grew from 4 in 1985 to 1,194 in 2002 and averaged around 800 per year thereafter. The number of sites per release and the number of gene constructs (ways that the gene of interest is packaged together with other elements) – have rapidly

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The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage

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When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the

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We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly

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Direct genetic engineering has been controversial since its introduction. Most, but not all of the controversies are over GM foods rather than crops per se. GM foods are the subject of protests, vandalism, referendums, legislation, court action and scientific disputes. The controversies involve

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considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014 for three major GM crops: soybean, maize, and cotton. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced

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Some patents on GM traits have expired, allowing the legal development of generic strains that include these traits. For example, generic glyphosate-tolerant GM soybean is now available. Another impact is that traits developed by one vendor can be added to another vendor's proprietary strains,

1230:. The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location". 3837:

was planted with GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines,

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Chen, Wenkang; Chen, Lu; Zhang, Xuan; Yang, Ning; Guo, Jianghua; Wang, Min; Ji, Shenghui; Zhao, Xiangyu; Yin, Pengfei; Cai, Lichun; Xu, Jing; Zhang, Lili; Han, Yingjia; Xiao, Yingni; Xu, Gen; Wang, Yuebin; Wang, Shuhui; Wu, Sheng; Yang, Fang; Jackson, David; Cheng, Jinkui; Chen, Saihua; Sun,

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On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that

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Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs.

3598:. Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects. 3585:

Companies that produce Bt seed are introducing strains with multiple Bt proteins. Monsanto did this with Bt cotton in India, where the product was rapidly adopted. Monsanto has also; in an attempt to simplify the process of implementing refuges in fields to comply with Insect Resistance

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Yellow squash that were resistant to at first two, then three viruses were developed, beginning in the 1990s. The viruses are watermelon, cucumber and zucchini/courgette yellow mosaic. Squash was the second GM crop to be approved by US regulators. The trait was later added to zucchini.

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In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently

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drifting when sprayed on resistant soybeans in 2017. The newer dicamba formulation labels specify to not spray when average wind speeds are above 10–15 miles per hour (16–24 km/h) to avoid particle drift, average wind speeds below 3 miles per hour (4.8 km/h) to avoid

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Farmers have widely adopted GM technology (see figure). Between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,750,000 km (432 million acres). 10% of the world's

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Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistant varieties. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points.

1804:(Bt). The introduction of Bt crops during the period between 1996 and 2005 has been estimated to have reduced the total volume of insecticide active ingredient use in the United States by over 100 thousand tons. This represents a 19.4% reduction in insecticide use. 5078:

available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.

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Opponents have objected to GM crops on multiple grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether they are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries, concerns over subjecting crops to

3869:. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of worldwide GM crops in developing countries. 2013's largest increase was in Brazil (403,000 km versus 368,000 km in 2012). GM cotton began growing in India in 2002, reaching 110,000 km in 2013. 857:. Their natural ability to transfer genes provides another engineering method. To create a suitable environment for themselves, these Agrobacteria insert their genes into plant hosts, resulting in a proliferation of modified plant cells near the soil level ( 11621:

Beckmann V, Soregaroli C, Wesseler J (2011). "Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-modified (non GM) crops: Are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value?". In Carter C, Moschini GC, Sheldon I (eds.).

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crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.

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reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes which genes get propagated to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high-quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year. Typically, the seed company maintains two

1447:. The genetic engineering involved cultivation in the presence of kanamycin, which allowed only resistant cultivars to survive. Humans consuming apples do not acquire kanamycin resistance, per arcticapple.com. The FDA approved the apples in March 2015. 4969:

Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM

1894:. The focus of Microalgae for mass production for biofuels modifying the algae to produce more lipid has become a focus yet will take years to see results due to the cost of this process to extract lipids. Researchers in Singapore were working on GM 3923:

does not, nor does it distinguish between approved GM and non-GM foods. The United States enacted a law that requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018. It allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site.

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Wilkerson CG, Mansfield SD, Lu F, Withers S, Park JY, Karlen SD, Gonzales-Vigil E, Padmakshan D, Unda F, Rencoret J, Ralph J (April 2014). "Monolignol ferulate transferase introduces chemically labile linkages into the lignin backbone".

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occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of each product. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.

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to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a

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Genetic modifications to some crops also exist, which make it easier to process the crop, i.e. by growing it in a more compact form. Crops such as tomatoes have been modified to be seedless. Tobacco has been modified to produce

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and foods produced using recombinant DNA techniques have been available for fewer than 10 years and no long-term effects have been detected to date. These foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts.

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allows to correct this (in a trial with tobacco plants). As a result, yields were 14-20% higher, in terms of the weight of the dry leaves harvested. The plants had larger leaves, were taller and had more vigorous roots.

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Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are conventionally bred crops.

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been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.

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Farmers generally use less insecticide when they plant Bt-resistant crops. Insecticide use on corn farms declined from 0.21 pound per planted acre in 1995 to 0.02 pound in 2010. This is consistent with the decline in

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Plant viruses are a cause of around half of the plant diseases emerging worldwide, and an estimated 10–15% of losses in crop yields. Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been engineered to resist viral pathogens such as

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Asian farms, which has since been used to create new higher yielding varieties of rice. These new varieties create almost 655 million dollars of economic gain for Australia, USA, Canada, and New Zealand every year.

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I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another

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advantage. The transgenic hybrid had higher rates of photosynthesis, more shoots and flowers, and more seeds than the non-transgenic hybrids. This demonstrates the possibility of ecosystem damage by GM crop usage.

5347: 11766: 3822:, the states published in these tables represent 81–86 percent of all corn planted area, 88–90 percent of all soybean planted area, and 81–93 percent of all upland cotton planted area (depending on the year). 1734:, as well. Crops engineered for resistance to multiple herbicides to allow farmers to use a mixed group of two, three, or four different chemicals are under development to combat growing herbicide resistance. 5288: 526:

were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's

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tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used by Penn State researcher Yinong Yang to modify white button mushrooms

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National Academies Of Sciences; Division on Earth Life Studies Engineering; Board on Agriculture Natural Resources; Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects (2016).

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The introduction of an EU directive to shift GM approvals from the EU commission to the member states was immediately accepted by 19 of the 28 members who opted to ban GM crops in their countries.

1290:. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertilizer use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results. 884:

Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses."

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Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.

6852:"Advances in understanding the cyanobacterial CO2-concentrating-mechanism (CCM): functional components, Ci transporters, diversity, genetic regulation and prospects for engineering into plants" 3862:

had a 'de facto' ban on the approval of new GM crops, from 1999 until 2004. GM crops are now regulated by the EU. Developing countries grew 54 percent of genetically engineered crops in 2013.

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Wang Y, Cheng X, Shan Q, Zhang Y, Liu J, Gao C, Qiu JL (September 2014). "Simultaneous editing of three homoeoalleles in hexaploid bread wheat confers heritable resistance to powdery mildew".

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to a random site in the plant genome. When used in genetic engineering the bacterial T-DNA is removed from the bacterial plasmid and replaced with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium is a

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is a weed that competes with cotton. A native of the southwestern US, it traveled east and was first found resistant to glyphosate in 2006, less than 10 years after GM cotton was introduced.

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are the most frequently modified plants, due to well-developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes. They serve as model organisms for other plant species.

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Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (

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The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

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Land area used for genetically modified crops by country (1996–2009), in millions of hectares. In 2011, the land area used was 160 million hectares, or 1.6 million square kilometers.

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In 2014 the global value of biotech seed was US$ 15.7 billion; US$ 11.3 billion (72%) was in industrial countries and US$ 4.4 billion (28%) was in the developing countries. In 2009,

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The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

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found that "Available data show no evidence of a 'resurgence' of farmer suicides" and that "Bt cotton technology has been very effective overall in India." During the time period of

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Jinkerson, Robert E.; Poveda-Huertes, Daniel; Cooney, Elizabeth C.; Cho, Anna; Ochoa-Fernandez, Rocio; Keeling, Patrick J.; Xiang, Tingting; Andersen-Ranberg, Johan (5 March 2024).

820:

is bound to tiny particles of gold or tungsten which are subsequently shot into plant tissue or single plant cells under high pressure. The accelerated particles penetrate both the

11838: 9296:"EPA Announces Final Decision to Register Enlist Duo, Herbicide Containing 2, 4-D and Glyphosate/Risk assessment ensures protection of human health, including infants, children" 8162:"J.R. Simplot Co.; Availability of Petition for Determination of Nonregulated Status of Potato Genetically Engineered for Low Acrylamide Potential and Reduced Black Spot Bruise" 1332: 1249:

subsidiary, was the next biggest company in that market. As of 2009, the overall Roundup line of products including the GM seeds represented about 50% of Monsanto's business.

11986: 10240: 5694:"Enzymatic breakage and joining of deoxyribonucleic acid, I. Repair of single-strand breaks in DNA by an enzyme system from Escherichia coli infected with T4 bacteriophage" 957:(plant to plant), or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to be correctly and efficiently 11346:

Culpepper AS, Grey TL, Vencill WK, Kichler JM, Webster TM, Brown SM, et al. (2006). "Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia".

11301:"Resistance evolution to the first generation of genetically modified Diabrotica-active Bt-maize events by western corn rootworm: management and monitoring considerations" 8820: 7934: 1073:

to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of

8349: 6649:

Banjara M, Zhu L, Shen G, Payton P, Zhang H (1 January 2012). "Expression of an Arabidopsis sodium/proton antiporter gene (AtNHX1) in peanut to improve salt tolerance".

5351: 3606: 1670:

EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. This CP4 EPSPS gene was

418:) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of 11770: 8725:

Sayre R, Beeching JR, Cahoon EB, Egesi C, Fauquet C, Fellman J, et al. (2011). "The BioCassava plus program: biofortification of cassava for sub-Saharan Africa".

5129:"Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths. Stakeholders in the GMO debate often describe public opinion as irrational. But do they really understand the public?" 5094: 10393:

Kwon CT, Heo J, Lemmon ZH, Capua Y, Hutton SF, Van Eck J, Park SJ, Lippman ZB (February 2020). "Rapid customization of Solanaceae fruit crops for urban agriculture".

621:

that join broken DNA together had been discovered earlier in 1967, and by combining the two technologies, it was possible to "cut and paste" DNA sequences and create

9480: 6303: 1305:, wherein it takes some time to breed the newest yield genetics into the GM lines. This does not reflect realistic field conditions however, especially leaving out 8226: 8420: 11718: 6355: 3683: 10897: 3919:

No reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population. GM crop labeling is required in many countries, although the United States

1634:. The shikimate pathway is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet. More specifically, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme 13505: 11228: 7052:"Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants: International regulations for genetically modified organisms should be altered to exempt cisgenesis" 5292: 3896:

law, and on religious grounds. Secondary issues include labeling, the behavior of government regulators, the effects of pesticide use and pesticide tolerance.

816:

Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot" (direct high energy particles or radiations against) target genes into plant cells. It is the most common method.

11869: 10863: 10880: 10821: 10181: 9313: 4644:

it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.

1787:, and rain or high temperatures are in the next day forecast. However, these conditions typically only occur during June and July for a few hours at a time. 332: 9809: 6740:"Possible consequences of the overlap between the CaMV 35S promoter regions in plant transformation vectors used and the viral gene VI in transgenic plants" 4417:

of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.

12321: 6780: 4829: 2016:-explosive soil contaminants in 2011. 16 million hectares in the US (1.5% of the total surface) are estimated to be contaminated with TNT and RDX. However 1081:. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's 12046: 9295: 4433:"State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops" 671:

back into a plant cell that had its cell wall removed. With the introduction of the gene gun in 1987 it became possible to integrate foreign genes into a

9362: 3557:

and a reduction in the diversity of weed management practices allowed the spread of glyphosate resistance in 14 weed species in the US, and in soybeans.

12431: 5794: 9639: 8761: 8648: 7992: 744:

tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide

4372: 523: 8561: 8393: 7907: 7819: 7775: 9953: 1223:. They estimate Nigeria alone loses $ 33–46m annually. The potential and alleged harms of GM crops must then be compared to these costs of delay. 736:. The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 12753: 11025: 10489: 12514: 9979:

Smith RA, Cass CL, Mazaheri M, Sekhon RS, Heckwolf M, Kaeppler H, de Leon N, Mansfield SD, Kaeppler SM, Sedbrook JC, Karlen SD, Ralph J (2017).

7889: 1615:-tolerance is the most common. Glyphosate (the active ingredient in Roundup and other herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the 1086: 810: 11692: 9411:"Widespread crop damage from dicamba herbicide fuels controversy - August 21, 2017 Issue - Vol. 95 Issue 33 - Chemical & Engineering News" 8908: 5874: 1282:

The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for

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and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA sequence into the genomes of the plants. As not all plant cells were susceptible to infection by

12691: 8138: 5376:

Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin

1858:

and spread by aphid insect vectors. These strands are commercially available although the resistance is not standard among GM corn variants.

11460: 10677: 5180: 12024: 8960: 8700: 7756: 7642: 6381: 13326: 11846: 9498:

Vaeck M, Reynaerts A, Höfte H, Jansens S, De Beuckeleer M, Dean C, et al. (1987). "Transgenic plants protected from insect attack".

6181:

Vaeck M, Reynaerts A, Höfte H, Jansens S, De Beuckeleer M, Dean C, et al. (1987). "Transgenic plants protected from insect attack".

5967:

Clough SJ, Bent AF (December 1998). "Floral dip: a simplified method for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana".

1341: 1186: 7119: 6548:"Hierarchical metabolomics demonstrates substantial compositional similarity between genetically modified and conventional potato crops" 5945: 5901: 4063:"Impact of genetically engineered maize on agronomic, environmental and toxicological traits: a meta-analysis of 21 years of field data" 1832:(PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. They incorporate PRV DNA. By 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified. 726:, was the first company to genetically engineer insect-resistant plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from 6820: 422:

were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of the maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less

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tomato, which had a longer shelf life. First sold in 1994, FlavrSavr tomato production ceased in 1997. It is no longer on the market.

1297:

yields. This is variously due to one or both of: Yield drag, wherein the trait itself lowers yield, either by competing for synthesis

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plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same

325: 12204: 9428: 8202: 13409: 11102:

Roush RT (1997). "Bt-transgenic crops: just another pretty insecticide or a chance for a new start in the resistance management?".

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Gene editing may also increase yields non-specific to the use of any biocides/pesticides. In March 2022, field test results showed

647:. By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes researchers were able to infect plants with 11994: 9052: 911:

specific to the area where the gene is to be expressed. For instance, to express a gene only in rice grains and not in leaves, an

13199: 12350: 11792: 10248: 9205:

Plant biotechnology: current and potential impact for improving pest management in US agriculture: an analysis of 40 case studies

7670: 3882: 3839: 3815: 281: 12570:

Panchin AY, Tuzhikov AI (March 2017). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons".

9184: 6283: 4605:

Panchin AY, Tuzhikov AI (March 2017). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons".

2117:, which uses it to gain energy from the blue light that is able to penetrate seawater more effectively than longer wavelengths. 755:

GM banana cultivar QCAV-4 was approved by Australia and New Zealand in 2024. The banana resists the fungus that is fatal to the

706:

techniques a single tobacco cell was selected that contained the gene and a new plant grown from it. The first field trials of

675:. Genetic transformation has become very efficient in some model organisms. In 2008 genetically modified seeds were produced in 10150: 9731: 8828: 8789: 7712:"Planting the future: opportunities and challenges for using crop genetic improvement technologies for sustainable agriculture" 7671:"Bales and balance: A review of the methods used to assess the economic impact of Bt cotton on farmers in developing economies" 5023:

These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.

4686:

It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA

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has been less successful. The major disadvantage of this procedure is that serious damage can be done to the cellular tissue.

12299: 11730: 10356: 10088: 9249: 8183: 8112: 7453: 5384: 4915: 4783: 1902:

has USDA approval to market a maize trademarked Enogen that has been genetically modified to convert its starch to sugar for

1522: 8593:"Successful high-level accumulation of fish oil omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in a transgenic oilseed crop" 7794: 7326:

Areal FJ, Riesgo L, Rodríguez-Cerezo E (2012). "Economic and agronomic impact of commercialized GM crops: A meta-analysis".

5098: 4770:. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. 13415: 13405: 11300: 9707: 9203: 1645:

Some micro-organisms have a version of EPSPS that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. One of these was isolated from an

1045:

plants are made using genes found within the same species or a sexually-compatible closely related one, where conventional

318: 8375: 7478:

Falck-Zepeda JB, Traxler G, Nelson RG (2000). "Surplus Distribution from the Introduction of a Biotechnology Innovation".

11626:. Frontiers of Economics and Globalization Series. Vol. 10. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. pp. 201–224. 7576: 6983:"Higher Stomatal Density Improves Photosynthetic Induction and Biomass Production in Arabidopsis Under Fluctuating Light" 6225: 5826:"Ti plasmid vector for the introduction of DNA into plant cells without alteration of their normal regeneration capacity" 12234: 11951:

Lemaux PG (19 February 2008). "Genetically Engineered Plants and Foods: A Scientist's Analysis of the Issues (Part I)".

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active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher.

13356: 11895: 10931: 6467: 5433: 3640: 2126: 1907: 1800:

Tobacco, corn, rice and some other crops have been engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from

1689:

used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene

748:, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995 Bt Potato was approved safe by the 664: 388: 11744: 8979: 5070:

environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.

1778:

to other crops. Significant damage to other non-resistant crops occurred from dicamba formulations intended to reduce

881:

plants like potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Agrobacteria infection is less successful in crops like wheat and maize.

469: 13366: 12684: 12364: 11637: 11606:

Wesseler J, Kalaitzandonakes N (2011). "Present and Future EU GMO policy.". In Oskam A, Meesters G, Silvis H (eds.).

10838: 9661: 8018:

Chuanqing; Qin, Feng; Tian, Feng; Fernie, Alisdair R.; Li, Jiansheng; Yan, Jianbing; Yang, Xiaohong (25 March 2022).

6329: 5617: 4762: 3679: 1591:. In 2011, Monsanto's DroughtGard maize became the first drought-resistant GM crop to receive US marketing approval. 1171: 153: 11236: 9981:"Suppression of CINNAMOYL-CoA REDUCTASE increases the level of monolignol ferulates incorporated into maize lignins" 9832: 9410: 9270: 1914:, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds. Lignin is the critical limiting factor when using wood to make 1049:

can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult to

13038: 5348:"The Regulation of GMOs in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics" 12072: 11725:. ISAAA Briefs. Vol. 37. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). 11461:"Conservation Tillage, Herbicide Use, and Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States: The Case of Soybeans" 11259: 9858: 9340: 9317: 6012:"Demonstration of CRISPR/Cas9/sgRNA-mediated targeted gene modification in Arabidopsis, tobacco, sorghum and rice" 1828:

which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants. Virus resistant papaya were developed in response to a

1324:

of KRN2 in maize and OsKRN2 in rice increased grain yields by ~10% and ~8% without any detected negative effects.

13510: 13374: 12917: 12616: 10947: 9817: 9341:"Utility of Aryloxyalkanoate Dioxygenase Transgenes for Development of New Herbicide Resistant Crop Technologies" 7570:

Van Eenennaam, Alison L.; De Figueiredo Silva, Felipe; Trott, Josephine F.; Zilberman, David (16 February 2021).

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makes the corn resistant to 2,4-D. The USDA had approved maize and soybeans with the mutation in September 2014.

1226:

Critics challenged the claimed benefits to farmers over the prevalence of biased observers and by the absence of

1138: 749: 163: 12328: 11809: 10733: 10373: 6788: 4836: 13420: 13089: 12050: 9542: 8543: 7843: 768: 617:

that allowed DNA to be cut at specific places, enabling scientists to isolate genes from an organism's genome.

493: 181: 146: 7254:"Optimized breeding strategies for multiple trait integration: III. Parameters for success in version testing" 1933:. Besides with trees, the chemically labile lignin bonds are also very useful for cereal crops such as maize, 1293:

Under special conditions meant to reveal only genetic yield factors, many GM crops are known to actually have

1004:(currently about 2% at most plants versus the theoretic potential of 9–10%). This is possible by changing the 13395: 13390: 13136: 13052: 12708: 11925: 10839:"Executive Summary: Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014 - ISAAA Brief 49-2014 | ISAAA.org" 9230: 7970: 6101:(1983). "A chimaeric antibiotic resistance gene as a selectable marker for plant cell transformation. 1983". 5802: 3932: 72: 63: 12278:

Satheeshkumar, P. K.; Narayanan, Anoop (2017), Abdulhameed, Sabu; Pradeep, N.S.; Sugathan, Shiburaj (eds.),

9647: 8772: 6059:

Lemaux PG (2008). "Genetically Engineered Plants and Foods: A Scientist's Analysis of the Issues (Part I)".

3888:

consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations and scientists.

3818:(USDA) reports every year on the total area of GM crop varieties planted in the United States. According to 1340:(right) next to King Edward which has not been genetically modified (left). Research field belonging to the 1057:), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics. 430:(−30.6%) and thricotecens (−36.5%). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for lower populations some 13500: 12892: 12799: 12677: 12635: 10762: 10209: 9883:

Prabin Kumar Sharma; Manalisha Saharia; Richa Srivstava; Sanjeev Kumar; Lingaraj Sahoo (21 November 2018).

8282: 8278: 3920: 3361: 2466: 2060: 1595: 1484: 519: 468:

were reduced by 2.4 to 9 million cases per year in India alone. A 2011 review of the relationship between

123: 32: 11260:"Understanding successful resistance management: the European corn borer and Bt corn in the United States" 7234: 4032: 643:, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the 13400: 13026: 13011: 12955: 12946: 12897: 12822: 12763: 12748: 10707: 8569: 8397: 7961: 7301: 5038: 4325:

Gruère, G.; Sengupta, D. (2011). "Bt Cotton and Farmer Suicides in India: An Evidence-based Assessment".

3258: 2983: 2644: 2223: 2175: 1808: 1456: 1227: 1208: 128: 99: 89: 84: 10734:"Infographics: Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014 - ISAAA Brief 49-2014 | ISAAA.org" 9916: 7829: 7032: 1431:, thus preventing enzymatic browning of the fruit after it has been sliced open. The trait was added to 989:. A study led by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also found viral genes in transgenic plants. 13057: 12963: 12858: 12730: 9957: 9783: 9380:

Johnson WG, Hallett SG, Legleiter TR, Whitford F, Weller SC, Bordelon BP, et al. (November 2012).

7585: 6356:"A1274 - Food derived from disease-resistant banana line QCAV-4 | Food Standards Australia New Zealand" 6156: 4989:

Haslberger AG (July 2003). "Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects".

4734:"AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers"" 3140: 2828: 2327: 1216: 690:

The first genetically engineered crop plant was tobacco, reported in 1983. It was developed creating a

630: 583: 498:

Humans have directly influenced the genetic makeup of plants to increase their value as a crop through

419: 375: 113: 108: 77: 11552: 7637: 7397:

Hutchison WD, Burkness EC, Mitchell PD, Moon RD, Leslie TW, Fleischer SJ, et al. (October 2010).

4809: 3829:(ISAAA) and can be found in their annual reports, "Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops". 13252: 13194: 13098: 13033: 13016: 12927: 12781: 12545: 11401:"Genetically modified (GM) crop use in Colombia: farm level economic and environmental contributions" 8945: 8085: 7120:"Beijing Researchers Use Gene Editing to Create Disease-Resistant Wheat | MIT Technology Review" 1707: 1651:

strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant to glyphosate. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant

1030:

pumps in the cell wall, or by changing the leaf form or size. Plants have been engineered to exhibit

848: 837: 639: 253: 203: 118: 94: 12449: 4178: 1594:

Drought resistance occurs by modifying the plant's genes responsible for the mechanism known as the

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transformed with this plasmid resulting in the chimeric gene being inserted into the plant. Through

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usage by 5%, and GM corn has reduced insecticide and herbicide usage by 66% and 13%, respectively.

3147: 2835: 2334: 2044: 1851: 1376: 1368:, production of useful goods such as biofuel or drugs, and ability to absorb toxins and for use in 1357: 595: 387:), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of 11164:

Tabashnik BE, Carrière Y, Dennehy TJ, Morin S, Sisterson MS, Roush RT, et al. (August 2003).

11045:

Tabashnik BE, Carrière Y, Dennehy TJ, Morin S, Sisterson MS, Roush RT, et al. (August 2003).

7871: 7544: 6336:. Ithaca, New York: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) 5400: 12344: 12118:"The threat of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to organic agriculture: A case study update" 11472: 10685: 10271: 7795:"Monsanto Roundup Ready Soybean Patent Expiration Ushers in Generic GMOs | MIT Technology Review" 7525: 7399:"Areawide suppression of European corn borer with Bt maize reaps savings to non-Bt maize growers" 5184: 5042: 4733: 1310: 1275:

pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same.

609:

Modern advances in genetics have allowed humans to more directly alter plants genetics. In 1970

536: 511: 286: 213: 158: 12902: 12662: 11839:"USA :Cultivation of GM Plants in 2009, Maize, soybean, cotton: 88 percent genetically modified" 9882: 9688: 9086:

Heck GR, Armstrong CL, Astwood JD, Behr CF, Bookout JT, Brown SM, et al. (1 January 2005).

8928:"Genetically modified crops with drought tolerance: achievements, challenges, and perspectives." 8067: 5920: 4709: 10923: 10511: 5425: 5419: 5318: 4432: 3928: 3562: 1836: 1812: 1801: 1423:

were approved by the USDA, becoming the first genetically modified apple approved for US sale.

1270:

In 2014, the largest review yet concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. The

1142: 728: 10436:

Ueta R, Abe C, Watanabe T, Sugano SS, Ishihara R, Ezura H, Osakabe Y, Osakabe K (March 2017).

8301:"Improving photosynthesis and crop productivity by accelerating recovery from photoprotection" 6546:

Catchpole GS, Beckmann M, Enot DP, Mondhe M, Zywicki B, Taylor J, et al. (October 2005).

4830:"Report 2 of the Council On Science and Public Health (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" 1471:. By inserting the C4 pathway into C3 plants, productivity may increase by as much as 50% for 1149: 877:, enabling transportation of foreign genes into plants. This method works especially well for 12807: 12346: 12284:

Bioresources and Bioprocess in Biotechnology: Volume 1: Status and Strategies for Exploration

11964: 7857: 6157:"Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995" 6072: 5953: 5905: 5506:

Hoisington D, Khairallah M, Reeves T, Ribaut JM, Skovmand B, Taba S, Warburton M (May 1999).

4868:"Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion" 3893: 3550: 1986: 1829: 1825: 1784: 1770:

Monsanto has requested approval for a stacked strain that is tolerant of both glyphosate and

1487:

focuses on creating GM plants that have increased root mass, root depth and suberin content.

1440: 1301:

or by being inserted slightly inaccurately, into the middle of a yield-relevant gene; and/or

1298: 874: 715: 571:) had all appeared by about 7,000 BC. Traditional crop breeders have long introduced foreign 10999: 10915: 9381: 8299:

Kromdijk J, Głowacka K, Leonelli L, Gabilly ST, Iwai M, Niyogi KK, Long SP (November 2016).

7361:

Finger R, El Benni N, Kaphengst T, Evans C, Herbert S, Lehmann B, Morse S, Stupak N (2011).

6828: 4938:

Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops:

13346: 13121: 12887: 12479: 12098: 11564: 11507: 11138: 10788: 10549: 10449: 10305: 10186: 10040: 9592: 9575: 9507: 9454: 9137: 8863: 8447: 8312: 7410: 7197: 6559: 6190: 6110: 5705: 5646: 5519: 5462: 4661: 4652:

Yang YT, Chen B (April 2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health".

4537: 4229: 4139: 4074: 3912: 3636: 3635:

By leaving at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface from harvest through planting,

2025: 2004: 1977: 1876: 1743: 1620: 1530: 1384: 1361: 1245:

had $ 7.3 billion in sales of seeds and from licensing its technology; DuPont, through its

997: 900: 861:). The genetic information for tumor growth is encoded on a mobile, circular DNA fragment ( 599: 480: 457: 301: 11085: 8738: 6685: 6419:"Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of cereals: a promising approach crossing barriers" 5211:"Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States" 4941:

implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts.

1153: 8: 13336: 13268: 13206: 13070: 12700: 12654: 12646: 12356:

Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects

10538:"Biosynthesis of chlorophyll c in a dinoflagellate and heterologous production in planta" 7594: 7571: 6941: 6891:

Gonzalez N, De Bodt S, Sulpice R, Jikumaru Y, Chae E, Dhondt S, et al. (July 2010).

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when fried. They do not employ genes from non-potato species. The trait was added to the

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occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to

614: 465: 461: 435: 361: 41: 12483: 11568: 11511: 11142: 10553: 10453: 10309: 10044: 9574:

Voloudakis, Andreas E.; Kaldis, Athanasios; Patil, Basavaprabhu L. (29 September 2022).

9511: 9141: 9107: 8867: 8451: 8316: 7414: 7201: 6563: 6194: 6114: 5709: 5650: 5523: 5466: 4665: 4640:

data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm.

4541: 4233: 4143: 4078: 13214: 13065: 12595: 12537: 12407: 12382: 12322:"Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health: Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" 12260: 12181: 12144:"Genetically modified crops and small-scale farmers: main opportunities and challenges" 11588: 11553:"Economic impacts of smallholder farmers' adoption of drought-tolerant maize varieties" 11433: 11400: 11363: 11328: 11195: 11077: 10918:

Genetically Modified Food and Global Welfare (Frontiers of Economics and Globalization)

10470: 10437: 10418: 10345: 10296:

Meagher RB (April 2000). "Phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic pollutants".

10074: 10007: 9980: 9523: 9160: 9125: 9088:"Development and Characterization of a CP4 EPSPS-Based, Glyphosate-Tolerant Corn Event" 8889: 8617: 8592: 8519: 8494: 8470: 8435: 8421:"'Supercharged' GMO rice could increase yields 50 percent with improved photosynthesis" 8049: 7974: 7651: 7615: 7503: 7495: 7434: 7343: 7278: 7253: 7166: 7076: 7051: 7009: 6982: 6917: 6892: 6666: 6582: 6547: 6509: 6492: 6206: 6134: 6036: 6011: 5992: 5841: 5669: 5634: 5582: 5508:"Plant genetic resources: what can they contribute toward increased crop productivity?" 5483: 5450: 5241: 5153: 5128: 5014: 4630: 4586: 4487: 4462: 4403: 4350: 4302: 4277: 4250: 4217: 4198: 4162: 4127: 4095: 4062: 3866: 3579: 1693: 1576: 1464: 1428: 1337: 1253:

potentially increasing product choice and competition. The patent on the first type of

1115:

With multiple trait integration, several new traits may be integrated into a new crop.

1016: 1009: 993: 20: 12922: 12630: 11129:

Dong HZ, Li WJ (2007). "Variability of Endotoxin Expression in Bt Transgenic Cotton".

10317: 9005: 8020: 7733: 7685: 6716: 5850: 5825: 5728: 5693: 5609: 2156: 2020:

was not tough enough for use on military test grounds. Modifications in 2016 included

1555:

In November 2014, the USDA approved a potato that prevents bruising and produces less

1533:. As of January 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially in any country. 1234:

framework" and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies.

296: 13451: 13341: 13331: 12587: 12495: 12412: 12360: 12354: 12295: 12252: 12173: 11968: 11907: 11736: 11726: 11662: 11592: 11580: 11576: 11533: 11525: 11438: 11420: 11320: 11281: 11187: 11150: 11069: 10955: 10927: 10916: 10796: 10598: 10575: 10567: 10475: 10422: 10410: 10378: 10352: 10321: 10158: 10132: 10127: 10110: 10066: 10012: 9605: 9597: 9165: 9033: 9025: 8927: 8881: 8742: 8622: 8524: 8475: 8436:"Improvement of photosynthesis in rice (Oryza sativa L.) by inserting the C4 pathway" 8330: 8108: 8053: 8041: 7619: 7607: 7599: 7507: 7426: 7283: 7215: 7170: 7158: 7081: 7014: 6981:

Sakoda K, Yamori W, Shimada T, Sugano SS, Hara-Nishimura I, Tanaka Y (October 2020).

6963: 6922: 6873: 6761: 6720: 6628: 6623: 6606: 6587: 6514: 6473: 6463: 6440: 6435: 6418: 6126: 6098: 6076: 6041: 5984: 5980: 5855: 5775: 5733: 5674: 5613: 5547: 5542: 5507: 5488: 5429: 5380: 5233: 5158: 5006: 4921: 4911: 4779: 4760: 4677: 4622: 4553: 4492: 4395: 4342: 4307: 4255: 4167: 4100: 3184: 2036: 1287: 1099: 954: 707: 634: 610: 306: 186: 12840: 12599: 12541: 12264: 12185: 11367: 11332: 11199: 11081: 10078: 9543:"The Present and Future Role of Insect-Resistant Genetically Modified Cotton in IPM" 8797: 8021:"Convergent selection of a WD40 protein that enhances grain yield in maize and rice" 7655: 7347: 6670: 6138: 5586: 5262: 4710:"Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods" 4634: 4590: 4354: 853:

mediated transformation is another common technique. Agrobacteria are natural plant

773: 13224: 12579: 12529: 12487: 12402: 12394: 12287: 12242: 12163: 12155: 11960: 11572: 11515: 11428: 11412: 11355: 11312: 11271: 11177: 11146: 11111: 11061: 10557: 10465: 10457: 10402: 10313: 10122: 10056: 10048: 10002: 9992: 9896: 9587: 9527: 9515: 9363:"The USDA Approved a New GM Crop to Deal With Problems Created by the Old GM Crops" 9155: 9145: 9099: 9064: 9017: 8893: 8871: 8734: 8679: 8612: 8604: 8514: 8506: 8465: 8455: 8394:"Advanced genetic tools could help boost crop yields and feed billions more people" 8320: 8033: 7978: 7709: 7589: 7487: 7418: 7377: 7335: 7273: 7265: 7205: 7150: 7071: 7063: 7004: 6994: 6953: 6912: 6904: 6863: 6751: 6712: 6658: 6618: 6577: 6567: 6504: 6430: 6399: 6262: 6210: 6198: 6118: 6094: 6068: 6031: 6023: 5976: 5845: 5837: 5767: 5752: 5723: 5713: 5664: 5654: 5605: 5574: 5537: 5527: 5478: 5470: 5225: 5148: 5140: 5018: 4998: 4903: 4902:. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US). p. 149. 4771: 4669: 4614: 4578: 4545: 4482: 4474: 4407: 4387: 4334: 4297: 4289: 4245: 4237: 4157: 4147: 4090: 4082: 3411: 2081: 2021: 1926: 1698: 1671: 1506:

has been modified to produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to

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Azadi H, Samiee A, Mahmoudi H, Jouzi Z, Khachak PR, De Maeyer P, Witlox F (2016).

11520: 11495: 11416: 9211:. Washington, DC: National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy. Archived from 7438: 5996: 5771: 5474: 5245: 5144: 5049: 4618: 4522: 1945:. Potatoes that produce industrially useful starches have been developed as well. 832:. This method has been applied successfully for many cultivated crops, especially 13273: 13157: 13116: 13075: 12985: 12491: 12211: 12159: 11166:"Insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops: lessons from the laboratory and field" 11047:"Insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops: lessons from the laboratory and field" 10654: 10214: 8948:. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). 5374: 4549: 4391: 4373:"An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research" 4338: 4152: 3639:

reduces soil erosion from wind and water, increases water retention, and reduces

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are not containable. In addition to anthropogenic pollution, millions of tons of

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Many strains of corn have been developed in recent years to combat the spread of

1775: 1663: 1652: 1502: 1365: 1031: 966: 958: 794: 667:(invented in 1987). In the 1980s techniques were developed to introduce isolated 656: 622: 379: 191: 19:"GM Crops" redirects here. For the journal formerly printed under that name, see 12291: 11182: 11165: 11065: 9859:"GM microbe breakthrough paves way for large-scale seaweed farming for biofuels" 9714: 9212: 7890:"Syngenta US | Corn and Soybean Seed – Garst, Golden Harvest, NK, Agrisure" 6703:

Walmsley AM, Arntzen CJ (April 2000). "Plants for delivery of edible vaccines".

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Predieri S (2001). "Mutation induction and tissue culture in improving fruits".

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A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical

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Data Sets. Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture.

11610:(Second ed.). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp. 23–323. 10461: 9130: