2456:
253:
27:
4542:
2470:
4409:
2442:
2342:
6425:
5463:
5038:
4421:
4041:
1127:, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns.
616:
4433:
6435:
1446:
1160:
1146:
979:. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica).
178:
401:
300:
2398:. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin.
1899:, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of
818:
the southern continents were collected into a single continent called
Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in the equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician the continents Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica were still independent continents
330:
of a large planetoid with the Earth. More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth. Some of this object's mass merged with Earth, significantly altering its
872:
in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent
2381:
and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late
Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from
183:
182:
179:
462:
cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented
1008:. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwana was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not. These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush
2246:
faunas. The formation of the
Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean.
184:
904:, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian ice caps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The melting of ice caps and glaciers contributed to a rise in
725:
and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early
Paleozoic, Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called
385:
as well. However, some scientists argue against this hypothetical Late Heavy
Bombardment, pointing out that the conclusion has been drawn from data which are not fully representative (only a few crater hotspots on the Moon have been analyzed).
181:
1272:
of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the
Triassic open ocean. The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in the period—but had not yet separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the
877:
drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps has been detected in Upper
Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time.
920:. The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, Rheic Ocean, a seaway of Iapetus Ocean (now in between Avalonia and Laurentia), and newly formed
1031:
The
Carboniferous was a time of active mountain building, as the supercontinent Pangea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America-Europe
2234:
continents continued to drift toward their present positions, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 kilometres (155 mi) from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations.
1593:
activityâor rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridgesâenriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for
946:
and
Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the
1700:, which collided with the Asian plate. This impact gave rise to the Himalayas. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the
608:
The first-known glaciations occurred during the
Proterozoic, one that began shortly after the beginning of the eon, while there were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the
3923:). Animated story of life since about 13,700,000,000 shows everything from the big bang to the formation of the Earth and the development of bacteria and other organisms to the ascent of man.
642:
Eon is the current eon in the geologic timescale. It covers roughly 539 million years. During this period continents drifted apart, but eventually collected into a single landmass known as
3801:
Hooker, J.J., "Tertiary to Present: Paleocene", pp. 459-465, Vol. 5. of Selley, Richard C., L. Robin McCocks, and Ian R. Plimer, Encyclopedia of Geology, Oxford: Elsevier Limited, 2005.
3881:
1895:
currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45
1080:
2670:"Meteorite study suggests Earth may have been wet since it formed - Enstatite chondrite meteorites, once considered 'dry,' contain enough water to fill the oceans -- and then some"
180:
2806:
959:) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern
760:
supercontinent called Pannotia. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. Continental drift rates may have been anomalously high.
1012:
swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea-level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit
1891:), the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm
3678:
1367:. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western
285:. The Hadean Eon is not formally recognized, but it essentially marks the era before we have adequate record of significant solid rocks. The oldest dated
2699:
3946:
207:
The Precambrian includes approximately 90% of geologic time. It extends from 4.6 billion years ago to the beginning of the Cambrian Period (about 539
3934:
3874:
1289:. Because of the limited shoreline of one super-continental mass, Triassic marine deposits are globally relatively rare; despite their prominence in
1371:, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the
1060:. There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous: the Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed the
3703:
1821:
in the American west, which ended in the succeeding epoch. South and North America remained separated by equatorial seas (they joined during the
510:
are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic
533:, so the presence of the magnetic field helped prevent the planet's atmosphere from being stripped away, which is what probably happened to the
1957:
was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar.
30:
Geologic time shown in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the eons of Earth's history and noting major events
2326:
upon which they sit probably having moved no more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) relative to each other since the beginning of the period.
7024:
6700:
1355:
was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The
4998:
2047:. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between
1113:. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (
3819:
1657:
331:
internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form the orbiting Moon. Outgassing and
2938:
2187:
811:
166:. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thawing, repeating every 40,000â100,000 years. The
6034:
5870:
3926:
2278:
began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000â100,000 years.
514:, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island rocks and deposited in a
3459:
831:
was formed as a result of this. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
1392:. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. Though the
5499:
3857:
2839:
4285:
2138:
continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between
7321:
7316:
6471:
5003:
846:
that became extinct. The only larger one was the Permian-Triassic extinction event. The extinctions occurred approximately
3084:
Wang, K.; Jacobsen, S.B. (Sep 12, 2016). "Potassium isotopic evidence for a high-energy giant impact origin of the Moon".
2194:
region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the
3890:. 2005 Oct:58â65. â discusses the timing of the formation of the oceans and other major events in Earth's early history.
3472:
6818:
2665:
1195:
tectonic deformation was comparatively mild. Nevertheless, the era featured the dramatic rifting of the supercontinent
107:
As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They
1109:
all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as
916:
and continent fragments drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as
7019:
6615:
3992:
3806:
3749:
2872:
2736:
Plate model for 'Extending Full-Plate Tectonic Models into Deep Time: Linking the Neoproterozoic and the Phanerozoic'
1813:
were still intermittently joined by a land bridge, while Greenland and North America were beginning to separate. The
868:
conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen
483:
events. Some geologists view the sudden increase in aluminum content in zircons as an indicator of the beginning of
373:) during which a large number of impact craters are believed to have formed on the Moon, and by inference on Earth,
6655:
5074:
3135:
Morbidelli, A.; Chambers, J.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Petit, J. M.; Robert, F.; Valsecchi, G. B.; Cyr, K. E. (2000).
5984:
5639:
4744:
4471:
578:
than Archean-age ones, and plenty are unaltered. Study of these rocks shows that the eon featured massive, rapid
344:
303:
Artist's impression of a Hadean landscape and the Moon looming large in the sky, both bodies still under extreme
58:, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the
3912:
5863:
4573:
3682:
3630:
Sereno P. C. (1993). "The pectoral girdle and forelimb of the basal theropod Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis".
471:
cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to
7065:
6813:
2072:
3943:
3033:
Canup, RM; Asphaug, E (2001). "Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation".
823:
began to move toward Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also,
318:
and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid
69:
and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid
6808:
5946:
2954:"Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago"
2563:
3931:
3711:
6868:
5165:
4837:
3308:
2558:
3233:
Mojzsis, Stephen J.; Brasser, Ramon; Kelly, Nigel M.; Abramov, Oleg; Werner, Stephanie C. (2019-08-12).
2354:
Epoch began approximately 11,700 calendar years before present and continues to the present. During the
7208:
7188:
5589:
5569:
4842:
4247:
3959:
2521:
1208:
3388:"Oldest measurement of Earth's magnetic field reveals battle between Sun and Earth for our atmosphere"
1554:
were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising
7198:
7170:
7003:
6782:
6300:
6149:
6029:
5579:
5492:
4847:
4030:
2703:
2669:
2373:
about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about
2195:
1268:("all the sea"). All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through
908:, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an
522:
2953:
7265:
6464:
5999:
4649:
4563:
3897:
2931:
1937:
started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the
1020:
especially hard. This sea-level drop and the associated unconformity in North America separate the
348:
97:
93:
276:
7203:
7153:
6940:
6787:
6255:
5906:
5351:
3177:
2864:
2483:
1578:
1570:
327:
3741:
3550:
3525:
3411:
2346:
Current Earth - without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).
1789:
continued processes that had begun during the late Cretaceous Period. During the Paleocene, the
1581:, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its
1573:) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between
1253:, a vast gulf that opened farther westward in the mid-Triassic, at the expense of the shrinking
7326:
7103:
6904:
6650:
6549:
5609:
2600:"Earth's water may have been inherited from material similar to enstatite chondrite meteorites"
1407:
during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the
439:. The Moon orbited Earth much closer, appearing much larger, producing more frequent and wider
413:
363:
252:
6705:
6438:
6070:
6015:
5969:
5954:
5599:
4616:
4326:
3985:
3906:. 2005 Dec 20. â discusses speculation into the role of quantum systems in the origin of life
2461:
2275:
1853:
began its migration to Asia that would lead to a tectonic collision and the formation of the
960:
503:
171:
39:
3203:
3152:
2856:
7138:
7079:
7055:
7050:
6321:
6290:
5739:
5634:
5485:
5067:
4777:
4729:
4501:
3823:
3346:
3256:
3199:
3148:
3093:
3042:
3015:
2965:
2613:
2543:
2500:
2399:
1619:
1025:
1021:
964:
583:
43:
2782:
2765:
942:
spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma. The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as
772:
remained independent continents following the break-up of the supercontinent of Pannotia.
77:
formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth.
8:
7165:
7060:
6978:
6968:
6743:
6660:
6640:
6630:
6457:
6195:
5654:
5614:
5278:
5213:
4920:
4877:
4711:
4654:
4496:
4488:
4464:
4387:
4351:
4321:
4068:
4020:
3886:
3612:
3134:
2538:
2516:
2493:
2374:
2362:
1697:
1507:
1420:
1389:
1375:
1360:
1297:, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. Thus Triassic
1073:
1045:
948:
860:
The most-commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of an
838:
that, taken together, comprise the second-largest of the five major extinction events in
257:
167:
26:
3350:
3260:
3097:
3046:
3019:
2969:
2617:
1048:
in North America; it also extended the newly uplifted Appalachians southwestward as the
7290:
7270:
7148:
7133:
7118:
7040:
6839:
6803:
6605:
6144:
6122:
5989:
5813:
5784:
5719:
5712:
4789:
4341:
4280:
4232:
4158:
4119:
4050:
4025:
4015:
3734:
3290:
3246:
3215:
3189:
3161:
3136:
3117:
3066:
2989:
2857:
2637:
2366:
2094:
1607:
1412:
1254:
1124:
1049:
897:
781:
749:
566:. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many
534:
2599:
1427:. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan,
7098:
6894:
6889:
6733:
6569:
6225:
6104:
6004:
5857:
5760:
5664:
5008:
4985:
4905:
4872:
4437:
4331:
3853:
3802:
3745:
3282:
3219:
3109:
3058:
2981:
2868:
2835:
2787:
2641:
2629:
2604:
2256:
2239:
1946:
1701:
1348:
1301:
is mostly based on organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as
1286:
1041:
1005:
952:
421:
271:
was forming, probably within a large cloud of gas and dust around the Sun, called an
3294:
2704:"Unexpected abundance of hydrogen in meteorites reveals the origin of Earth's water"
7295:
7244:
7160:
7108:
6884:
6862:
6728:
6625:
6343:
6331:
6159:
6127:
5959:
5828:
5744:
5734:
5649:
5266:
5155:
5125:
5031:
5026:
4932:
4799:
4784:
4661:
4641:
4583:
4425:
4346:
4316:
4242:
4227:
4137:
3978:
3643:
3639:
3484:
3354:
3274:
3264:
3207:
3156:
3121:
3101:
3070:
3050:
2993:
2973:
2777:
2739:
2698:
2621:
2576:, evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions
2553:
2242:
during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive
1814:
1615:
1603:
1595:
1519:
839:
835:
690:
575:
468:
417:
374:
20:
3176:
Brasser, R.; Mojzsis, S.J.; Werner, S.C.; Matsumura, S.; Ida, S. (December 2016).
1004:; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and carbonate deposition of the
7228:
7193:
7180:
7143:
7090:
6948:
6843:
6777:
6738:
6575:
6405:
6270:
6247:
6215:
6167:
6154:
6117:
6099:
5729:
5724:
5466:
5341:
5296:
5190:
5185:
5175:
5060:
4927:
4910:
4867:
4857:
4749:
4366:
4168:
4142:
4089:
3950:
3938:
3916:
2548:
2533:
2511:
2506:
2419:
2056:
1818:
1727:
1590:
1511:
1424:
1285:—are of Late Triassic age; in the U.S., these thick sediments comprise the
507:
484:
459:
319:
108:
70:
3460:
International Stratigraphic Chart 2008, International Commission on Stratigraphy
2469:
7331:
7128:
6926:
6914:
6858:
6853:
6847:
6772:
6695:
6620:
6348:
6338:
6137:
6009:
5979:
5964:
5749:
5707:
5702:
5574:
5041:
4960:
4950:
4814:
4809:
4568:
4558:
4457:
4413:
4361:
4295:
4257:
4252:
4204:
4084:
3335:"Emergence of peraluminous crustal magmas and implications for the early Earth"
3269:
3234:
3211:
2447:
2370:
2323:
2040:
1954:
1914:
1515:
1499:
1487:
1372:
1352:
1340:
1290:
1238:
1057:
1053:
757:
620:
609:
272:
189:
112:
1585:; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the
1380:
664:
Most of the evolution of multicellular life occurred during this time period.
494:, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as
7310:
7045:
6963:
6958:
6909:
6899:
6539:
6428:
6378:
6326:
6260:
6232:
6220:
6210:
6200:
6082:
5926:
5852:
5801:
5754:
5669:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5552:
5150:
4970:
4900:
4852:
4819:
4691:
4681:
4671:
4631:
4626:
4392:
4173:
4109:
4058:
3492:
3286:
2791:
2528:
2191:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2068:
2060:
2048:
2036:
2024:
1930:
1806:
1731:
1681:
1669:
1566:
1527:
1400:
1294:
1037:
1001:
988:
968:
785:
710:
538:
405:
212:
3955:
3387:
3359:
3334:
2625:
1498:, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the
1000:
A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the
557:
7123:
6921:
6635:
6610:
6595:
6561:
6521:
6400:
6394:
6060:
5994:
5916:
5847:
5796:
5697:
5644:
5584:
5374:
5360:
5013:
4975:
4965:
4955:
4895:
4676:
4521:
4511:
4275:
4199:
4132:
4127:
4094:
3920:
3902:
3113:
3062:
2985:
2743:
2633:
2488:
2475:
2260:
1846:
1635:
1551:
1396:
1356:
1298:
1250:
909:
789:
453:
444:
436:
433:
368:
268:
82:
59:
55:
51:
47:
3877:â a detailed look at events from the origin of the universe to the present
975:. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of
6823:
6720:
6682:
6665:
6600:
6581:
6514:
6494:
6410:
6388:
6295:
6280:
6075:
6055:
6045:
5974:
5931:
5911:
5840:
5659:
5561:
5333:
5208:
4772:
4578:
4506:
4356:
4222:
4178:
4163:
3909:
3893:
3007:
2708:
2674:
2573:
2427:
2403:
2319:
2298:
2243:
2097:
starting 23.03 Ma. and ends at 2.588 Ma. The Neogene Period follows the
1950:
1586:
1428:
1393:
1265:
1115:
1061:
972:
848:
828:
777:
684:
633:
571:
550:
491:
458:) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's
336:
228:
224:
202:
132:
85:
3105:
1179:
1064:(closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow
6590:
6585:
6480:
6305:
6205:
6112:
6087:
5890:
5674:
5425:
5306:
4862:
4829:
4804:
4686:
4606:
4516:
4336:
4311:
4290:
4267:
4194:
4099:
3488:
3278:
2423:
2415:
2407:
2309:
2287:
2225:
2218:
2110:
2064:
2044:
2012:
1938:
1834:
1693:
1562:
1547:
1531:
1522:. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous,
1479:
1463:
1450:
1440:
1278:
1269:
1233:
Period extends from about 252.17 Âą 0.06 to 201.3 Âą 0.2 Ma. During the
1065:
921:
917:
865:
827:
broke free from Gondwana and began to head north toward Laurentia. The
815:
801:
780:
covered most of the southern hemisphere, and minor oceans included the
698:
526:
511:
472:
356:
291:
280:
235:
78:
4408:
4040:
2441:
2341:
2269:
1886:
1879:
1777:
1079:
7280:
7260:
6993:
6953:
6690:
6499:
6368:
6285:
5921:
5833:
5808:
5789:
5679:
5384:
5346:
5301:
5291:
5231:
5052:
4794:
4739:
4724:
4696:
4666:
4593:
4526:
4382:
4237:
4104:
3054:
2977:
2315:
2098:
2006:
1982:
1926:
1854:
1838:
1802:
1790:
1786:
1759:
1747:
1739:
1734:
that began 66 and ended 23.03 Ma and comprises the first part of the
1713:
1689:
1599:
1555:
1535:
1495:
1483:
1416:
1385:
1258:
1188:
1165:
1151:
1033:
905:
761:
718:
673:
650:
592:
579:
495:
429:
315:
304:
143:
117:
66:
2731:
2015:
continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent
2000:
1993:
1905:
1770:
1470:
1323:
Period extends from about 201.3 Âą 0.2 to 145.0 Ma. During the early
615:
157:
7275:
7113:
6757:
6670:
5936:
5779:
5689:
5547:
5537:
5435:
5379:
5311:
5246:
5132:
5120:
5092:
3657:
3251:
3194:
3137:"Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth"
3010:; Asphaug, E. (2001). "An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system".
2395:
2355:
2335:
2231:
2207:
2106:
1970:
1918:
1826:
1794:
1735:
1677:
1665:
1661:
1647:
1523:
1408:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1314:
1234:
1224:
1212:
1204:
1200:
1192:
1140:
1017:
976:
956:
943:
933:
901:
887:
874:
854:
824:
773:
753:
739:
722:
706:
702:
694:
658:
654:
602:
499:
480:
234:
Major volcanic events altering the Earth's environment and causing
163:
127:
2664:
2009:
the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.
1793:
continued to drift toward their present positions. Supercontinent
1237:, almost all the Earth's land mass was concentrated into a single
1187:
After the vigorous convergent plate mountain-building of the late
646:, before splitting again into the current continental landmasses.
7285:
6509:
6504:
6275:
6265:
6187:
6178:
6163:
6050:
5895:
5818:
5527:
5430:
5418:
5356:
5286:
5261:
5221:
5200:
5170:
4887:
4764:
4734:
4550:
4531:
4214:
4001:
2855:
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2004).
2411:
2391:
2383:
2378:
2171:
2135:
2122:
2102:
2084:
2020:
2016:
1934:
1900:
1892:
1822:
1673:
1503:
1491:
1364:
1328:
1282:
1246:
1242:
1196:
1110:
1106:
1093:
1076:
continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto-Tethys Ocean.
1069:
1013:
869:
861:
820:
819:(since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but
769:
765:
727:
714:
598:
587:
567:
563:
515:
476:
440:
425:
409:
395:
332:
220:
152:
138:
123:
38:
follows the major geological events in Earth's past based on the
6065:
2166:. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as
1638:
were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.
1565:
continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central
1277:
that marks the initial break-up of Pangea—which separated
601:, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form
537:. However, the field strength was lower than at present and the
518:. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.
126:, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form
6373:
5532:
5413:
5406:
5115:
5110:
5084:
4754:
4621:
4601:
3235:"Onset of Giant Planet Migration before 4480 Million Years Ago"
2387:
2264:
2252:
2248:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2052:
2032:
1962:
1922:
1873:
1866:
1842:
1830:
1798:
1743:
1685:
1664:
era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form.
1623:
1611:
1550:
remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and
1539:
1404:
1368:
1344:
1128:
913:
853:
and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following
643:
464:
286:
247:
216:
1841:
pulling away from each other. Africa was heading north toward
756:
continents are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a
6710:
6449:
6383:
6132:
5823:
5771:
5443:
5401:
5394:
5389:
5226:
5180:
5142:
5100:
4942:
4719:
4701:
4541:
4480:
3301:
3175:
2952:
Wilde, S. A.; Valley, J.W.; Peck, W.H.; Graham, C.M. (2001).
2377:
latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene
2183:
2159:
2151:
1958:
1896:
1850:
1627:
1582:
1543:
1445:
1343:
opened in the new rift between North America and what is now
1159:
1145:
864:, in the Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable
843:
378:
352:
340:
311:
264:
208:
101:
89:
3944:
Paleomaps Since 600 Ma (Mollweide Projection, Longitude 180)
2807:"Earth's Lost History of Planet-Altering Eruptions Revealed"
1399:
left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the
721:
starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called
6644:
6526:
5522:
5508:
5321:
5256:
5251:
5241:
5236:
5105:
4993:
4611:
3927:
Theory of the Earth and Abstract of the Theory of the Earth
3178:"Late veneer and late accretion to the terrestrial planets"
2422:. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of
2163:
2059:
of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene,
2028:
1966:
1942:
1810:
1631:
1574:
1274:
1009:
382:
323:
74:
3970:
3932:
Paleomaps Since 600 Ma (Mollweide Projection, Longitude 0)
3740:(2nd ed.). Belmont: West Publishing Company. p.
3710:. United States Department of the Interior. Archived from
3619:. LamontâDoherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University.
3232:
2732:"Plate tectonics, Rodinia, Gondwana, supercontinent cycle"
416:
around 4.031 billion years ago. As depicted, Earth's
400:
81:
and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.
6544:
3965:
3613:"Great Triassic Assemblages Pt 1 - The Chinle and Newark"
3470:
2369:
ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world
2238:
South America became linked to North America through the
997:
extends from about 358.9 Âą 0.4 to about 298.9 Âą 0.15 Ma.
530:
299:
4449:
1825:); the components of the former southern supercontinent
1606:
make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous
1363:
basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of
955:
sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (
335:
activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing
238:
may have occurred 10 times in the past 3 billion years.
5477:
3556:. International Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022
3531:. International Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022
3417:. International Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022
3006:
2426:, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial
2358:, continental motions have been less than a kilometer.
2318:
were essentially at their present positions during the
1660:
up to and including the present day. By the end of the
16:
The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past
2406:
resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the
1610:
from North America include the rich marine fossils of
810:
period started at a major extinction event called the
3768:, (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2001), p. 215.
3332:
2951:
2190:
2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western
1215:
coastline (such as along the U.S. East Coast) today.
1199:. Pangaea gradually split into a northern continent,
1102:
extends from about 298.9 Âą 0.15 to 252.17 Âą 0.06 Ma.
322:
when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The
73:
when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The
3333:
Ackerson, M.R.; Trail, D.; Buettner, J. (May 2021).
2437:
2263:. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between
1506:
that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the
475:
and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of
326:
formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the
7025:
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
3736:
The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution
2932:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart v.2015/01"
2700:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
2414:. The region continues to rise, still causing weak
3822:. Page Paleontology Science Center. Archived from
3820:"Paleoclimatology - The Study of Ancient Climates"
3733:
1052:. In the same time frame, much of present eastern
2854:
1618:and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous
1245:("all the land"). This took the form of a giant "
649:The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras â the
529:flux was about 100 times the value of the modern
7308:
2694:
2692:
2660:
2658:
1622:. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in
1249:" with an east-facing "mouth" constituting the
420:had largely cooled, leaving a water-rich barren
46:based on the study of the planet's rock layers (
3704:"Jurassic Rocks â 208 to 146 million years ago"
2766:"Of clocks and rocks - The four aeons of Earth"
2597:
2150:margin of South America caused the rise of the
1817:of the late Cretaceous continued to uplift the
1656:Era covers the 66 million years since the
562:) is more complete than that for the preceding
404:Artist's impression of Earth during its second
104:since the beginning of the planet's formation.
3731:
2593:
2591:
2267:and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about
1949:, and created another shallow sea with island
1056:welded itself to Europe along the line of the
900:that started about 443.8 Âą 1.5 Ma. During the
834:The Ordovician came to a close in a series of
347:. However, in 2020, researchers reported that
96:. However, in 2020, researchers reported that
6465:
5493:
5068:
4465:
3986:
2689:
2655:
1797:had not yet separated into three continents.
1241:centered more or less on the equator, called
1040:. This continental collision resulted in the
3629:
3580:
3083:
3032:
2314:to 11,700 years before present. The modern
814:some time about 485.4 Âą 1.9 Ma. During the
730:, which included most of Earth's land area.
574:; furthermore, many of these rocks are less
211:). It includes the first three of the four
2588:
1423:beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the
1293:, where the Triassic was first studied. In
1264:The remainder was the world-ocean known as
525:was established 3.5 billion years ago. The
65:Initially, Earth was molten due to extreme
6472:
6458:
5500:
5486:
5075:
5061:
4472:
4458:
3993:
3979:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2274:(the start of the Quaternary Period), the
2146:was absent, the subduction zone along the
1941:finally vanished, while the uplift of the
1331:broke up into the northern supercontinent
3852:(New ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman.
3732:Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (1997).
3358:
3268:
3250:
3193:
3160:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2834:. California: Stanford University Press.
2829:
2781:
1933:drifted apart. In western North America,
1630:. In the area that is now India, massive
1305:crustaceans and terrestrial vertebrates.
1131:seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.
570:that were laid down in extensive shallow
7020:Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
2939:International Commission on Stratigraphy
2823:
2339:
2075:to flow, rapidly cooling the continent.
1444:
1158:
1144:
1078:
776:started to drift toward the South Pole.
693:: from oldest to youngest, they are the
614:
555:The geologic record of the Proterozoic (
399:
298:
251:
176:
25:
19:For broader coverage of this topic, see
3847:
3789:
3777:
3671:
3650:
3604:
3598:
3586:
3574:
3512:
3453:
3447:
3435:
3373:
2729:
2430:phase, to near its present boundaries.
1494:completed its breakup into present day
982:
623:with no remaining liquid surface water.
582:accretion (unique to the Proterozoic),
7309:
5082:
3795:
2881:
2863:. Cambridge University Press. p.
2763:
2131:extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 Ma.
1068:(which was closed by the collision of
6453:
5481:
5056:
4453:
3974:
3681:. Urwelt museum hauff. Archived from
3610:
3385:
1658:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
619:Artist's rendition of a fully-frozen
162:, then intensified at the end of the
6434:
5004:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
3471:Murphy, J. B.; Nance, R. D. (1965).
2730:Merdith, Andrew (16 December 2020).
2292:
2281:
2101:Period. The Neogene consists of the
1577:beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous
1434:
1036:) along the present line of eastern
812:CambrianâOrdovician extinction event
795:
597:, the earliest-known supercontinent
314:was initially molten due to extreme
122:, the earliest-known supercontinent
4432:
3182:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3141:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
2154:and the southward extension of the
1707:
1257:, an ocean that existed during the
349:sufficient water to fill the oceans
174:ended about 10,000 years ago.
111:, occasionally combining to form a
98:sufficient water to fill the oceans
13:
6819:Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
3840:
3632:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
3473:"How do supercontinents assemble?"
3162:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x
2666:Washington University in St. Louis
2598:Piani, Laurette (28 August 2020).
2259:, cutting off the remnants of the
1976:
1753:
1308:
1218:
927:
881:
752:that begins about 538.8 Âą 0.2 Ma.
733:
544:
541:was about half the modern radius.
467:and continent formation until the
339:, augmented by ice delivered from
88:, augmented by ice delivered from
14:
7343:
3868:
3817:
3617:Dinosaurs and the History of Life
2804:
2329:
2201:
2078:
2039:continued to push north into the
1738:Era. This period consists of the
1087:
6433:
6424:
6423:
5462:
5461:
5037:
5036:
4540:
4431:
4420:
4419:
4407:
4039:
3339:Geochemical Perspectives Letters
2468:
2454:
2440:
2116:
1961:continued its journey away from
1945:isolated its final remnant, the
1335:and the southern supercontinent
689:(Ma) and is subdivided into six
667:
451:The Earth of the early Archean (
263:During Hadean time (4.6–4
6701:English and British regnal year
4745:Human impact on the environment
3811:
3783:
3771:
3758:
3725:
3696:
3623:
3592:
3568:
3543:
3518:
3506:
3464:
3441:
3429:
3404:
3379:
3367:
3326:
3226:
3169:
3128:
3077:
3026:
3000:
2945:
2783:10.18814/epiiugs/1991/v14i4/003
2340:
1953:to the north. Though the North
1860:
1829:continued to split apart, with
1641:
1502:widened, the convergent-margin
1415:. The first of several massive
1378:and the renowned late Jurassic
1211:that characterizes most of the
1134:
36:geological history of the Earth
6479:
4574:Climate variability and change
3679:"Land and sea during Jurassic"
3644:10.1080/02724634.1994.10011524
3014:. American Geophysical Union.
2848:
2798:
2757:
2723:
1419:were emplaced in the northern
627:
389:
196:
1:
6814:Old Style and New Style dates
4999:Evolution of the Solar System
3658:"Pangea Begins to Rift Apart"
3313:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2582:
2198:near the end of the Miocene.
2073:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
1965:and began its collision with
951:. In these near-deserts, the
612:of the Varangian glaciation.
241:
6766:Pre-Julian / Julian
4750:Evolutionary history of life
2564:List of geochronologic names
2503:, archaeological chronology
2043:, isolating the remnants of
1203:, and a southern continent,
1083:Pangaea separation animation
351:may have always been on the
100:may have always been on the
52:about 4.54 billion years ago
7:
7322:Evolution-related timelines
7317:Geological history of Earth
6999:Geological history of Earth
6869:Astronomical year numbering
6238:Geological history of Earth
4064:Geological history of Earth
4000:
3848:Stanley, Steven M. (1999).
3450:, pp. 315â318, 329â332
2764:Nisbet, E.G. (1991-12-01).
2559:Timeline of natural history
2433:
1561:To the north of Africa the
896:is a major division of the
748:is a major division of the
412:. The eon started with the
355:since the beginning of the
215:of Earth's prehistory (the
109:migrated across the surface
10:
7348:
5590:Orders of magnitude (time)
4538:
4037:
3551:"Stratigraphic Chart 2022"
3526:"Stratigraphic Chart 2022"
3412:"Stratigraphic Chart 2022"
3212:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.013
2859:A geologic time scale 2004
2522:Archaeological association
2333:
2296:
2285:
2205:
2162:continued to collide with
2120:
2082:
2063:was finally detached from
1980:
1864:
1757:
1711:
1645:
1461:Period extends from circa
1449:Plate tectonics - 100 Ma,
1438:
1312:
1222:
1209:passive continental margin
1138:
1091:
986:
931:
885:
842:in terms of percentage of
799:
737:
671:
631:
548:
393:
245:
200:
18:
7253:
7237:
7221:
7179:
7171:Thermoluminescence dating
7089:
7078:
7066:Samariumâneodymium dating
7033:
7012:
6986:
6977:
6939:
6877:
6832:
6796:
6765:
6756:
6719:
6681:
6560:
6535:
6487:
6419:
6361:
6314:
6301:Time translation symmetry
6246:
6186:
6176:
6098:
6025:
5945:
5886:
5770:
5688:
5598:
5560:
5546:
5515:
5457:
5370:
5329:
5320:
5277:
5199:
5141:
5091:
5022:
4984:
4941:
4886:
4828:
4763:
4710:
4640:
4592:
4549:
4487:
4479:
4401:
4375:
4304:
4266:
4213:
4187:
4151:
4118:
4078:Composition and structure
4077:
4049:
4031:Index of geology articles
4008:
3239:The Astrophysical Journal
2196:Messinian salinity crisis
2182:region between 19 and 12
2067:and drifted north toward
1991:Epoch extends from about
1508:North American Cordillera
502:, volcanic sediments and
256:Artist's conception of a
188:Plate tectonics from the
44:chronological measurement
6885:Chinese sexagenary cycle
5507:
5009:Location in the Universe
4951:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
4650:List of sovereign states
3270:10.3847/1538-4357/ab2c03
2830:Dalrymple, G.B. (1991).
1431:and the United Kingdom.
558:2,500 to 538.8
454:4,031 to 2,500
432:, eventually developing
369:4,100 to 3,800
366:occurred (approximately
7099:Amino acid racemisation
6256:Absolute space and time
5907:Astronomical chronology
3611:Olsen, Paul E. (1997).
3515:, pp. 320â321, 325
3386:Staff (March 4, 2010).
3360:10.7185/geochemlet.2114
3204:2016E&PSL.455...85B
3153:2000M&PS...35.1309M
2626:10.1126/science.aba1948
2484:Astronomical chronology
2312: million years ago
2272: million years ago
2228: million years ago
2221: million years ago
2109:and is followed by the
2003: million years ago
1996: million years ago
1908: million years ago
1889: million years ago
1882: million years ago
1780: million years ago
1773: million years ago
1616:Smoky Hill Chalk Member
1596:calcareous nanoplankton
1571:Western Interior Seaway
1473: million years ago
1466: million years ago
1168: million years ago
1154: million years ago
595: million years ago
294: million years ago
283: million years ago
160: million years ago
151:The present pattern of
146: million years ago
120: million years ago
7104:Archaeomagnetic dating
6616:Era of Caesar (Iberia)
6306:Time reversal symmetry
5610:Italian six-hour clock
3766:Atlas of Life on Earth
2744:10.5281/zenodo.4485738
2347:
2071:. It also allowed the
1921:began to break up, as
1805:were still connected.
1454:
1177:extended roughly from
1170:
1156:
1084:
624:
523:Earth's magnetic field
504:banded iron formations
448:
414:Late Heavy Bombardment
364:Late Heavy Bombardment
362:During the Hadean the
308:
260:
193:
54:by accretion from the
31:
7004:Geological time units
6071:Time and fate deities
6016:The Unreality of Time
5955:A series and B series
4730:Biogeochemical cycles
4655:dependent territories
4327:Environmental geology
3764:Dougal Dixon et al.,
3309:"Earth-Moon Dynamics"
2462:Earth sciences portal
2345:
1845:, slowly closing the
1448:
1351:. The Jurassic North
1327:, the supercontinent
1162:
1148:
1082:
961:Appalachian Mountains
618:
584:supercontinent cycles
403:
302:
255:
187:
40:geological time scale
29:
7056:Law of superposition
7051:Isotope geochemistry
6322:Chronological dating
6291:Theory of relativity
5635:Daylight saving time
5342:Evolutionary history
4778:Computer cartography
4502:Prebiotic atmosphere
4286:Planetary geophysics
3898:Quantum leap of life
3850:Earth system history
2832:The Age of the Earth
2544:Plate reconstruction
2501:Chronological dating
2410:, including much of
2400:Post-glacial rebound
2093:Period is a unit of
1620:Hell Creek Formation
1604:sedimentary deposits
1514:was followed by the
1026:Pennsylvanian period
1022:Mississippian Period
983:Carboniferous Period
965:Caledonian Mountains
849:447 to 444
717:. Geologically, the
685:539 to 251
682:era spanned roughly
586:, and wholly modern
141:, which broke apart
133:600 to 540
7189:Fluorine absorption
7166:Luminescence dating
7061:Luminescence dating
6969:Milankovitch cycles
6809:Proleptic Gregorian
6641:Hindu units of time
5615:Thai six-hour clock
5279:Natural environment
4921:Geologic time scale
4642:Culture and society
4497:Atmosphere of Earth
4388:Petroleum geologist
4352:Forensic geophysics
4322:Engineering geology
4069:Timeline of geology
4021:Glossary of geology
3887:Scientific American
3882:A Cool Early Earth?
3351:2021GChPL..17...50A
3261:2019ApJ...881...44M
3106:10.1038/nature19341
3098:2016Natur.538..487W
3047:2001Natur.412..708C
3020:2001AGUFM.U51A..02C
2970:2001Natur.409..175W
2811:Scientific American
2618:2020Sci...369.1110P
2612:(6507): 1110â1113.
2539:Geologic time scale
2517:Phase (archaeology)
2494:Age of the universe
2363:last glacial period
2031:started to rise in
2027:continued, and the
1698:Indian subcontinent
1598:. These widespread
1556:eustatic sea levels
1526:itself broke up as
1376:World Heritage Site
1207:. This created the
1180:252 to 66
1046:Alleghenian orogeny
1044:in Europe, and the
949:Tropic of Capricorn
605:, 600â540 Ma.
572:epicontinental seas
490:In contrast to the
345:produced the oceans
258:protoplanetary disc
227:) and precedes the
168:Last Glacial Period
94:produced the oceans
7291:Terminus post quem
7271:Synchronoptic view
7238:Linguistic methods
7199:Obsidian hydration
7134:Radiometric dating
7119:Incremental dating
7041:Chronostratigraphy
6145:Rosy retrospection
6123:Mental chronometry
5947:Philosophy of time
4916:Geological history
4790:Geodetic astronomy
4414:Geology portal
4342:Geologic modelling
4281:Geophysical survey
4233:Geodetic astronomy
4159:Structural geology
4120:Historical geology
4051:History of geology
4026:History of geology
4016:Outline of geology
3949:2012-10-20 at the
3937:2012-10-20 at the
3915:2012-10-22 at the
3910:Evolution timeline
3792:, pp. 279â281
3601:, pp. 414â416
3489:10.1511/2004.4.324
3477:American Scientist
3376:, pp. 302â303
2805:Witze, Alexandra.
2702:(27 August 2020).
2668:(27 August 2020).
2371:sea levels to rise
2348:
2251:'s collision with
1785:In many ways, the
1520:Laramide orogenies
1455:
1413:Morrison Formation
1255:Paleo-Tethys Ocean
1171:
1163:Plate tectonics -
1157:
1149:Plate tectonics -
1125:Paleo-Tethys Ocean
1085:
1050:Ouachita Mountains
898:geologic timescale
782:Proto-Tethys Ocean
750:geologic timescale
625:
590:activity. Roughly
535:atmosphere of Mars
449:
357:planet's formation
309:
261:
194:
32:
7304:
7303:
7217:
7216:
7074:
7073:
6935:
6934:
6890:Geologic Calendar
6752:
6751:
6447:
6446:
6357:
6356:
6332:Circadian rhythms
6150:Tenseâaspectâmood
6005:Temporal finitism
5882:
5881:
5858:Grandfather clock
5475:
5474:
5453:
5452:
5126:chemical elements
5050:
5049:
4986:Planetary science
4906:Extremes on Earth
4873:Signal processing
4447:
4446:
4332:Planetary geology
4248:Planetary geodesy
3880:Valley, John W. "
3859:978-0-7167-3377-5
3708:nationalatlas.gov
3092:(7626): 487â490.
3041:(6848): 708â712.
3012:Abstract #U51A-02
2964:(6817): 175â178.
2841:978-0-8047-1569-0
2293:Pleistocene Epoch
2282:Quaternary Period
2257:Mediterranean Sea
2240:Isthmus of Panama
2021:Mountain building
1935:mountain building
1833:, South America,
1702:Mediterranean Sea
1538:rifted away from
1435:Cretaceous Period
1349:Yucatan Peninsula
1287:Newark Supergroup
1182:million years ago
1042:Hercynian orogeny
953:Old Red Sandstone
851:million years ago
836:extinction events
796:Ordovician period
687:million years ago
560:million years ago
456:million years ago
371:million years ago
185:
135:million years ago
7339:
7296:ASPRO chronology
7245:Glottochronology
7161:Tephrochronology
7109:Dendrochronology
7087:
7086:
6984:
6983:
6783:Proleptic Julian
6773:Pre-Julian Roman
6763:
6762:
6558:
6557:
6474:
6467:
6460:
6451:
6450:
6437:
6436:
6427:
6426:
6344:Glottochronology
6184:
6183:
6100:Human experience
5960:B-theory of time
5558:
5557:
5502:
5495:
5488:
5479:
5478:
5465:
5464:
5337:
5327:
5326:
5267:tropical cyclone
5217:
5077:
5070:
5063:
5054:
5053:
5040:
5039:
4933:History of Earth
4584:Paleoclimatology
4544:
4474:
4467:
4460:
4451:
4450:
4435:
4434:
4423:
4422:
4412:
4411:
4347:Forensic geology
4317:Economic geology
4243:Gravity of Earth
4138:Paleoclimatology
4043:
3995:
3988:
3981:
3972:
3971:
3956:Ageing the Earth
3875:Cosmic Evolution
3863:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3831:
3815:
3809:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3769:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3739:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3654:
3648:
3647:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3555:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3530:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3491:. Archived from
3468:
3462:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3439:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3416:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3272:
3254:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3197:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3147:(6): 1309â1320.
3132:
3126:
3125:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3055:10.1038/35089010
3030:
3024:
3023:
3004:
2998:
2997:
2978:10.1038/35051550
2949:
2943:
2942:
2936:
2928:
2879:
2878:
2862:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2785:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2696:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2662:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2595:
2554:Thermochronology
2478:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2450:
2445:
2444:
2375:40 degrees north
2344:
2313:
2273:
2229:
2222:
2004:
1997:
1909:
1890:
1883:
1815:Laramide orogeny
1781:
1774:
1708:Paleogene Period
1634:beds called the
1486:-early Mesozoic
1474:
1467:
1411:deposits of the
1359:closed, and the
1183:
1169:
1155:
963:and forming the
852:
691:geologic periods
688:
596:
561:
508:Greenstone belts
457:
372:
295:
289:date from about
284:
186:
161:
147:
136:
121:
50:). Earth formed
21:History of Earth
7347:
7346:
7342:
7341:
7340:
7338:
7337:
7336:
7307:
7306:
7305:
7300:
7249:
7233:
7229:Molecular clock
7222:Genetic methods
7213:
7194:Nitrogen dating
7181:Relative dating
7175:
7144:Potassiumâargon
7091:Absolute dating
7081:
7070:
7029:
7008:
6973:
6949:Cosmic Calendar
6941:Astronomic time
6931:
6873:
6828:
6792:
6778:Original Julian
6748:
6715:
6677:
6576:Ab urbe condita
6554:
6531:
6483:
6478:
6448:
6443:
6415:
6406:Time immemorial
6353:
6310:
6271:Coordinate time
6242:
6196:Geological time
6172:
6155:Time management
6118:Generation time
6102:
6094:
6039:
6021:
5941:
5900:
5878:
5766:
5684:
5601:
5594:
5550:
5542:
5511:
5506:
5476:
5471:
5449:
5366:
5335:
5316:
5273:
5215:
5195:
5186:Gaia hypothesis
5176:Plate tectonics
5137:
5087:
5081:
5051:
5046:
5018:
4980:
4937:
4928:Geologic record
4882:
4868:Plate tectonics
4858:Mineral physics
4838:Earth structure
4824:
4759:
4706:
4636:
4588:
4545:
4536:
4483:
4478:
4448:
4443:
4406:
4397:
4371:
4367:Mineral physics
4300:
4262:
4209:
4183:
4169:Plate tectonics
4147:
4143:Palaeogeography
4114:
4090:Crystallography
4073:
4045:
4044:
4035:
4004:
3999:
3951:Wayback Machine
3939:Wayback Machine
3917:Wayback Machine
3871:
3866:
3860:
3843:
3841:Further reading
3838:
3829:
3827:
3816:
3812:
3800:
3796:
3788:
3784:
3776:
3772:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3730:
3726:
3717:
3715:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3688:
3686:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3660:. C. R. Scotese
3656:
3655:
3651:
3628:
3624:
3609:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3573:
3569:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3498:
3496:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3454:
3446:
3442:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3396:
3394:
3384:
3380:
3372:
3368:
3331:
3327:
3317:
3315:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3231:
3227:
3174:
3170:
3133:
3129:
3082:
3078:
3031:
3027:
3005:
3001:
2950:
2946:
2941:. January 2015.
2934:
2930:
2929:
2882:
2875:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2828:
2824:
2815:
2813:
2803:
2799:
2762:
2758:
2748:
2746:
2728:
2724:
2714:
2712:
2697:
2690:
2680:
2678:
2663:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2596:
2589:
2585:
2549:Plate tectonics
2534:Future of Earth
2512:Relative dating
2507:Absolute dating
2474:
2467:
2460:
2455:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2436:
2420:Northern Europe
2367:current ice age
2338:
2332:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2276:current ice age
2268:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2125:
2119:
2087:
2081:
1999:
1992:
1985:
1979:
1977:Oligocene Epoch
1969:, creating the
1904:
1885:
1878:
1869:
1863:
1819:Rocky Mountains
1776:
1769:
1762:
1756:
1754:Paleocene Epoch
1722:(alternatively
1716:
1710:
1650:
1644:
1591:Mid-ocean ridge
1512:Nevadan orogeny
1469:
1462:
1443:
1437:
1425:Nevadan orogeny
1317:
1311:
1309:Jurassic Period
1227:
1221:
1219:Triassic Period
1178:
1164:
1150:
1143:
1137:
1096:
1090:
991:
985:
936:
930:
928:Devonian Period
890:
884:
882:Silurian Period
847:
840:Earth's history
804:
798:
742:
736:
734:Cambrian Period
683:
676:
670:
636:
630:
591:
556:
553:
547:
545:Proterozoic Eon
485:plate tectonics
479:and subsequent
452:
418:planetary crust
398:
392:
367:
290:
279:
250:
244:
205:
199:
177:
172:current ice age
156:
142:
137:, then finally
131:
116:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7345:
7335:
7334:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7302:
7301:
7299:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7266:New Chronology
7263:
7257:
7255:
7254:Related topics
7251:
7250:
7248:
7247:
7241:
7239:
7235:
7234:
7232:
7231:
7225:
7223:
7219:
7218:
7215:
7214:
7212:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7185:
7183:
7177:
7176:
7174:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7157:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7131:
7129:Paleomagnetism
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7095:
7093:
7084:
7076:
7075:
7072:
7071:
7069:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7037:
7035:
7031:
7030:
7028:
7027:
7022:
7016:
7014:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6990:
6988:
6981:
6975:
6974:
6972:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6945:
6943:
6937:
6936:
6933:
6932:
6930:
6929:
6927:New Earth Time
6924:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6912:
6902:
6897:
6892:
6887:
6881:
6879:
6875:
6874:
6872:
6871:
6866:
6856:
6851:
6836:
6834:
6830:
6829:
6827:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6800:
6798:
6794:
6793:
6791:
6790:
6788:Revised Julian
6785:
6780:
6775:
6769:
6767:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6750:
6749:
6747:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6725:
6723:
6717:
6716:
6714:
6713:
6708:
6706:Lists of kings
6703:
6698:
6696:Canon of Kings
6693:
6687:
6685:
6679:
6678:
6676:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6648:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6621:Before present
6618:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6579:
6572:
6566:
6564:
6555:
6553:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6536:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6518:
6517:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6491:
6489:
6485:
6484:
6477:
6476:
6469:
6462:
6454:
6445:
6444:
6442:
6441:
6431:
6420:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6413:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6365:
6363:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6354:
6352:
6351:
6349:Time geography
6346:
6341:
6339:Clock reaction
6336:
6335:
6334:
6324:
6318:
6316:
6312:
6311:
6309:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6252:
6250:
6244:
6243:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6229:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6192:
6190:
6181:
6174:
6173:
6171:
6170:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6141:
6140:
6138:time signature
6135:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6109:
6107:
6096:
6095:
6093:
6092:
6091:
6090:
6080:
6079:
6078:
6068:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6042:
6040:
6038:
6037:
6032:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6012:
6010:Temporal parts
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5980:Eternal return
5977:
5972:
5967:
5965:Chronocentrism
5962:
5957:
5951:
5949:
5943:
5942:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5898:
5893:
5887:
5884:
5883:
5880:
5879:
5877:
5876:
5875:
5874:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5844:
5843:
5838:
5837:
5836:
5831:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5805:
5804:
5794:
5793:
5792:
5776:
5774:
5768:
5767:
5765:
5764:
5757:
5752:
5750:Hindu Panchang
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5694:
5692:
5686:
5685:
5683:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5606:
5604:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5566:
5564:
5555:
5544:
5543:
5541:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5519:
5517:
5513:
5512:
5505:
5504:
5497:
5490:
5482:
5473:
5472:
5470:
5469:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5451:
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4843:Fluid dynamics
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4815:Geopositioning
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4810:Remote Sensing
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4569:Climate change
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4559:Climate system
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4362:Mining geology
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4296:Tectonophysics
4293:
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4258:Geopositioning
4255:
4253:Remote sensing
4250:
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4208:
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4205:Marine geology
4202:
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4176:
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4085:Cosmochemistry
4081:
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3869:External links
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3638:(4): 425â450.
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2448:Geology portal
2435:
2432:
2334:Main article:
2331:
2330:Holocene Epoch
2328:
2297:Main article:
2294:
2291:
2286:Main article:
2283:
2280:
2230:. During the
2206:Main article:
2203:
2202:Pliocene Epoch
2200:
2170:collided with
2121:Main article:
2118:
2115:
2083:Main article:
2080:
2079:Neogene Period
2077:
2041:Eurasian Plate
1981:Main article:
1978:
1975:
1915:supercontinent
1865:Main article:
1862:
1859:
1768:, lasted from
1758:Main article:
1755:
1752:
1712:Main article:
1709:
1706:
1646:Main article:
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1640:
1500:Atlantic Ocean
1488:supercontinent
1439:Main article:
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1433:
1394:epicontinental
1373:Jurassic Coast
1353:Atlantic Ocean
1341:Gulf of Mexico
1313:Main article:
1310:
1307:
1291:Western Europe
1239:supercontinent
1223:Main article:
1220:
1217:
1139:Main article:
1136:
1133:
1092:Main article:
1089:
1088:Permian Period
1086:
1058:Ural Mountains
1054:Eurasian Plate
987:Main article:
984:
981:
932:Main article:
929:
926:
886:Main article:
883:
880:
800:Main article:
797:
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758:Neoproterozoic
738:Main article:
735:
732:
672:Main article:
669:
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632:Main article:
629:
626:
621:Snowball Earth
610:Snowball Earth
549:Main article:
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543:
394:Main article:
391:
388:
273:accretion disc
246:Main article:
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201:Main article:
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190:Neoproterozoic
113:supercontinent
42:, a system of
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7327:Geochronology
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7080:Chronological
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6979:Geologic time
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5927:Periodization
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5630:Relative hour
5628:
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5625:24-hour clock
5623:
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5620:12-hour clock
5618:
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5608:
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5369:
5362:
5358:
5355:
5353:
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5348:
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5343:
5340:
5338:
5336:(abiogenesis)
5332:
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5151:Earth science
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4995:
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4971:Pacific Ocean
4969:
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4901:Earth science
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4853:Magnetosphere
4851:
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4820:Virtual globe
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4785:Earth's orbit
4783:
4779:
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4756:
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4713:
4709:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4692:World history
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4682:World economy
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
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4648:
4647:
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4639:
4633:
4632:South America
4630:
4628:
4627:North America
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4554:
4552:
4548:
4543:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4475:
4470:
4468:
4463:
4461:
4456:
4455:
4452:
4440:
4439:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4418:
4416:
4415:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4394:
4393:Volcanologist
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4303:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4271:
4269:
4265:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4228:Earth's orbit
4226:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4216:
4212:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4186:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4174:Geomorphology
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4152:Dynamic Earth
4150:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4117:
4111:
4110:Sedimentology
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4076:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4059:Geochronology
4057:
4056:
4054:
4052:
4048:
4042:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3996:
3991:
3989:
3984:
3982:
3977:
3976:
3973:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3948:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3899:
3895:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3861:
3855:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3826:on 2011-08-25
3825:
3821:
3814:
3808:
3807:0-12-636380-3
3804:
3798:
3791:
3786:
3780:, p. 280
3779:
3774:
3767:
3761:
3753:
3751:0-314-09577-2
3747:
3743:
3738:
3737:
3728:
3714:on 2014-09-30
3713:
3709:
3705:
3699:
3685:on 2007-07-14
3684:
3680:
3674:
3659:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3618:
3614:
3607:
3600:
3595:
3589:, p. 414
3588:
3583:
3577:, p. 358
3576:
3571:
3552:
3546:
3527:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3495:on 2007-07-13
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3467:
3461:
3456:
3449:
3444:
3438:, p. 315
3437:
3432:
3413:
3407:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3375:
3370:
3361:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3229:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3172:
3163:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3003:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2948:
2940:
2933:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2876:
2874:9780521786737
2870:
2866:
2861:
2860:
2851:
2843:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2711:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2659:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2594:
2592:
2587:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2529:Geochronology
2527:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2466:
2463:
2452:
2449:
2443:
2438:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2307:extends from
2306:
2300:
2289:
2279:
2277:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2233:
2227:
2220:
2216:extends from
2215:
2209:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2192:Mediterranean
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2156:Meso-American
2153:
2149:
2148:Pacific Ocean
2145:
2144:North America
2141:
2140:South America
2137:
2132:
2130:
2124:
2117:Miocene Epoch
2114:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2095:geologic time
2092:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2069:North America
2066:
2062:
2061:South America
2058:
2054:
2050:
2049:North America
2046:
2042:
2038:
2037:African Plate
2034:
2030:
2026:
2025:North America
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2008:
2005:. During the
2002:
1995:
1990:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1947:Mediterranean
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1931:North America
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1913:The northern
1911:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1881:
1876:
1875:
1868:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1807:North America
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:geologic time
1730:is a unit of
1729:
1725:
1721:
1715:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1682:South America
1679:
1675:
1671:
1670:North America
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1579:transgression
1576:
1572:
1568:
1567:North America
1564:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1552:Indian Oceans
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1528:South America
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1401:United States
1398:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1295:North America
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1226:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1167:
1161:
1153:
1147:
1142:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:universal sea
1118:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1095:
1081:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1038:North America
1035:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1006:Mississippian
1003:
1002:Carboniferous
998:
996:
995:Carboniferous
990:
989:Carboniferous
980:
978:
974:
970:
969:Great Britain
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
945:
941:
935:
925:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
889:
879:
876:
871:
867:
863:
858:
856:
850:
845:
841:
837:
832:
830:
826:
822:
817:
813:
809:
803:
793:
791:
787:
786:Iapetus Ocean
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
741:
731:
729:
724:
720:
716:
712:
711:Carboniferous
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
686:
681:
675:
668:Paleozoic Era
665:
662:
660:
656:
652:
647:
645:
641:
635:
622:
617:
613:
611:
606:
604:
600:
594:
589:
585:
581:
577:
576:metamorphosed
573:
569:
565:
559:
552:
542:
540:
539:magnetosphere
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
517:
516:forearc basin
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
488:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
465:cratonization
461:
455:
446:
445:tidal effects
442:
438:
437:microbialites
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
402:
397:
387:
384:
380:
376:
370:
365:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
306:
301:
297:
293:
288:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
259:
254:
249:
239:
237:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
204:
191:
175:
173:
169:
165:
159:
154:
149:
145:
140:
134:
129:
125:
119:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
7209:Stratigraphy
7154:Uraniumâlead
7124:Lichenometry
6998:
6922:Winter count
6905:Mesoamerican
6833:Astronomical
6651:Mesoamerican
6636:Sothic cycle
6611:Seleucid era
6596:Bosporan era
6584: /
6574:
6522:Paleontology
6401:Time capsule
6395:Tempus fugit
6393:
6315:Other fields
6237:
6014:
5995:Perdurantism
5917:Calendar era
5869:
5862:
5848:Cuckoo clock
5785:astronomical
5759:
5585:Unit of time
5516:Key concepts
5442:
5375:Biodiversity
5361:astrobiology
5159:
5083:Elements of
5014:Solar System
4976:Oceanography
4966:Indian Ocean
4956:Arctic Ocean
4915:
4896:Age of Earth
4848:Geomagnetism
4522:Thermosphere
4512:Stratosphere
4436:
4424:
4405:
4305:Applications
4276:Geomagnetism
4200:Hydrogeology
4133:Paleontology
4128:Stratigraphy
4095:Geochemistry
4063:
3960:
3921:Flash Player
3903:The Guardian
3901:
3894:Davies, Paul
3885:
3849:
3828:. Retrieved
3824:the original
3813:
3797:
3790:Stanley 1999
3785:
3778:Stanley 1999
3773:
3765:
3760:
3735:
3727:
3716:. Retrieved
3712:the original
3707:
3698:
3687:. Retrieved
3683:the original
3673:
3662:. Retrieved
3652:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3616:
3606:
3599:Stanley 1999
3594:
3587:Stanley 1999
3582:
3575:Stanley 1999
3570:
3558:. Retrieved
3545:
3533:. Retrieved
3520:
3513:Stanley 1999
3508:
3497:. Retrieved
3493:the original
3480:
3476:
3466:
3455:
3448:Stanley 1999
3443:
3436:Stanley 1999
3431:
3419:. Retrieved
3406:
3395:. Retrieved
3392:Physorg.news
3391:
3381:
3374:Stanley 1999
3369:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3318:September 2,
3316:. Retrieved
3312:
3303:
3242:
3238:
3228:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3144:
3140:
3130:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3011:
3008:Canup, R. M.
3002:
2961:
2957:
2947:
2858:
2850:
2831:
2825:
2814:. Retrieved
2810:
2800:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2749:23 September
2747:. Retrieved
2735:
2725:
2713:. Retrieved
2707:
2679:. Retrieved
2673:
2645:. Retrieved
2609:
2603:
2489:Age of Earth
2476:World portal
2360:
2351:
2349:
2304:
2302:
2261:Tethys Ocean
2237:
2213:
2211:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2090:
2088:
2011:
1988:
1986:
1951:archipelagos
1912:
1903:began about
1872:
1870:
1861:Eocene Epoch
1847:Tethys Ocean
1784:
1765:
1763:
1723:
1719:
1717:
1653:
1651:
1642:Cenozoic Era
1636:Deccan Traps
1560:
1477:
1458:
1456:
1397:Sundance Sea
1381:lagerstätten
1379:
1320:
1318:
1302:
1299:stratigraphy
1263:
1230:
1228:
1186:
1174:
1172:
1135:Mesozoic Era
1120:
1114:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1030:
999:
994:
992:
939:
937:
910:unconformity
893:
891:
859:
833:
807:
805:
790:Khanty Ocean
745:
743:
679:
677:
663:
648:
639:
637:
607:
554:
520:
489:
450:
361:
310:
277:Earth formed
269:Solar System
262:
233:
206:
155:began about
150:
106:
64:
60:Solar System
56:solar nebula
48:stratigraphy
35:
33:
7149:Radiocarbon
6824:Dual dating
6683:Regnal year
6661:Short Count
6601:Bostran era
6582:Anno Domini
6515:Big History
6495:Archaeology
6411:Time travel
6389:System time
6296:Time domain
6281:Proper time
6105:use of time
6076:Father Time
6056:Immortality
6046:Ages of Man
5975:Endurantism
5932:Regnal year
5912:Big History
5841:water-based
5740:Solar Hijri
5650:Hexadecimal
5600:Measurement
5562:Chronometry
5548:Measurement
5426:Prokaryotes
5214:Atmosphere
5209:Meteorology
4773:Cartography
4712:Environment
4579:Climatology
4507:Troposphere
4376:Occupations
4357:Meteoritics
4223:Cartography
4179:Volcanology
4164:Geodynamics
3961:In Our Time
3279:10852/76601
2709:EurekAlert!
2675:EurekAlert!
2574:Consilience
2428:Tyrrell Sea
2416:earthquakes
2404:Scandinavia
2320:Pleistocene
2305:Pleistocene
2299:Pleistocene
2255:formed the
2158:peninsula.
2134:During the
2023:in western
1871:During the
1680:split into
1587:Phanerozoic
1558:worldwide.
1482:, the late
1478:During the
1429:Australasia
1266:Panthalassa
1123:), and the
1116:Panthalassa
1105:During the
1062:Rheic Ocean
973:Scandinavia
829:Rheic Ocean
778:Panthalassa
640:Phanerozoic
634:Phanerozoic
628:Phanerozoic
580:continental
551:Proterozoic
512:island arcs
492:Proterozoic
443:as well as
390:Archean Eon
337:water vapor
275:from which
236:extinctions
229:Phanerozoic
225:Proterozoic
203:Precambrian
197:Precambrian
86:water vapor
7311:Categories
6744:Vietnamese
6656:Long Count
6591:Anno Mundi
6586:Common Era
6488:Key topics
6481:Chronology
6113:Chronemics
6088:Kalachakra
6000:Presentism
5985:Eternalism
5891:Chronology
5829:mechanical
5780:Main types
5698:Main types
5307:Wilderness
5160:geological
4878:Tomography
4863:Seismology
4830:Geophysics
4805:Navigation
4697:Time zones
4662:In culture
4607:Antarctica
4594:Continents
4517:Mesosphere
4489:Atmosphere
4337:Geobiology
4312:Biogeology
4291:Seismology
4268:Geophysics
4195:Glaciology
4100:Mineralogy
3919:(requires
3830:2007-03-02
3718:2007-07-19
3689:2007-07-19
3664:2007-07-19
3499:2007-03-05
3397:2010-03-27
3252:1903.08825
3195:1609.01785
2816:2017-03-14
2583:References
2424:Hudson Bay
2408:Baltic Sea
2316:continents
2288:Quaternary
2111:Quaternary
2065:Antarctica
2055:since the
2045:Tethys Sea
2013:Antarctica
1939:Tethys Sea
1893:equatorial
1835:Antarctica
1791:continents
1724:Palaeogene
1694:Antarctica
1608:formations
1602:and other
1600:carbonates
1563:Tethys Sea
1548:Madagascar
1532:Antarctica
1496:continents
1480:Cretaceous
1459:Cretaceous
1451:Cretaceous
1441:Cretaceous
1421:Cordillera
1417:batholiths
1365:glaciation
1357:Tethys Sea
1279:New Jersey
1270:subduction
1251:Tethys sea
1066:Ural Ocean
922:Ural Ocean
918:Euramerica
906:sea levels
866:greenhouse
816:Ordovician
808:Ordovician
802:Ordovician
699:Ordovician
527:solar wind
496:graywackes
430:continents
424:marked by
242:Hadean Eon
192:to present
115:. Roughly
83:Condensing
79:Outgassing
7281:Year zero
7261:Chronicle
7204:Seriation
7139:Leadâlead
7013:Standards
6994:Deep time
6954:Ephemeris
6840:Lunisolar
6804:Gregorian
6797:Gregorian
6758:Calendars
6721:Era names
6691:Anka year
6570:Human Era
6500:Astronomy
6369:Leap year
6286:Spacetime
6160:Yesterday
6061:Dreamtime
6035:Mythology
5922:Deep time
5834:stopwatch
5809:hourglass
5790:astrarium
5720:Gregorian
5713:Lunisolar
5690:Calendars
5680:Time zone
5553:standards
5385:Eukaryota
5352:Hierarchy
5347:Biosphere
5312:Wildfires
5302:Radiation
5292:Ecosystem
5232:Moonlight
5166:Structure
5121:particles
4795:Geomatics
4740:Ecosystem
4725:Biosphere
4687:Etymology
4667:Earth Day
4617:Australia
4527:Exosphere
4383:Geologist
4238:Geomatics
4105:Petrology
4009:Overviews
3345:: 50â54.
3287:1538-4357
3245:(1): 44.
3220:119258897
3188:: 85â93.
2792:0705-3797
2715:28 August
2681:28 August
2647:28 August
2642:221342529
2244:marsupial
2099:Paleogene
2007:Oligocene
1989:Oligocene
1983:Oligocene
1973:orogeny.
1971:Himalayan
1927:Greenland
1855:Himalayas
1839:Australia
1803:Greenland
1787:Paleocene
1766:Paleocene
1760:Paleocene
1748:Oligocene
1740:Paleocene
1720:Paleogene
1714:Paleogene
1690:Australia
1536:Australia
1510:, as the
1504:orogenies
1484:Paleozoic
1390:Solnhofen
1386:Holzmaden
1361:Neotethys
1259:Paleozoic
1189:Paleozoic
1034:Laurussia
1024:from the
1018:ammonites
762:Laurentia
719:Paleozoic
680:Paleozoic
674:Paleozoic
651:Paleozoic
500:mudstones
426:volcanoes
316:volcanism
305:volcanism
67:volcanism
7276:Timeline
7114:Ice core
6987:Concepts
6734:Japanese
6666:Tzolk'in
6631:Egyptian
6429:Category
6177:Time in
6168:Tomorrow
6030:Religion
5970:Duration
5937:Timeline
5871:Timeline
5670:Sidereal
5538:Eternity
5467:Category
5436:bacteria
5419:protista
5380:Organism
5247:Sunlight
5093:Universe
5042:Category
4994:The Moon
3947:Archived
3935:Archived
3913:Archived
3560:25 April
3535:25 April
3421:25 April
3295:84843306
3114:27617635
3063:11507633
2986:11196637
2770:Episodes
2634:32855337
2570:General
2434:See also
2396:Michigan
2379:glaciers
2356:Holocene
2352:Holocene
2336:Holocene
2232:Pliocene
2214:Pliocene
2208:Pliocene
2113:Period.
2107:Pliocene
1955:Atlantic
1919:Laurasia
1901:ice ages
1827:Gondwana
1795:Laurasia
1750:Epochs.
1736:Cenozoic
1696:and the
1678:Gondwana
1676:, while
1666:Laurasia
1662:Mesozoic
1654:Cenozoic
1648:Cenozoic
1542:(though
1524:Gondwana
1409:alluvial
1337:Gondwana
1333:Laurasia
1325:Jurassic
1321:Jurassic
1315:Jurassic
1303:Estheria
1235:Triassic
1231:Triassic
1225:Triassic
1213:Atlantic
1205:Gondwana
1201:Laurasia
1193:Mesozoic
1175:Mesozoic
1141:Mesozoic
1014:crinoids
977:Gondwana
957:hematite
944:Laurasia
940:Devonian
934:Devonian
912:. Other
902:Silurian
894:Silurian
888:Silurian
875:Gondwana
870:isotopes
857:Period.
855:Silurian
825:Avalonia
774:Gondwana
754:Cambrian
746:Cambrian
740:Cambrian
723:Pannotia
707:Devonian
703:Silurian
695:Cambrian
659:Cenozoic
657:and the
655:Mesozoic
603:Pannotia
588:orogenic
481:tectonic
441:eclipses
333:volcanic
164:Pliocene
153:ice ages
128:Pannotia
7286:Floruit
7034:Methods
6895:Iranian
6863:Islamic
6729:Chinese
6540:Periods
6510:History
6505:Geology
6439:Commons
6362:Related
6276:Instant
6266:Chronon
6248:Physics
6188:Geology
6179:science
6051:Destiny
5896:History
5864:History
5819:sundial
5802:quantum
5745:Chinese
5735:Islamic
5645:Decimal
5640:Chinese
5602:systems
5528:Present
5444:Viruses
5431:archaea
5407:animals
5359: (
5357:Biology
5334:Origin
5287:Ecology
5262:tornado
5222:Climate
5216:(Earth)
5201:Weather
5171:Geology
5158: (
5156:History
5032:History
5027:Outline
4888:Geology
4800:Gravity
4765:Geodesy
4735:Ecology
4551:Climate
4532:Weather
4438:Geology
4426:Geology
4215:Geodesy
4002:Geology
3964:at the
3818:Staff.
3347:Bibcode
3257:Bibcode
3200:Bibcode
3149:Bibcode
3122:4387525
3094:Bibcode
3071:4413525
3043:Bibcode
3016:Bibcode
2994:4319774
2966:Bibcode
2614:Bibcode
2605:Science
2418:across
2412:Finland
2392:Ontario
2384:Vermont
2365:of the
2180:Arabian
2176:Turkish
2174:in the
2172:Eurasia
2136:Miocene
2129:Miocene
2123:Miocene
2103:Miocene
2091:Neogene
2085:Neogene
2035:as the
2017:ice cap
1823:Neogene
1674:Eurasia
1668:became
1492:Pangaea
1329:Pangaea
1283:Morocco
1247:Pac-Man
1243:Pangaea
1197:Pangaea
1129:Deserts
1111:Pangaea
1107:Permian
1100:Permian
1094:Permian
1074:Siberia
1070:Baltica
914:cratons
862:ice age
821:Baltica
770:Siberia
766:Baltica
728:Pangaea
715:Permian
599:Rodinia
564:Archean
477:erosion
473:subduct
422:surface
410:Archean
396:Archean
375:Mercury
287:zircons
267:), the
221:Archean
170:of the
139:Pangaea
124:Rodinia
7082:dating
6878:Others
6844:Hebrew
6739:Korean
6550:Epochs
6379:Moment
6374:Memory
6226:period
5814:marine
5797:atomic
5772:Clocks
5730:Hebrew
5725:Julian
5660:Metric
5533:Future
5395:plants
5227:Clouds
5191:Future
5181:Oceans
5133:Change
5116:Matter
5111:Energy
5085:nature
4943:Oceans
4911:Future
4755:Nature
4677:Symbol
4622:Europe
4602:Africa
3856:
3805:
3748:
3293:
3285:
3218:
3120:
3112:
3086:Nature
3069:
3061:
3035:Nature
2992:
2984:
2958:Nature
2871:
2838:
2790:
2640:
2632:
2388:Quebec
2324:plates
2322:, the
2265:Alaska
2253:Europe
2249:Africa
2168:Africa
2057:faunas
2053:Europe
2033:Europe
1963:Africa
1923:Europe
1874:Eocene
1867:Eocene
1849:, and
1843:Europe
1831:Africa
1799:Europe
1744:Eocene
1728:Period
1686:Africa
1624:Europe
1612:Kansas
1540:Africa
1516:Sevier
1453:period
1405:Canada
1369:Europe
1345:Mexico
1339:; the
1119:, the
1072:, and
844:genera
653:, the
644:Pangea
568:strata
469:mantle
408:, the
341:comets
328:impact
248:Hadean
217:Hadean
90:comets
7332:Earth
6915:Aztec
6859:Lunar
6854:Solar
6848:Hindu
6711:Limmu
6671:Haab'
6626:Hijri
6384:Space
6216:epoch
6206:chron
6164:Today
6133:tempo
6128:Music
5990:Event
5824:watch
5708:Lunar
5703:Solar
5675:Solar
5665:Roman
5655:Hindu
5414:fungi
5402:fauna
5390:flora
5297:Field
5252:Tides
5143:Earth
5101:Space
4720:Biome
4702:World
4481:Earth
4188:Water
3554:(PDF)
3529:(PDF)
3415:(PDF)
3291:S2CID
3247:arXiv
3216:S2CID
3190:arXiv
3118:S2CID
3067:S2CID
2990:S2CID
2935:(PDF)
2638:S2CID
2310:2.588
2226:2.588
2219:5.333
2160:India
2152:Andes
1959:India
1851:India
1628:China
1583:chalk
1569:(the
1544:India
1281:from
460:crust
434:round
379:Venus
353:Earth
320:crust
312:Earth
292:4,400
281:4,500
231:eon.
102:Earth
71:crust
6910:Maya
6645:Yuga
6545:Eras
6527:Time
6103:and
6066:KÄla
5761:List
5755:Maya
5551:and
5523:Past
5509:Time
5322:Life
5257:Wind
5242:Snow
5237:Rain
5106:Time
4672:Flag
4612:Asia
3854:ISBN
3803:ISBN
3746:ISBN
3562:2022
3537:2022
3423:2022
3320:2022
3283:ISSN
3110:PMID
3059:PMID
2982:PMID
2869:ISBN
2836:ISBN
2788:ISSN
2751:2022
2717:2020
2683:2020
2649:2020
2630:PMID
2394:and
2361:The
2350:The
2303:The
2270:2.58
2212:The
2164:Asia
2142:and
2127:The
2105:and
2089:The
2051:and
2029:Alps
1987:The
1967:Asia
1943:Alps
1929:and
1887:33.9
1837:and
1811:Asia
1809:and
1801:and
1764:The
1746:and
1718:The
1672:and
1652:The
1632:lava
1626:and
1575:coal
1546:and
1534:and
1518:and
1457:The
1403:and
1388:and
1319:The
1275:rift
1229:The
1173:The
1098:The
1016:and
1010:coal
993:The
971:and
938:The
892:The
806:The
788:and
768:and
744:The
713:and
678:The
638:The
521:The
428:and
383:Mars
381:and
324:Moon
223:and
213:eons
75:Moon
34:The
6221:era
6211:eon
6201:age
5580:TAI
5570:UTC
3966:BBC
3958:on
3900:".
3896:. "
3742:607
3640:doi
3485:doi
3355:doi
3275:hdl
3265:doi
3243:881
3208:doi
3186:455
3157:doi
3102:doi
3090:538
3051:doi
3039:412
2974:doi
2962:409
2865:145
2778:doi
2740:doi
2622:doi
2610:369
2402:in
2223:to
2188:ICS
1998:to
1917:of
1775:to
1614:'s
1490:of
1468:to
1464:145
1384:of
1347:'s
1166:290
1152:249
967:in
593:750
531:Sun
406:eon
144:200
118:750
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6846:,
6166:â
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2184:Ma
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1994:34
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