German reunification

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country. However, by the spring of 1990, it was apparent that drafting a new constitution would require protracted negotiations that would open up numerous issues in West Germany. Even without this to consider, by the start of 1990 East Germany was in a state of economic and political collapse. In contrast, reunification under Article 23 could be implemented in as little as six months. Ultimately, when the treaty on monetary, economic, and social union was signed, it was decided to use the quicker process of Article 23. By this process, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and to join West Germany, and the area in which the Basic Law was in force was simply extended to include its constituent parts. Thus, while legally East Germany as a whole acceded to the Federal Republic, the constituent parts of East Germany entered into the Federal Republic as five new states, which held their first elections on 14 October 1990.

1358: 3022: 1296: 1346: 2077:(Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the Establishment of German Unity), was approved by large majorities in the legislative chambers of both countries on 20 September 1990 (442–47 in the West German Bundestag and 299–80 in the East German Volkskammer). The Treaty passed the West German Bundesrat on the following day, 21 September 1990. The amendments to the Federal Republic's Basic Law that were foreseen in the Unification Treaty or necessary for its implementation were adopted by the Federal Statute of 23 September 1990, that enacted the incorporation of the Treaty as part of the Law of the Federal Republic of Germany. The said Federal Statute, containing the whole text of the Treaty and its Protocols as an annex, was published in the 2736: 1326: 542: 1280: 1649: 2994:, a critic of NATO, might become Chancellor. Horst Teltschik, Kohl's foreign policy advisor, later recalled that Germany would have paid "100 billion deutschmarks" if the Soviets demanded it. The USSR did not make such great demands, however, with Gorbachev stating in February 1990 that "he Germans must decide for themselves what path they choose to follow". In May 1990, he repeated his remark in the context of NATO membership while meeting Bush, amazing both the Americans and Germans. This removed the last significant roadblock to Germany being free to choose its international alignments, though Kohl made no secret that he intended for the reunified Germany to inherit West Germany's seats in NATO and the EC. 1881: 2294:

this day. As urban planning in Germany is the responsibility of the city government, the integration of East and West Berlin was in part complicated by the fact that the existing planning frameworks became obsolete with the fall of the Wall. Prior to the reunification of the city, the Land Use Plan of 1988 and General Development Plan of 1980 defined the spatial planning criteria for West and East Berlin, respectively. These were replaced by the new, unified Land Use Plan in 1994. Termed "Critical Reconstruction", the new policy aimed to revive Berlin's prewar aesthetic; it was complemented by a strategic planning document for downtown Berlin, entitled "Inner City Planning Framework".

1216: 75: 3352:(Westerners) are usually considered snobbish, dishonest, wealthy, and selfish. East Germans indicate a dissatisfaction with the status quo and cultural alienation from the rest of Germany, and a sense that their cultural heritage is not acknowledged enough in the now unified Germany. The West, on the other hand, has become uninterested in what the East has to say, and this has led to more resentment toward the East, exacerbating the divide. Both the West and the East have failed to sustain an openminded dialogue, and the failure to grasp the effects of the institutional path dependency has increased the frustration each side feels. 1825: 1843: 1236: 3001:, Canada; Genscher persuaded the four powers to treat the two Germanies as equals instead of defeated junior partners and for the six nations to negotiate alone. Although the Dutch, Italians, Spanish, and other NATO powers opposed such a structure, which meant that the alliance's boundaries would change without their participation, the six nations began negotiations in March 1990. After Gorbachev's May agreement on German NATO membership, the Soviets further agreed that Germany would be treated as an ordinary NATO country, with the exception that former East German territory would not have foreign NATO troops or 1897: 2954:, such as control over air travel and its political status. From the onset, the Soviet Union sought to use reunification as a way to push Germany out of NATO into neutrality, removing nuclear weapons from its territory. However, West Germany misinterpreted a 21 November 1989 diplomatic message on the topic to mean that the Soviet leadership already anticipated reunification only two weeks after the Wall's collapse. This belief, and the worry that his rival Genscher might act first, encouraged Kohl on 28 November to announce a detailed "Ten Point Program for Overcoming the Division of Germany and 308: 3148: 3854:, with the rest saying they were not sure. Life satisfaction in both the East and West has substantially increased since 1991, with 15 percent of East Germans placing their life satisfaction somewhere between 7 and 10 on a 0 to 10 scale in 1991, changing to 59 percent in 2019. For West Germans, this change over the same time period was from 52 to 64 percent. However, the 2019 annual reunification report by the German government found that 57% East Germans felt like second-class citizens, and 38% saw the reunification as a success – this figure declined to 20% amongst people under 40. 3921: 3822: 3074:

and pending the final ratification of the Two Plus Four Treaty, pursuant to a declaration signed in New York on 1 October 1990 by the foreign ministers of the four Allied Powers, that was witnessed by ministers of the two German states then in existence, and that was appended text of the Two Plus Four Treaty. However, the Soviets cited their occupation rights for the last time as late as on 13 March 1991, just two days before the Treaty became effective, when the Honeckers were enabled by Soviet hardliners to flee Germany on a military jet to Moscow from the Soviet-controlled

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and collective wage and salary agreements became increasingly uncommon. As the result, average nominal compensation per employee in East Germany "fell to very low levels" after the unification. Labour reforms implemented after the unification focused on reducing costs for companies and dismantled East German wage and social security regulations in favour of incentivizing employers to create jobs. The low-wage sector in Germany expanded, and the share of employees in low-paid employment amounted to 20% of the workforce by 2009.

3588: 3565: 3376: 1855: 3046: 3491: 696: 3082: 3832:) in order to rebuild the east German infrastructure. In addition, the immensely advantageous exchange rate of 1:1 between the West German Deutschmark to the East German mark meant that East Germans could trade in their almost worthless marks for and receive wages in West German currency. This dealt a major blow to the West German budget in the coming few years. The cost of German reunification for the federal government is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 trillion euros. 1992: 9193: 131: 3897: 293: 3064:

Germany (after the unification, as the united Germany) and by the four Allied states. The entry into force of that treaty (also known as the "Two Plus Four Treaty", in reference to the two German states and four Allied governments that signed it) put an end to the then-remaining limitations on German sovereignty and the ACC that resulted from the post-World War II arrangements. After the Americans intervened, both the United Kingdom and France ratified the

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Republic of Germany. East and West Berlin were reunited as the third full-fledged federated city-state of the enlarged Federal Republic. The reunited city became the capital of the enlarged Federal Republic. Under this model, the Federal Republic of Germany, now enlarged to include the five states of the former GDR plus the reunified Berlin, continued to exist under the same legal personality that was founded in May 1949.

9235: 2692:'s opposition to the first unification of Germany in 1871: Goethe wrote: "Frankfurt, Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck are large and brilliant, and their impact on the prosperity of Germany is incalculable. Yet, would they remain what they are if they were to lose their independence and be incorporated as provincial cities into one great German Empire? I have reason to doubt this." Grass also condemned the unification as 9207: 1171: 2831: 3517: 2041:, by means of a letter dated 25 August 1990. Thus, formally, the procedure of reunification by means of the accession of East Germany to West Germany, and of East Germany's acceptance of the Basic Law already in force in West Germany, was initiated as the unilateral, sovereign decision of East Germany, as allowed by the provisions of article 23 of the West German Basic Law as it then existed. 3483: 7779: 3356:

between the East and the West lies in the Western labor unions' demand for high-wage pacts in an attempt to prevent "low-wage zones". This caused many Germans from the East to be outpriced in the market, adding to the slump in businesses in eastern Germany as well as the rising unemployment. The former East German area has often been compared to the underdeveloped

2174:), but the city's administrative merger and inclusion in the enlarged Federal Republic as its capital, effective on 3 October 1990, had been greenlit by the four Allies, and were formally approved in the final meeting of the Allied Control Council on 2 October 1990. In an emotional ceremony, at the stroke of midnight on 3 October 1990, the 3556:

pensions rose from 40 percent to 79 percent. Unemployment reached double the western level as well. West German cities close to the former border of East and West Germany experienced a disproportionate loss of market access relative to other West German cities which were not as greatly affected by the reunification of Germany.

7787: 477:, the old German Reich was abolished and Germany was divided by the four Allied countries. There was no peace treaty. Two countries emerged. The American, British, and French zones combined to form the FRG, i.e., West Germany on 23 May 1949. The GDR, i.e., East Germany was established October 1949. The West German state 7404: 1965: 3136:, French President François Mitterrand, and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, marked the withdrawal of the British, American and French Occupation Forces from Berlin, and the termination of the Allied occupation in Germany. Thus, the removal of the Allied presence took place a few months before the final deadline. 4322: 3881:

The fall of the Berlin Wall proved disastrous for the East German labour unions, whose bargaining power was undermined by labour reforms and companies offshoring production to low-wage East European neighbouring countries. Membership of trade unions and associations sharply declined in the mid-1990s,

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Yet, ultimately, the disparity between East and West portions of Berlin has led to the city achieving a new urban identity. A number of locales of East Berlin, characterized by dwellings of in-between use of abandoned space for little to no rent, have become the focal point and foundation of Berlin's

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on 26 November 1991 and the German Bundestag on 16 December 1991, and entered into force with the exchange of the instruments of ratification on 16 January 1992. The confirmation of the border between Germany and Poland was required of Germany by the four Allied countries in the Two Plus Four Treaty.

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for the rest of us". The two leaders saw no way to prevent reunification, however, as "None of us was going to declare war on Germany". Mitterrand recognized before Thatcher that reunification was inevitable and adjusted his views accordingly; unlike her, he was hopeful that participation in a single

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The unification of Berlin presented legal, political, and technical challenges for the urban environment. The political division and physical separation of the city for more than 30 years saw the East and the West develop their own distinct urban forms, with many of these differences still visible to

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could adhere to the Basic Law by a simple majority vote. The initial 11 joining states of 1949 constituted the Trizone. West Berlin had been proposed as the 12th state, but this was legally inhibited by Allied objections since Berlin as a whole was legally a quadripartite occupied area. Despite this,

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its capital: the high ideological conflict between German politicians and sociologists in their self-governing East-West society was preceded by the influence of higher foreign occupiers, however this only really rose to become official with the birth of the two countries of Germany in the context of

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The fall of the Wall also had economic consequences. Two German systems covering distinctly divergent degrees of economic opportunity suddenly came into intimate contact. Despite development of sites for commercial purposes, Berlin struggled to compete in economic terms with Frankfurt which remained

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in the world again. The practical result of the chosen legal model of the unification (the incorporation of the territory of German Democratic Republic by the Federal Republic of Germany, and the continuation of the legal personality of the now enlarged Federal Republic) is that the expanded Federal

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in September 1990. The Treaty entered into force on 15 March 1991, in accordance with Article 9 of the Two Plus Four Treaty, it entered into force as soon as all ratifications were deposited with the Government of Germany, thus finalizing the reunification for purposes of international law. The last

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reportedly told an aide to Gorbachev, "France by no means wants German reunification, although it realises that in the end, it is inevitable." At the Strasbourg summit, Mitterrand and Thatcher discussed the fluidity of Germany's historical borders. On 20 January 1990, Mitterrand told Thatcher that a

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A poll of four countries in January 1990 found that a majority of surveyed Americans and French supported reunification, while British and Poles were more divided: 69 percent of Poles and 50 percent of French and British stated that they worried about a reunified Germany becoming "the dominant power

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Nevertheless, although the Volkskammer's declaration of accession to the Federal Republic had initiated the process of reunification, the act of reunification itself (with its many specific terms, conditions, and qualifications, some of which required amendments to the Basic Law itself) was achieved

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Under article 45 of the Treaty, it entered into force according to international law on 29 September 1990, upon the exchange of notices regarding the completion of the respective internal constitutional requirements for the adoption of the treaty in both East Germany and West Germany. With that last

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asserts that, while the East undoubtedly improved economically, it was "at a much slower pace than Kohl had predicted". Wealth and income inequality between former East and West Germany continued for decades after reunification. On average, adults in the former West Germany had assets worth 94,000

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Reunification did, however, lead to a large rise in the average standard of living in former East Germany, and a stagnation in the West as $ 2 trillion in public spending was transferred East. Between 1990 and 1995, gross wages in the east rose from 35 percent to 74 percent of western levels, while

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Under the treaty on final settlement (which should not be confused with the Unification Treaty that was signed only between the two German states), the last Allied forces still present in Germany left in 1994, in accordance with article 4 of the treaty, that set 31 December 1994 as the deadline for

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in 1994. While politicians called for acceptance of a new multiethnic society, many were unwilling to "give up its traditional racial definition of German nationality". Feminist groups also opposed the unification, as abortion laws were less restrictive in East Germany than in West Germany, and the

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observes that "an evaluation of the corresponding data in the Deutschland Archiv in 1989 showed that the GDR was perceived by a large portion of the younger generation as a foreign nation with a different social order which was no longer a part of Germany". Winkler argues that the reunification was

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Tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans now made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. By the end of September 1989, more than 30,000 East German citizens had escaped to the West before

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of former East Germany following the reunification required large amounts of public funding which turned some areas into boom regions, although overall unemployment remains higher than in the former West. Unemployment was part of a process of deindustrialization starting rapidly after 1990. Causes

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the old West Germany signed prior to the moment of reunification. The Basic Law and statutory laws that were in force in the Federal Republic, as amended in accordance with the Unification Treaty, continued automatically in force but now applied to the expanded territory. Also, the same President,

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and German Chancellor Kohl. Although the bulk of the British, American, and French Forces had left Germany even before the departure of the Russians, the Western Allies kept a presence in Berlin until the completion of the Russian withdrawal, and the ceremony marking the departure of the remaining

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of the USSR only gave its approval to the ratification of the treaty on 4 March 1991, after a hefty debate. Even prior to the ratification of the Treaty, the operation of all quadripartite Allied institutions in Germany was suspended, with effect from the reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990

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made a united Germany's continued NATO membership a requirement for supporting reunification. Kohl agreed, although less than 20 percent of West Germans supported remaining within NATO. Kohl also wished to avoid a neutral Germany, as he believed that would destroy NATO, cause the United States and

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feared further displacement or assimilationist policies; the Sorbs had received legal protection in the GDR and feared that the rights granted to them in East Germany would not be included in the law of an eventual united Germany. Ultimately, no provision on the protection of ethnic minorities was

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According to Stephen Brockmann, German reunification was feared and opposed by ethnic minorities, particularly those of East Germany. He observes that "right-wing violence was on the rise throughout 1990 in the GDR, with frequent instances of beatings, rapes, and fights connected with xenophobia",

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observed that "the sense of oneness felt by East Germans and West Germans in the euphoric period after the fall of the wall proved all too transitory", as the old divisions persisted and Germans not only still saw themselves as two separate people, but also acted in accordance with their separate,

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noted that "virtually none of the demonstrators interviewed by Western reporters said they wanted unification with the Federal Republic". In West Germany, once it became clear that a course of quick unification was negotiated, the public responded with concern. In February 1990, two-thirds of West

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government audit office." Opinion on reunification was not only highly partisan, but polarised along many social divides—Germans aged 35 or younger were opposed to unification, whereas older respondents were more supportive; likewise, low-income Germans tended to oppose reunification, whereas more

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The other option was set out in Article 146, which provided a mechanism for a permanent constitution for a reunified Germany. This route would have entailed a formal union between two German states that then would have had, among other things, to create a new constitution for the newly-established

2022:) of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany, and the extension of the field of application of the Federal Republic's Basic Law to the territory of East Germany as allowed by Article 23 of the West German Basic Law, effective 3 October 1990. This Declaration of Accession ( 1974:

replacing the East German mark as the official currency of East Germany. The Deutsche Mark had a very high reputation among the East Germans and was considered stable. While the GDR transferred its financial policy sovereignty to West Germany, the West started granting subsidies for the GDR budget

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legacy, though some remnants were preserved, with walkways and bicycle paths established along the border strip to preserve the memory of the Wall. In the center of East Berlin, much of the modernist heritage of the East German state was gradually removed. Unification of Berlin saw the removal of

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The economy of eastern Germany has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east. Economically, eastern Germany has had a sharp rise of 10 percent to West Germany's 5 percent. Western Germany also still holds 56 percent of the GDP. Part of this disparity

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questioned the German right to self-determination. They shared Britain's and France's concerns over a return to German militarism and the economic power of a reunified country. The consensus opinion was that reunification, if it must occur, should not occur until at least 1995 and preferably much

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Legally, the reunification did not create a third state out of the two. Rather, West Germany effectively absorbed East Germany. Accordingly, on Unification Day, 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist, and five new federated states on its former territory joined the Federal

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by the constitutionally required two-thirds majorities, effecting on the one hand, the extinction of the GDR, and on the other, the agreed amendments to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic. Hence, although the GDR declared its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law,

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increase as well. Incomes for this group increased at an average rate of 8.8 percent over the same six-year period following reunification. Similarly, those in the East who possessed connections to the West saw their household income increase at a positive rate in each of the six years following

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Mikhail Gorbachev that neither the United Kingdom nor, according to her, Western Europe, wanted the reunification of Germany. Thatcher also clarified that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it, telling Gorbachev, "We do not want a united Germany". Although she welcomed East

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back on 12 September 1990 by the two German states that then existed (East and West Germany) on one side and by the four principal Allied powers (the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States) on the other—entered into force, having been ratified by the Federal Republic of

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in West Germany on 20 June of the same year) from 20 June 1948 to 12 May 1949 although later the USSR could not force the three Western Allies withdraw from West Berlin as they wanted; consequently, the foundation of a new German state became impossible. The Federal Republic of Germany or "West

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in 1985, she now argued that Germany's allies only supported reunification because they did not believe it would ever happen. Thatcher favored a transition period of five years for reunification, during which the two Germanies would remain separate states. Although she gradually softened her

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managed by East Germany, East Germany originally also wanted to gain West Berlin and make the unified Berlin become its capital. The Western Allies and West Germany rejected the Soviet Union's idea of neutral reunification in 1952 resulting in the two German governments continuing to exist

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from East Berlin and East Germany, producing a large labor supply shock in the West. Emigration from the East, totaling 870,000 people between 1989 and 1992 alone, led to worse employment outcomes for the least-educated workers, for blue-collar workers, for men, and for foreign nationals.

2656:, urging East Germans to oppose "capitalist annexation" in favour of a democratic socialist society. Writers in both East and West were concerned about the destruction of the East German or West German cultural identity respectively; in "Goodbye to the Literature of the Federal Republic", 2297:

Following the dissolution of the GDR on 3 October 1990, all planning projects under the socialist-totalitarian regime were abandoned. Vacant lots, open areas, and empty fields in East Berlin were subject to redevelopment, in addition to space previously occupied by the Wall and associated

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stationed in Hungary the command to intervene. But, with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the nonintervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Thus, the bracket of the Eastern Bloc was broken.

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To facilitate this process and to reassure other countries, fundamental changes were made to the German constitution. The Preamble and Article 146 were amended, and Article 23 was replaced, but the deleted former Article 23 was applied as the constitutional model to be used for the 1990

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in the "Daily Mirror" of 19 August 1989 showed the public in East and West that there had been a loss of power by the Eastern European communist rulers in their own sphere of power, and that they were no longer the designers of what was happening: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into

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and the Holocaust had deprived Germany of its right to exist as a unified nation state: he wrote: "Historical responsibility dictates opposition to reunification, no matter how inevitable it may seem." He also claimed that "national victory threatens a cultural defeat", as "blooming of

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to the East experienced a six percent average increase in their wealth in the six years following the fall of the Wall, which more than doubled that of households who did not possess the same connections. Entrepreneurs who worked in areas with strong social ties to the East saw their

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Placard found in all roads between western and eastern Germany that were blocked during division. Text translated as: "Here, Germany and Europe were divided until 10 December 1989 at 10:15 am". The date and time vary according to the actual moment when a particular crossing was

2452:, stating that despite his belief in German national unity, it would not mean a "return to the nation-state of earlier times". In the 1980s, opposition to a united German country and support for lasting peaceful coexistence between the two German countries were very common amongst 493:

with the four Allies, both East and West Germany committed to the principle that their joint pre-1990 boundary constituted the entire territory that could be claimed by a government of Germany, and hence that there were no further lands outside this boundary that were parts of

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reunification. Hence, prior to the five "New Länder" of East Germany joining, the Basic Law was amended to indicate that all parts of Germany would then be unified such that Germany could now no longer consider itself constitutionally open to further extension to include the

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or Basic Law) of 1949 to facilitate eventual reunification. The Basic Law stated that it was only intended for temporary use until a permanent constitution could be adopted by the German people as a whole. Under that document's (then existing) Article 23, any new prospective

1781:, on which the East German holiday makers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." In particular, it was examined by Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State 3850:, 89 percent of Germans living in both the West and East believe that reunification was good for Germany, with slightly more in East than West Germany supporting it. Around 83 percent of East Germans approve of and 13 percent disapprove of eastern Germany's transition to a 7411: 3458:) in case of internal reorganization like the merger of two states. While this latter option was chosen as the most feasible one, the first option was partly regarded as a means to foster the "inner reunification". A public manifestation of coming to terms with the past ( 2981:. It was a good friend, it was a member of NATO. Any issues that existed in 1945, it seemed perfectly reasonable to lay them to rest. For us, the question wasn't should Germany unify? It was how and under what circumstances? We had no concern about a resurgent Germany... 3584:, two halves of a single city that had ignored one another for the better part of 40 years, finally "in confrontation with one another". There was a belief in the city that, after 40 years of division, the unified city would be well placed to become a major metropolis. 4326: 2809:

to show others the "German problem", feared that Germany's "national character", size, and central location in Europe would cause it to be a "destabilizing rather than a stabilizing force in Europe". In December 1989, she warned fellow European Community leaders at a

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Vast differences between former East Germany and West Germany in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters remain, and it is therefore still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. It is often referred to as the "wall in the head"

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in Europe, and the emergence of another German state was also seen as possibly dangerous to the West German democracy. A German publicist Peter Bender wrote in 1981: "Considering the role Germany played in the origins of both World Wars, Europe cannot, and the

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swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence. However, the dismantling of the old Hungarian border facilities did not open the borders nor were the previous strict controls removed, and the isolation by the

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in 1949: it was named a "basic law" instead of a "constitution" because it was considered provisional. The second way was more technical: the implementation of the constitution in the East, using a paragraph originally designed for the West German states

3013:. To oppose German reunification, the British insisted to the end, against Soviet opposition, that NATO be allowed to hold maneuvers in the former East Germany. Thatcher later wrote that her opposition to reunification had been an "unambiguous failure". 2543:, a "psychological wall" still existed between East and West Germans. Augustine argues that despite resistance to the political regime of East Germany, it still represented the history and identity of East Germans. Unification caused backlash, and the 3384:

Politicians and scholars have frequently called for a process of "inner reunification" of the two countries and asked whether there is "inner unification or continued separation". "The process of German unity has not ended yet", proclaimed Chancellor

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remarked that there was "an influential view found largely, but by no means only, on the German and international left" which saw "the drive for unification as either sinister, masking a revival of aggressive nationalist aspirations, or materialist".

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later on 18 March 1990 and then to the negotiations between the two countries that culminated in a Unification Treaty. Other negotiations between the two Germanies and the four occupying powers in Germany produced the so-called "Two Plus Four Treaty"

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and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. Although East Germany was long reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the removal of Communist hegemony revealed the ramshackle foundations of that system. The

3779:, "the best that Berlin has to offer, its unique creativity. Creativity is Berlin's future." Overall, the Berlin government's engagement in creativity is strongly centered on marketing and promotional initiatives instead of creative production. 6409:

Throughout the fall, two-thirds of all respondents welcomed the GDR refugees; in December 1989, however, barely one-quarter expressed full understanding for people still emigrating, and the support quickly dwindled to just 11 percent by April

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became more common. The term generally refers to the events (mostly in Eastern Europe) that led up to the actual reunification, and loosely translates to "the turning point". Anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term

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Moreover, Germany is the only one of these countries that has managed to achieve a peaceful reunification without subsequent violent conflict. For instance, Vietnam achieved reunification after the war under the communist government of

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Immediately following the fall of the Wall, Berlin experienced a boom in the construction industry. Redevelopment initiatives saw Berlin turn into one of the largest construction sites in the world through the 1990s and early 2000s.

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for this process are disputed in political conflicts up to the present day. Most times bureaucracy and lack of efficiency of the East German economy are highlighted and the deindustrialization is seen as an inevitable outcome of the

4659: 3823: 2629:, child care and financial support were "all less impressive or non-existent in the West". Opposition was also prevalent amongst Jewish circles, who had special status and rights in East Germany. Some Jewish intellectuals such as 4100:

In addition, prior to 1965 the IOC only recognized the Olympic committee for Germany, so the separate Olympic committees of Saarland, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the German Democratic Republic were not recognized by the

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Germans considered the pace of unification as "too fast". West Germans were also hostile towards the newcomers from the East—according to an April 1990 poll, only 11% of West Germans welcomed the refugees from East Germany.

8886: 8855: 3675:. The intensive building activity directed by planning policy resulted in the over-expansion of office space, "with a high level of vacancies in spite of the move of most administrations and government agencies from Bonn". 7471: 3389:, who grew up in East Germany, in 2009. Nevertheless, the question of this "inner reunification" has been widely discussed in the German public, politically, economically, culturally, and also constitutionally since 1989. 7137: 2490:

not a product of popular opinion, but rather "crisis management on the highest level". Support for unified Germany fell once the prospect of it became a tangible reality in the fall of 1989. A December 1989 poll by

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West Berlin's political affiliation was with West Germany, and, in many fields, it functioned de facto as if it were a component state of West Germany. On 1 January 1957, before the reunification, the territory of

2142:. These states were the five original states of East Germany, but were abolished in 1952 in favor of a centralized system. As part of the 18 May treaty, the five East German states were reconstituted on 23 August. 3638:

Another key priority was reestablishing Berlin as the seat of government of Germany, and this required buildings to serve government needs, including the "redevelopment of sites for scores of foreign embassies".

3009:, and accept the postwar Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern border. In addition, Germany agreed to pay about 55 billion deutschmarks to the Soviet Union in gifts and loans, the equivalent of eight days of the 1449:

were annexed by the USSR), Germany's border decision came under pressure from the dictator Stalin of the Soviet Union. During and after the war, many ethnic Germans who lived in the traditionally German lands in

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supported Grass' criticism of the unification process, warning East Germans: "We will be a nation without dreams, we will lose our memories, our past, and therefore also our ability to hope." British historian

4146:(Danzig) and a number of neighboring cities and municipalities, had never been claimed by any official side because West Germany followed the legal position of Germany in its borders of 1937, thus before the 2802:

German democracy, Thatcher worried that a rapid reunification might weaken Gorbachev, and she favored Soviet troops staying in East Germany as long as possible to act as a counterweight to a united Germany.

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Discussions immediately began on an emergency merger of the German economies. On 18 May 1990, the two German states signed a treaty agreeing on monetary, economic, and social union. This treaty is called

2066:" (Reunification Treaty), that had been negotiated between the two German states since 2 July 1990, was signed by representatives of the two governments on 31 August 1990. This Treaty, officially titled 5420: 2732:"will try to do it again", was one of the few world leaders to publicly oppose it. As reunification became a realistic possibility, however, significant NATO and European opposition emerged in private. 1514:

formed by the US and UK zones on 1 January 1947 before the participation of the French one, the Trizone did not include West Berlin which was also occupied by three Western Allies although the city was

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With respect to redefining the city's identity, emphasis was placed on restoring Berlin's traditional landscape. "Critical Reconstruction" policies sought to disassociate the city's identity from its

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in Dublin in April 1990 to calm the fears held of fellow members of the EEC. Haughey saw similarities between Ireland and Germany, and said "I have expressed a personal view that coming as we do from

2340: 2216: 2204: 2111: 2092: 2079: 2068: 2057: 2046: 2024: 2013: 1867: 619: 607: 593: 359: 345: 323: 2234:(1947–1956), united with West Germany (and thus rejoined Germany) as the 11th state of the Federal Republic; this was called "Little Reunification" although the Saar Protectorate itself was only one 1811:

at the night of 9 November 1989, with East and West Germany subsequently entering into negotiations toward eliminating the division that had been imposed upon Germans more than four decades earlier.

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to ask "How dangerous are the Germans?", and the French ambassador in London reported that Thatcher told him, "France and Great Britain should pull together today in the face of the German threat."

2660:

states that the literature of both states had been central to the consciousness and unique identity of both nations, with this newly developed culture being now endangered by looming reunification.

2282:, in addition to a wealth of new opportunity and the symbolism of two former independent states being rejoined, the reunification of Berlin presented numerous challenges. The city underwent massive 1797:

Even then, many people within and outside Germany still believed that real reunification between the two countries would never happen in the foreseeable future. The turning point in Germany, called

4159:

In fact, a new constitution was drafted by a "round table" of dissidents and delegates from East German civil society only to be discarded later, a fact that upset many East German intellectuals.

2101:) giving effect to the Treaty was also published on 28 September 1990. With the adoption of the Treaty as part of its Constitution, East Germany legislated its own abolition as a separate state. 4534: 1970:("Treaty Establishing a Monetary, Economic and Social Union between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany"); it came into force on 1 July 1990, with the West German 2105:

step, and in accordance with article 1 of the Treaty, and in conformity with East Germany's Declaration of Accession presented to the Federal Republic, Germany was officially reunited at 00:00

8917: 5307: 4649: 3435:) provided two pathways for unification. The first was the implementation of a new all-German constitution, safeguarded by a popular referendum. Actually, this was the original idea of the 1604:– that no one has the right to give up a policy whose goal is the eventual reunification of Germany. But in a realistic view of the world, this is a goal that could take generations beyond 3687:

euros in 2014 as compared to the adults in the former communist East Germany which had just over 40,000 euros in assets. The fall of the Berlin Wall and the factors described above led to

2870:

currency and other European institutions could control a united Germany. Mitterrand still wanted Thatcher to publicly oppose unification, however, to obtain more concessions from Germany.

4749: 2270:

While the Basic Law was modified, rather than replaced by a constitution as such, it still permits the adoption of a formal constitution by the German people at some time in the future.

49: 2444:

Throughout the entire Cold War and until 1990, reunification did not appear likely, and the existence of two German countries was commonly regarded as an established, unalterable fact.

1249: 639:

noted that the terminology of an annexation can be interpreted from backgrounds across the political spectrum. In 2015, a Russian proposal was made that classified it as an annexation.

9091:

Joebges, Heike; Zwiener, Rudolf; Albu, Nora (2022). "The long-term effects of German unification on wages, employment and growth: a trigger for a shift to a new market constellation".

3277:

Republic of Germany inherited the old West Germany's seats at the UN, NATO, the European Communities, and other international organizations. It also continued to be a party to all the

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Chancellor (Prime Minister), and Government of the Federal Republic remained in office, but their jurisdiction now included the newly acquired territory of the former East Germany.

2310: 1561:

and later border in Berlin was physically fortified and tightly controlled by East Germany in 1952 and 1961, respectively. The flags of the two German countries were originally the

8878: 8847: 2334:

To commemorate the day that marks the official unification of the former East and West Germany in 1990, 3 October has since then been the official national holiday of Germany, the

433:

and the indecisive reaction of the rulers of the Eastern Bloc set in motion an irreversible movement. It allowed an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany via

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stressed the need to forge an East German identity, while "citizens' initiatives, church groups, and intellectuals of the first hour began issuing dire warnings about a possible

7510: 7096: 2841:

The pace of events surprised the French, whose Foreign Ministry had concluded in October 1989 that reunification "does not appear realistic at this moment". A representative of

8690: 4465: 4357: 9494: 7128: 5545: 4768: 3695:

At the close of the century, it became evident that despite significant investment and planning, Berlin was unlikely to retake "its seat between the European Global Cities of

1580:. The East German government also had encouraged two-state status after initially denying the existence of the West German state with the influence from the Soviet policy of " 2990:

Canada to leave Europe, and cause Britain and France to form an anti-German alliance. The United States increased its support of Kohl's policies, as it feared that otherwise

2675:

in 1999, also expressed his vehement opposition to the unification of Germany, citing his tragic memories of World War II as the reason. According to Grass, the emergence of

2482:

affluent responders were likely to support it. Ultimately, a poll in July 1990 found that the main motivation for reunification was economic concern rather than nationalism.

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had broad economic, political, and social impacts globally, it also had significant consequence for the local urban environment. In fact, the events of 9 November 1989 saw

1688: 1668: 2755:

becoming too powerful. While British, French, and Americans favored Germany remaining a member of NATO, a majority of Poles supported neutrality for the reunified state.

2591:

in 1989 because of its support for German unification, was repulsed by the universal support for unification amongst most major parties, stating that it reminded him of "

1576:

nor East Germany, but later eventually recognized the border in 1972 (with the 1970 Treaty of Warsaw) and East Germany in 1973 (with the 1972 Basic Treaty) when applying

513:, but an enlarged continuation of the 1949–1990 West German state. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in the governing bodies of the 2357:. An alternative date to commemorate the reunification could have been the day the Berlin Wall came down, 9 November (1989), which coincided with the anniversary of the 561:

The term "German reunification" was given to the process of the German Democratic Republic joining the Federal Republic of Germany with full German sovereignty from the

1955:

had been almost worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–1990, and the collapse of the East German economy further magnified the problem.

7756: 7194: 5589: 5515: 1256:, a communist party that would dominate the future East German state, with a symbolic handshake. Walter Ulbricht is seated in the foreground to the right of Grotewohl. 6885: 2648:

of the GDR by the Federal Republic". Many East German oppositionists and reformers advocated for a "third path" of an independent, democratic socialist East Germany.

9658: 3401: 2705:

made a similar argument, criticizing the unification as driven solely by "consumerist appetites whetted by years of watching West German television advertisements".

3139:

Article 5 banned the deployment of nuclear weapons in the territory previously controlled by the GDR and well as a ban on stationing non-German military personnel.

2633:

expressed concern of Jews being portrayed as part of the East German socialist elites, given that the Jews had unique rights, such as being allowed to travel west.

1625: 8816: 8140: 1752:

had disintegrated. Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the

4861: 4788: 2090:(the official journal for the publication of the laws of the Federal Republic) on 28 September 1990. In the German Democratic Republic, the constitutional law ( 8559: 7295: 5650: 5428: 3065: 3056: 2524: 2171: 451: 2263:

this did not imply its acceptance of the Basic Law as it then stood, but rather of the Basic Law as subsequently amended in line with the Unification Treaty.

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still struggle with high political tensions and huge economic and social disparities, making a possible reunification an enormous challenge. With China, the

2485:

Opinion polls in the late 1980s showed that young East Germans and West Germans saw each other as foreign, and did not regard themselves as a single nation.

5360:"Vertrag über die Schaffung einer Währungs-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialunion zwischen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland" 11664: 5031: 1202: 7564: 1967:

Vertrag über die Schaffung einer Währungs-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialunion zwischen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

8970: 5450: 2611:

which led to a police lockdown in Leipzig on the night of reunification. Tensions with Poland were high, and many internal ethnic minorities such as the

1760:, distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at Sopron. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the 9156: 7325: 11712: 7628: 5222: 4518: 2958:". While his speech was very popular within West Germany, it caused concern among other European governments, with whom he had not discussed the plan. 7826: 6744: 1588:

the United Nations as two separate country members in 1973 and East Germany abandoned its goal of reunification with their compatriots in the West in

10477: 8195: 5816: 3891: 422: 10233: 4203:"EinigVtr – Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands" 4169: 2500:

members were overrepresented amongst the responders, constituting 13% of the population, but 23% of those polled. Reporting on a student protest in

14593: 14578: 13367: 12894: 11644: 8909: 5337: 4118: 2505: 1366: 8511:

Kubicek, Paul (2011), Gerstenberger, Katharina; Braziel, Jana Evans (eds.), "The Diminishing Relevance of Ostalgie 20 Years after Reunification",

7352: 5291: 4014: 13803: 13646: 11211: 9696: 7446: 1455: 1357: 1081: 4564: 2575:). They considered the social and political dynamics of 1980s and 1990s Germany to be comparable to those of the 1930s, denouncing the emerging 635:

Some people have stated that the reunification can be classified as an annexation of the GDR by the FRG. Scholar Ned Richardson-Little from the

13453: 10962: 10771: 8759: 7018: 4744: 4173: 2854: 2190: 1585: 6992: 5922: 1711:

and allow the Eastern European countries to freely determine their own internal affairs. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of

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makes Chinese unification more difficult. East and West Germany today also still have differences in economy and social ideology, similar to

3495: 2751:

in Europe". Those surveyed stated several concerns, including Germany again attempting to expand its territory, a revival of Nazism, and the

2617: 2246:

constitutionally by the subsequent Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990; that is, through a binding agreement between the former GDR and the

2199: 1288: 8652: 5359: 3306:

as Germany's permanent eastern border. These amendments to the Basic Law were mandated by Article I, section 4 of the Two Plus Four Treaty.

339:, which took place between 9 November 1989 and 15 March 1991. The "Unification Treaty" entered into force on 3 October 1990, dissolving the 13443: 9277: 8992: 4740: 4210: 1584:". The mutual recognition of the two Germanies paved the way for both countries to be widely recognized internationally. The two Germanies 9542: 5127: 4689: 2290:, which ran directly through the very heart of the city, had consequences for the urban environment that planning still needs to address. 13417: 12304: 10400: 9573: 8376: 9533: 7533: 3651:

politically motivated street names and monuments in the East in an attempt to reduce the socialist legacy from the face of East Berlin.

3021: 13407: 10101: 8908:

Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Alex; Castillo, ra; Huang, Christine (15 October 2019).

8877:

Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Castillo, Alexandra; Huang, Christine (9 October 2019).

8846:

Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Castillo, Alexandra; Huang, Christine (9 October 2019).

8011: 6660: 5793: 4594: 3476: 2074:

Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands

8254: 7605: 7502: 2399: 13496: 9069: 7958: 4457: 4349: 3966:(1955–1975) respectively, which caused heavy economic and civilian damage. However, German separation did not result in another war. 1935: 6106: 5716: 5556: 5089: 4763: 2985:

The United States wished to ensure, however, that Germany would stay within NATO. In December 1989, the administration of President

2607:'s declaration of his foreign policy." Several thousand people joined the Anti-Germans' 1990 protests against German reunification. 14568: 14294: 13534: 13448: 11481: 10289: 9127: 7104: 6834: 4082:

The Saarland was de facto separated from occupied Germany to become a protectorate in 1947, it became part of West Germany in 1957.

1614: 1195: 7849: 7168: 5480: 1915:

announced a 10-point program calling for the two Germanies to expand their cooperation with a view toward eventual reunification.

1552:; however it was only considered provisional due to the West German target of Berlin which had been divided with the eastern part 14475: 12884: 11528: 7232: 5842: 5620: 4380: 3397: 3365: 3102: 2818:

which Kohl attended, "We defeated the Germans twice! And now they're back!". Although Thatcher had stated her support for German

2778: 1919: 1295: 754: 10405: 7565:"UPHEAVAL IN THE EAST: KOHL'S POLITICAL MATH; His Evasions on Poland's Border Are Seen As an Attempt to Avoid Alienating Voters" 13377: 11649: 9784: 9721: 9376:

Spohr, Kristina (September 2000). "German unification: Between official history, academic scholarship, and political memoirs".

7070: 5458: 4106: 4003: 3200: 2170:. Berlin was still formally under Allied occupation (that would only be terminated later, as a result of the provisions of the 7658:

Schweiger, Christian (2019). "Deutschland einig Vaterland?: East-West Cleavages in Germany Thirty Years After Reunification".

7261: 5738: 4987: 3552:

that did not leave room for East German enterprises to adapt, and that alternatives like a slow transition had been possible.

13768: 13372: 11307: 10994: 10972: 10497: 10329: 10309: 10284: 10186: 10131: 9479: 9433: 9335: 9311: 9285: 9262: 9121: 8796: 8723: 8450: 7820: 7712: 5996: 5836: 5787: 5523: 5385: 5254: 5169: 4946: 4919: 4421: 4256: 3287: 2834: 1653: 1434: 1345: 1135: 1066: 999: 17: 12395: 9007: 8401:

Krätke, S (2004). "City of talents? Berlin's regional economy, socio-spatial fabric and "worst practice" urban governance".

7748: 7202: 4496: 2286:, involving the political, economic, and cultural environment of both East and West Berlin. However, the "scar" left by the 14548: 14075: 12214: 12139: 11799: 11399: 10349: 10339: 8303:

Grésillon, B (April 1999). "Berlin, cultural metropolis: Changes in the cultural geography of Berlin since reunification".

8276:

Grésillon, B (April 1999). "Berlin, cultural metropolis: Changes in the cultural geography of Berlin since reunification".

4966: 2806: 2735: 1943: 1794:

the GDR denied travel to Hungary, leaving Czechoslovakia as the only neighboring state to which East Germans could escape.

1589: 3128:

Forces of the Western Allies was the last to take place: on 8 September 1994, a Farewell Ceremony in the courtyard of the

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to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. The media reaction of

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The key ally was the United States. Although some top American officials opposed quick unification, Secretary of State

2592: 2588: 2457: 1495: 1101: 895: 750: 665: 522: 458:

to a reunified German state, whose two parts were previously bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-

403: 4853: 1748:

on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the

1279: 577:

that took place from 18 August 1866 to 18 January 1871, 3 October 1990 was the day when Germany again became a single

445:

including a series of protests by the East German citizens, led to the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and

14262: 14166: 14003: 12586: 12149: 11419: 11360: 9628: 9613: 8189: 5017: 4839: 3372:. While the economy of eastern Germany has recovered recently, the differences between East and West remain present. 3115: 3069:

party to ratify the treaty was the Soviet Union, that deposited its instrument of ratification on 15 March 1991. The

2908: 2449: 2431: 1927: 1648: 1532: 1499: 1459: 485:

could be said to represent "Germany as a whole" for this purpose. In the context of the successful and international

467: 446: 189: 11157: 7287: 1979:

system. At the same time, many West German laws came into force in the GDR. This created a suitable framework for a

12289: 12284: 11779: 11742: 11471: 10917: 10674: 10375: 10359: 9633: 9347: 6553: 6502: 4854:"Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staatsflagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik" 4018:

Signing the German-German Cultural Agreement between the two countries, East Germany and West Germany on 6 May 1986

3393: 2556: 2547:, an agency created to carry out privatization, was blamed for creating mass unemployment and poverty in the East. 2497: 2358: 1923: 1253: 745: 414: 11967: 11829: 11513: 9546: 6952: 6456: 6396: 6345: 6209: 2797:

was one of the most vehement opponents of German reunification. Before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Thatcher told

796: 14128: 13728: 13009: 12390: 12319: 12219: 12097: 11869: 11859: 11446: 10833: 10582: 10512: 10263: 10146: 10141: 9747: 9566: 9445: 6283: 4033: 3615: 1918:

Initially, no timetable was proposed. However, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the

1832: 1724: 1409:(US, UK, and the USSR) on 2 August 1945, Germany was divided by the Allies into occupation zones, each under the 907: 772: 434: 272: 11784: 11671: 11659: 5642: 5516:"Bundesarchiv – Digitalisierung und Onlinestellung des Bestandes DA 1 Volkskammer der DDR, Teil 10. Wahlperiode" 4125:

says that Bush fully trusted Kohl and made the United States his most important ally in the unification process.

2946:

The victors of World War II—France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, comprising the

1531:

which declared itself not the successor of the German Reich a legal-former German state, was established in the

14573: 14111: 13927: 13611: 12440: 12209: 11789: 11691: 11424: 10868: 10863: 10420: 9711: 6086: 6021:

Tölle, A (2010). "Urban identity policies in Berlin: From critical reconstruction to reconstructing the Wall".

1880: 1778: 776: 735: 12109: 11839: 11350: 11122: 8960: 6775: 3290:, that were now parts of Poland and Russia (the German territory the former USSR annexed was a part of Russia- 14563: 14558: 14543: 14405: 14181: 14043: 13947: 13846: 13387: 12402: 12355: 12119: 12042: 11774: 10592: 10191: 10176: 9149: 2127: 2044:

In the wake of that resolution of accession, the "German reunification treaty", commonly known in German as "

474: 212: 11834: 11543: 11466: 11137: 8788: 498:

occupied. East Germany re-established the federated states on its soil and subsequently dissolved itself on

14583: 14425: 14153: 14023: 13527: 12420: 12380: 12350: 12299: 12159: 12077: 12073: 11944: 11874: 11639: 11456: 11222: 11117: 11049: 10502: 10467: 10457: 10415: 10228: 7810: 6736: 5197:"Wissenschaft und Schwärmerei. Der Pfarrer Johann August Steinhofer und die Somnambule Anna Barbara Straub" 3999: 3510: 3248: 3232: 2350: 2106: 1804: 1338: 768: 8551: 8179: 7472:"Resources for The 1990 reunification – Historical events in the European integration process (1945–2014)" 6706: 3466: 1995:

The two original copies of the Unification Treaty signed on 31 August 1990. West German Interior Minister

1477:

withdraw from the ACC on 20 March 1948 (four occupying countries restored the act of the ACC in 1971) and

353:, DDR, or East Germany) and integrating its recently re-established constituent federated states into the 14220: 14133: 13585: 13392: 12864: 12859: 12576: 12254: 11982: 11727: 11686: 11630: 11533: 11414: 11372: 11277: 10802: 10756: 10482: 10395: 10248: 10121: 8583:"Book Reviews: Eric Owen Smith 'The German Economy' Routledge, London, 1994, pp. 592, ISBN 0-415-06288-8" 7636: 3568:

Crowds at the Brandenburg Gate on 1 December 1989. The entrance to the Western side was still not opened.

3006: 3005:. In exchange, Kohl agreed to reduce the sizes of the militaries of both West and East Germany, renounce 2904: 2473:

should not, want a new German Reich, a sovereign nation-state. That is the logic of history which is, as

2354: 2085: 1350: 788: 740: 725: 720: 675: 514: 506:

was formed when the new states joined the FRG while East and West Berlin were united into a single city.

234: 230:

East German Länder join West Germany on 3 October 1990 under the Unification Treaty signed 31 August 1990

5329: 1365:

signed an agreement on transit fees with the head of department in the East German Ministry of Finance,

195:

East and West Germany establish a monetary union from a treaty signed 18 May 1990, effective 1 July 1990

74: 14143: 14055: 14033: 13952: 13937: 13753: 13733: 13575: 13229: 12450: 12435: 12425: 12279: 11879: 11367: 11170: 10937: 10547: 10201: 10196: 9559: 9303: 7436: 7348: 6767: 6379:(1). Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Association for Public Opinion Research: 53–76. 6192:(1). Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Association for Public Opinion Research: 53–76. 2689: 1451: 1215: 967: 937: 710: 8431:

Häußermann, Hartmut; Kapphan, Andreas (31 December 2013), "Berlin: From Divided to Fragmented City?",

2915:

many of us would have sympathy with any wish of the people of the two German States for unification".

14395: 13580: 13458: 13334: 13279: 13099: 12087: 11794: 11355: 10967: 10884: 10562: 4556: 3606:, among other figures, take part in the official opening of the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989. 3252: 3185: 3106: 2672: 2523:

in April 1993 found that only 22% of West Germans and 11% of East Germans felt they were one nation.

1573: 784: 780: 715: 581:. However, for political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term " 268: 9523: 9512: 8345:"The Effect of Migration on Natives' Employment Outcomes: Evidence from the Fall of the Berlin Wall" 7062: 7026: 3235:

since 1932 were held, resulting in an increased majority for the coalition government of Chancellor

3109:

on 12 July 1994, an event that was marked by a casing of the colors ceremony witnessed by President

1699:

had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that

14553: 14372: 14334: 14171: 13942: 13084: 12651: 11914: 11804: 11558: 11102: 10577: 10527: 10166: 10156: 9925: 9686: 9425: 8633:"Constructing the creative neighborhood: Hopes and limitations of creative city policies in Berlin" 6984: 4654: 4058: 3816: 3703:", primarily due to the fact that Germany's financial and commercial capital is located elsewhere ( 2798: 1315: 1287:

which contained recommendations for the establishment new state and formed a working basis for the

792: 12824: 10023: 8789:"From Reunification to Economic Integration: Productivity and the Labor Market in Eastern Germany" 7987: 7374: 1896: 1842: 14508: 14382: 14362: 14339: 14319: 14279: 14242: 14191: 14065: 14028: 13798: 13520: 12314: 12259: 12244: 12184: 11992: 11972: 11732: 11409: 11014: 10628: 10567: 10507: 10410: 10334: 10294: 10161: 10151: 9930: 9847: 9779: 9691: 8632: 6139: 5363: 3979: 3924: 3573: 3533: 3521: 2529: 2486: 2011:, the Parliament of East Germany, passed a resolution on 23 August 1990 declaring the accession ( 1947: 1808: 1235: 1220: 1059: 760: 562: 495: 463: 243: 168: 11217: 6051:

Urban, F (2007). "Designing the past in East Berlin before and after the German Reunification".

4202: 14309: 14284: 14247: 14106: 14038: 13867: 13758: 13748: 13104: 12608: 12002: 11676: 11152: 10912: 10907: 10700: 10532: 10344: 9915: 9762: 7929:"Gastbeitrag: Nicht für die Ewigkeit – Staat und Recht – Politik" 7780:"After the fall 20 years ago this week, the crumbling of the Berlin Wall began an empire's end" 4681: 4023: 3948: 3596: 3361: 2947: 2921:

later described other European leaders' opinion of reunification at the time as "icy". Italy's

2791: 2714: 2600: 2461: 2349:). It replaced the previous national holiday held in West Germany on 17 June commemorating the 1446: 1394: 1390: 925: 819: 566: 546: 410: 44: 31: 13314: 5863: 5861: 5859: 4936: 4909: 3931:

Germany was not the only country that had been divided into two states (1949–1990) due to the

3147: 2845: 2823:

opposition, as late as March 1990, Thatcher summoned historians and diplomats to a seminar at

2407: 1983:

by diminishing the huge gap between the two existing political, social, and economic systems.

14470: 14289: 14274: 14237: 13339: 12623: 12618: 12385: 12274: 12229: 12189: 12124: 12068: 11987: 11769: 11583: 11461: 11379: 11287: 11252: 11162: 11107: 11004: 10845: 10633: 10587: 10572: 10537: 10324: 10268: 9857: 9623: 5828: 5421:"Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany London – A short history of German reunification" 3224: 3129: 3098: 2302:. Many of these sites were positioned in central, strategic locations of the reunified city. 1909: 1676: 1283:

West German prime ministers and mayors received the British, American, and French occupiers'

1122: 764: 9345:

Schemper, Lukas (22 December 2016). "Diasporas and American debates on German unification".

8019: 6656: 4746:

Die Präambel macht den Unterschied. Zur Landesverfassung des Saarlands und ihrer Geschichte.

4586: 3659:

the financial capital of the country, as well as with other key West German centers such as

1931: 1306: 14252: 14196: 14080: 14018: 14013: 13983: 13915: 13893: 13743: 12879: 12646: 12501: 12455: 12365: 12164: 12063: 12012: 12007: 11899: 11854: 11809: 11747: 11578: 11553: 11503: 11431: 11345: 11195: 10797: 10776: 10043: 10038: 9998: 9867: 9852: 9501: 8674: 7597: 6909:"German Unification: Between Official History, Academic Scholarship, and Political Memoirs" 5937: 5856: 4091:

The sentence "Germany as a whole" was recorded in the Potsdam Agreement to mention Germany.

4048: 3683: 3600: 3303: 3169: 3151: 2912: 2653: 2520: 2034: 1828: 1824: 1692: 1581: 1566: 1438: 945: 932: 824: 636: 490: 9812: 9031: 8686: 7966: 6439:(3). Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the German Studies Association: 563–578. 3119:) was completed on 31 August 1994, and the event was marked by a military ceremony in the 1996: 1510:

occupied by three Western Allies and established on 1 August 1948, its forerunner was the

8: 14435: 14329: 14304: 14299: 14176: 14121: 14060: 13966: 13697: 13631: 13324: 13239: 13234: 13134: 12997: 12794: 12678: 12593: 12481: 12334: 12329: 12309: 12294: 12204: 12199: 12104: 12037: 12027: 11939: 11934: 11924: 11824: 11764: 11737: 11563: 11548: 11518: 11496: 11282: 11272: 10999: 10922: 10892: 10876: 10487: 10462: 10258: 10243: 9842: 9582: 9453: 9198: 8441: 6098: 5708: 4139: 4038: 4028: 3905: 3878:

reunification. Those in their regions who lacked the same ties did not see this benefit.

3847: 3679: 3078:, with the German Federal Government being notified of this in advance of just one hour. 3075: 3034: 2892: 2584: 1745: 1732: 1672: 1558: 1410: 1284: 486: 478: 442: 438: 430: 163: 158: 66: 62: 13793: 12179: 12092: 9973: 9111: 5941: 2935: 2885: 2365:

in 1923. However, 9 November was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led

1389:

abolished as well as Germany was occupied by four countries representing the victorious

307: 14501: 14494: 14349: 14314: 14201: 14186: 14116: 14094: 14070: 13998: 13932: 13862: 13773: 13692: 13661: 13570: 13547: 13478: 13274: 13259: 13184: 13164: 13159: 13144: 12991: 12739: 12491: 12375: 12129: 12032: 12017: 11929: 11919: 11894: 11889: 11654: 11608: 11523: 11508: 11451: 11267: 11190: 11066: 10957: 10947: 10430: 10319: 10314: 10304: 10299: 9401: 8610: 8534: 8368: 8320: 8246: 8121: 8072: 7910: 7718: 7675: 7160: 6944: 6936: 6826: 6637: 6592: 6545: 6494: 6448: 6388: 6337: 6329: 6275: 6201: 6155: 5953: 5081: 4992: 4617:"Russia's bizarre proposal to condemn West Germany's 1989 'annexation' of East Germany" 4063: 3944: 3920: 3901: 3868:

households who already had ties with the West. Those who lived in West Germany and had

3619: 3405: 3369: 3165: 3133: 3010: 2819: 2676: 2657: 2564: 2478: 2235: 1618: 1469:

Among the Allies, geo-political tension between the Soviet Union and Western Allies in

1402: 912: 872: 844: 684: 574: 550: 13174: 13003: 9789: 7224: 5612: 3548:. But many critics from East Germany point out that it was the shock-therapy style of 3132:, with the presence of British Prime Minister John Major, American Secretary of State 2903:, supported German reunification and he took advantage of Ireland's presidency of the 2567:, arguing that an emergence of a united German state would also result in a return of 1393:

signing the agreement (US, UK, France, and the USSR), the declaration also formed the

246:

signed 12 September 1990 restores full sovereignty to Germany, effective 15 March 1991

14588: 14455: 14430: 14377: 14324: 14138: 13910: 13702: 13491: 13344: 13289: 13264: 13219: 13149: 13124: 13089: 13079: 13048: 12935: 12819: 12789: 12526: 12516: 12430: 12324: 12169: 11884: 11681: 11538: 11491: 11389: 11340: 11314: 11292: 11132: 11112: 11056: 11044: 10858: 10693: 10608: 10238: 10126: 10083: 10078: 10028: 9822: 9817: 9598: 9475: 9429: 9393: 9364: 9331: 9325: 9307: 9281: 9258: 9117: 9061: 8764: 8729: 8719: 8614: 8602: 8538: 8524: 8479: 8446: 8414: 8360: 8324: 8238: 8185: 8148: 8125: 8113: 8076: 8064: 7914: 7902: 7816: 7722: 7708: 7679: 7572: 7441: 6928: 6877: 6818: 6341: 6082: 5992: 5957: 5882: 5832: 5783: 5299: 5260: 5250: 5212: 5165: 5085: 5073: 5023: 5013: 4942: 4915: 4888: 4835: 4624: 4526: 4427: 4417: 4304: 4252: 4236: 4135: 4122: 3936: 3864:

Additionally, German reunification was useful in generating wealth for those Eastern

3472: 3216: 3049: 2986: 2974: 2961:

The Americans did not share the Europeans' and Soviets' historical fears over German

2794: 2763: 2685: 2510: 2474: 2251: 2231: 1901: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1753: 1708: 1700: 1664: 1633: 1605: 1487: 1463: 1330: 1228: 877: 800: 644: 640: 264: 13468: 13139: 8879:"Most in former Eastern Bloc approve of shift to multiparty and free market systems" 8372: 8250: 6948: 4248: 2696:

and purely materialist, calling it "the monetary fetish, by now devoid of all joy."

2636:

There was also a significant opposition to the unification in intellectual circles.

2000: 14517: 14465: 14460: 14450: 14445: 14440: 14267: 14232: 14206: 13878: 13682: 13651: 13606: 13601: 13254: 13179: 13109: 13094: 13074: 13021: 12804: 12799: 12779: 12729: 12719: 12546: 12511: 12496: 12445: 12174: 12114: 11954: 11613: 11593: 11302: 11244: 11238: 11205: 11185: 11175: 11024: 10825: 10817: 10557: 10425: 10058: 9963: 9910: 9832: 9767: 9648: 9417: 9385: 9356: 9295: 9051: 9043: 8682: 8644: 8594: 8516: 8471: 8436: 8410: 8352: 8312: 8285: 8230: 8103: 8054: 7892: 7700: 7667: 7254: 6920: 6869: 6810: 6629: 6584: 6537: 6440: 6380: 6321: 6267: 6193: 6064: 6060: 6030: 5945: 5874: 5824: 5775: 5204: 5157: 5119: 5065: 4294: 4244: 3587: 3212: 3085: 2991: 2966: 2922: 2842: 2811: 2702: 2496:

indicated strong support for preserving East Germany as a separate state. However,

2362: 2335: 2179: 1952: 1889: 1859: 1836: 1684: 1519:

part of the West German state; the German Democratic Republic or "East Germany", a

1470: 839: 834: 829: 499: 373: 80: 9360: 6429:"The Impact of Two Reunification-Era Debates on the East German Sense of Identity" 5393: 3951:(1954–1976) were or remain separated through the establishment of "Western-(free) 3392:

Politically, since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the successor party of the former

2697: 2630: 2038: 14420: 14415: 14410: 14357: 13783: 13473: 13329: 13319: 13304: 13284: 13269: 13244: 13189: 12954: 12922: 12814: 12774: 12536: 12531: 12471: 12412: 12144: 12022: 11849: 11814: 11722: 11717: 11441: 11335: 11009: 10942: 10932: 10897: 10853: 10840: 10792: 10623: 10613: 10472: 10380: 9701: 9676: 9653: 9449: 9422:

Germany unified and Europe transformed: a study in statecraft; with a new preface

8940: 8817:"Interview with Former German Finance Minister : 'Germans Will Have to Pay'" 7994: 6034: 5616: 4772: 4758: 4753: 4488: 3797: 3793: 3630: 3338: 3204: 3002: 2978: 2900: 2743: 2544: 2175: 1980: 1764:

was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Karl's father

1562: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1478: 1272: 1260: 1009: 510: 489:

against the communist states, including the GDR; on 12 September 1990, under the

418: 336: 281: 11436: 9968: 9008:"What's 'wrong' with east Germany? Look to its long neglect by the wealthy west" 8582: 7812:

National Identity in Eastern Germany: Inner Unification Or Continued Separation?

5196: 4962: 3678:

Berlin was marred by disjointed economic restructuring, associated with massive

3479:, which collects and maintains the files of the East German security apparatus. 2668: 1314:

of the Saarland into the Federal Republic of Germany on 1 January 1957 with the

481:

in 1955. In 1990, a range of opinions continued to be maintained over whether a

14522: 14400: 14387: 14050: 13808: 13299: 13224: 13214: 13209: 13069: 12809: 12598: 12521: 12249: 12154: 11904: 11844: 11476: 11394: 11297: 11257: 11227: 11127: 11082: 10648: 10552: 10068: 10048: 9827: 9608: 9471: 9413: 9212: 9184: 8965: 8598: 8316: 8289: 7601: 6737:"Russia and German reunification: Opposing views on Mikhail Gorbachev's legacy" 5746: 5585: 5208: 4043: 4006:, a legacy of the separation that the German government is trying to equalize. 3975: 3851: 3776: 3744: 3688: 3623: 3564: 3500: 3357: 3251:

between the two countries which took effect on 16 January 1992 and ensured the

3173: 3070: 2858: 2853:

had". He predicted that "bad" Germans would reemerge, who might seek to regain

2775: 2759: 2752: 2717: 2681: 2641: 2626: 2279: 1847: 1773: 1418: 1241: 1175: 1161: 902: 526: 518: 9389: 9150:"The European dimension of German-Taiwanese relations – a critical assessment" 8648: 8465: 6924: 6541: 5949: 5868: 5149: 3634:

Traffic crossing the site of the former Wall near the Brandenburg Gate in 2016

2652:

argued that the preservation of the GDR was necessary to achieve the ideal of

1876:("How now") over the sign warning the public that they are leaving West Berlin 1740:

was still intact over its entire length. The opening of a border gate between

1397:(ACC) of these 4 countries ruling Germany and confirmed German borders before 1362: 14537: 13763: 13463: 13309: 13204: 13169: 13154: 13114: 12656: 12486: 12224: 12134: 11997: 11977: 11864: 11625: 11603: 11568: 11147: 11142: 11097: 11019: 10979: 10728: 10653: 10643: 10638: 10522: 10390: 10073: 10053: 10033: 10013: 9988: 9945: 9887: 9877: 9706: 9397: 9368: 9065: 8606: 8475: 8364: 8242: 8152: 8117: 8068: 7906: 7576: 6932: 6881: 6822: 6526:"The Legal Status of the Sorbian Minority in the Federal Republic of Germany" 5923:"Planning reunification: the planning history of the fall of the Berlin Wall" 5878: 5303: 5264: 5161: 5077: 4628: 4530: 4431: 4413:

Totalliquidierung in zwei Akten : [juristische Annexion der DDR]

4308: 3971: 3740: 3603: 3549: 3386: 3375: 3295: 3291: 3256: 3045: 3041:

spilled over into East Germany after its state-owned auto industry collapsed.

2926: 2739: 2725: 2580: 2371: 2319: 2315: 2283: 2135: 1971: 1854: 1786: 1680: 1629: 1462:, was separated from Germany when its own constitution took effect to become 1414: 1311: 1245: 989: 591:(roughly: "the turning point"). The 1990 treaty defines the official term as 582: 570: 220: 40: 8848:"Germans view unification positively but feel the East has been left behind" 8733: 7959:"Horst Dreier | Das Grundgesetz – eine Verfassung auf Abruf?" 7671: 7317: 5111: 5027: 4851: 3672: 1908:

On 28 November 1989—two weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall—West German

14148: 13823: 13818: 13788: 13687: 13641: 13249: 13199: 13129: 13119: 12973: 12961: 12948: 12754: 12581: 12082: 11330: 11180: 11039: 11034: 11029: 10735: 10517: 10136: 10063: 10018: 9752: 9643: 9618: 9240: 9226: 8218: 8108: 8091: 8059: 8042: 7897: 7880: 7694: 5769: 5123: 4053: 3228: 3220: 3120: 3110: 3081: 2962: 2930: 2850: 2721: 2713:

For decades, West Germany's allies stated their support for reunification.

2693: 2637: 2576: 2247: 1885: 1782: 1749: 1737: 1704: 1482: 1426: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1098: 1094: 1029: 1019: 980: 867: 578: 533:(WP) and other international organizations to which East Germany belonged. 459: 426: 384: 354: 340: 300: 296: 148: 136: 27:

1989–1991 unification process of Germany with its full sovereignty returned

8520: 8344: 8234: 8219:"The Costs of Remoteness: Evidence from German Division and Reunification" 7704: 5779: 4411: 4299: 4282: 3490: 1991: 1539:

did not include East Berlin occupied by the Soviets although the city was

695: 14158: 13872: 13707: 13656: 13294: 12899: 12869: 12724: 12714: 12613: 12476: 12269: 11758: 11588: 11573: 11384: 11232: 11200: 11087: 10902: 10807: 10746: 10116: 10003: 9978: 9920: 9882: 9872: 9742: 9321: 9047: 9032:"The Economic Impact of Social Ties: Evidence from German Reunification*" 8713: 8356: 7351:. Translated by Jeremiah Riemer. German History in Documents and Images. 7129:"Margaret Thatcher was 'horrified' by the prospect of a reunited Germany" 6873: 6613: 5007: 4885:

An encyclopedic dictionary of conflict and conflict resolution, 1945–1996

3987: 3983: 3963: 3909: 3896: 3869: 3592: 3581: 3577: 3430: 3273: 3236: 3016: 2917: 2688:

is possible only at times of fruitful national disunity", and also cited

2661: 2649: 2540: 2501: 2492: 2445: 2299: 2287: 2255: 2147: 2143: 2123: 2008: 1912: 1761: 1719: 1696: 1641: 1601: 1406: 1299: 882: 530: 455: 392: 388: 253: 249: 208: 183: 9534:"Unfriendly, even dangerous"? Margaret Thatcher and German Unification, 9251:

New perspectives on the end of the Cold War: unexpected transformations?

9056: 8141:"Help for Poorer Neighbors: Designing a Transfer Union to Save the Euro" 6857: 6830: 6549: 6498: 6159: 5053: 3978:, and Yemen achieved peaceful reunification in 1990 but then suffered a 3337:(Easterners) are stereotyped as racist, poor, and largely influenced by 3029:

vehicles were abandoned in Germany after 1989 (this one photographed in

2353:

and the national holiday on 7 October in the GDR, that commemorated the

2109:

on 3 October 1990. East Germany joined the Federal Republic as the five

14367: 13988: 13053: 12764: 12734: 12688: 12603: 12571: 12563: 12506: 12194: 11909: 11598: 11486: 11092: 10618: 10492: 10106: 9892: 9837: 9807: 9737: 9442: 9405: 9274:

When the world seemed new: George H.W. Bush and the end of the Cold War

6985:"The Iron Lady's Views on German Reunification/'The Germans Are Back!'" 6940: 6908: 6641: 6617: 6525: 6482: 6452: 6392: 6368: 6333: 6309: 6205: 6181: 6143: 5069: 3959: 3952: 3940: 3610: 3038: 2815: 2596: 2159: 1707:". Gorbachev announced in 1988 that the Soviet Union would abandon the 1671:

since 1985 with the fact that the Soviet Union experienced a period of

1577: 1429:(USSR). The agreement also modified Germany's border, with the country 1268: 952: 629: 292: 11707: 9551: 8760:"Ost-Förderung: Deutsche Einheit kostet 2.000.000.000.000 Euro - WELT" 6798: 6596: 6576: 6428: 6279: 3242:

As for the German–Polish Border Treaty, it was approved by the Polish

3181: 3092:, national symbol of present-day Germany and its reunification in 1990 2555:

An influential part of the reunification opponents were the so-called

13978: 13626: 13349: 13194: 13043: 13016: 12829: 12784: 12693: 12661: 12641: 12633: 11962: 11752: 10658: 10452: 10171: 10111: 9993: 9603: 9327:

Destiny and power: the American odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush

9254: 7563:

Schmemann, Serge; Times, Special To the New York (28 February 1990).

6814: 6255: 5989:

Urban Planning and Cultural Inclusion Lessons from Belfast and Berlin

5552: 5244: 4287:

TATuP: Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis

4147: 3865: 3752: 3748: 3704: 3668: 3647: 3525: 3506: 3203:, finalizing Germany's eastern boundary as permanent along the Oder–( 3177: 2896: 2729: 2645: 2453: 2259: 2139: 1799: 1578:

a common policy to reconcile with the communist countries in the East

1569:. The West German government initially did not recognize the new and 1398: 648: 587: 224: 97: 9220: 6633: 6444: 6325: 4143: 3716: 2117: 1458:

to German post-war and Austrian territory. Saarland, an area in the

203: 13512: 12928: 12769: 12666: 12541: 12360: 12264: 11404: 11262: 10716: 10008: 9983: 9940: 9774: 9757: 9681: 8910:"European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism" 7019:"Thatcher told Gorbachev Britain did not want German reunification" 6588: 6384: 6369:"The Road to German Unity: Mass Sentiment in East and West Germany" 6271: 6197: 6182:"The Road to German Unity: Mass Sentiment in East and West Germany" 5771:

The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany

5330:"Helmut Kohl's Ten-Point Plan for German Unity (November 28, 1989)" 3932: 3841: 3736: 3618:

was demolished in 2006 to make space for the reconstruction of the

3299: 3278: 2938:, joked "I love Germany so much that I prefer to see two of them". 2866: 2824: 2375:), so the day was considered inappropriate for a national holiday. 2327: 2227: 1976: 1863: 1728: 1713: 1545: 1319: 192:

in East Germany return a pro-unification government (18 March 1990)

12048:

Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

7225:"Special Meeting of the European Council – Presidency Conclusions" 6144:"Rebuilding of a Nation: The Germans before and after Unification" 2559:. Emerging from the student Left, Anti-Germans were supportive of 278:

Withdrawal of Soviet, then Russian troops completed 31 August 1994

14257: 13677: 13621: 13543: 12874: 12759: 12749: 12698: 12239: 10984: 9935: 9249:

Blumenau, Bernhard; Hanhimäki, Jussi; Zanchetta, Barbara (2018).

9093:

European Journal of Economics and Economic Policies: Intervention

8945: 6799:"The Politics of Diplomacy, Revolution: War and Peace, 1989–1992" 6768:"The Times Poll : One Germany: U.S. Unfazed, Europeans Fret" 6310:"A Wall Destroyed: The Dynamics of German Unification in the GDR" 5546:"United States and Soviet Union Sign German Reunification Treaty" 4907: 3724: 3707:) than the administrative one (Berlin), in resemblance of Italy ( 3664: 3208: 3192: 3155: 3124: 3030: 3026: 2862: 2622: 2568: 2519:

After unification, the national divide persisted—a survey by the

2470: 2167: 1939: 1741: 1657: 1507: 1334: 1047: 849: 503: 482: 368: 332: 311: 9300:

Dissolution: The crisis of Communism and the end of East Germany

8941:"30 years after fall of Berlin Wall, East Germans feel inferior" 8552:"Germany's wealth distribution most unequal in euro zone: study" 7988:

DDR-Geschichte: Merkel will Birthler-Behörde noch lange erhalten

5582:"Merkel to mark 20th anniversary of German reunification treaty" 5246:

Deutschland einig Vaterland die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung

3113:. The withdrawal of the last Russian troops (the Russian Army's 12942: 12744: 12683: 11618: 9862: 9513:"Germany's Eastern Burden: The Price of a Failed Reunification" 9234: 4852:

Government of the German Democratic Republic (1 October 1959).

4519:"Reunification Controversy: Was East Germany Really 'Annexed?'" 4176:

pointed out that the currency union as such had come too early.

3995: 3874: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3732: 3728: 3696: 3660: 3196: 3159: 3089: 3060: 2998: 2955: 2951: 2604: 2572: 2560: 2464:. The division of Germany was considered necessary to maintain 2366: 2163: 2155: 2131: 1637: 1511: 1422: 554: 395: 257: 216: 8092:"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung" 8043:"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung" 7881:"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung" 4938:

Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present

4730:. Center of Military History, United States Army. p. 114. 3958:

Korea and Vietnam suffered severely from this division in the

2830: 2539:("wall in the head"), suggesting that despite the fall of the 2033:) was formally presented by the President of the Volkskammer, 1846:

The end of East Germany became clear after the resignation of

1723:(economic restructuring), and taken further by Gorbachev, the 13637:

Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples

13616: 13427: 13383:

American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation

12889: 12672: 10751: 9470:. Translated by Brown, Allison; Cooper, Belinda. Providence: 3991: 3913: 3708: 3700: 3528:

party, in the 2017 federal election in Germany, final results

2612: 2465: 2250:

now recognizing each another as separate sovereign states in

2198:

The process chosen was one of the two options set out in the

1442: 6023:

Institute of Socio-Economic Geography and Spatial Management

5643:"Opening of the Berlin Wall and Unification: German History" 4834:, Munich: Beck, 1981, (Beck'sche Schwarze Reihe; Vol. 235), 3792:

The subsequent economic restructuring and reconstruction of

3396:

has become a major force in German politics. It was renamed

1669:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

1441:

to Poland and the Soviet Union (most for Poland because the

30:

For the unification of most German states in the 1800s, see

12967: 12849: 10741: 10685: 8426: 8424: 7850:"Umfrage: Ost- und Westdeutsche entfernen sich voneinander" 6483:"At Issue: "The Anti-Germans" – The Pro-Israel German Left" 3857:

In 2023, a poll found that 40% of East Germans identify as

3720: 3712: 3643: 3516: 3482: 3243: 3101:

left Germany on 25 June 1994 with a military parade of the

3097:

the withdrawal of the remaining Allied forces. The bulk of

1549: 1373:

On 5 June 1945, with the Berlin Declaration, the defeat of

238: 9248: 5768:

Kommers, Donald P.; Miller, Russell A. (9 November 2012).

3775:

burgeoning creative activities. According to Berlin Mayor

3207:) Neisse line, and thus, renouncing any claims to most of 3037:

can be seen parked in the background. Private brands like

2766:

provided strong and decisive support to Kohl's proposals.

585:" during the runup to what Germans frequently refer to as 13422: 13402: 13397: 9659:

Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe

9638: 9253:. Cold War history. Abingdon, Oxon (GB) New York (N.Y.): 7161:"Germany's neighbors try to redeem their 1989 negativity" 6079:

European Civil War Films: Memory, Conflict, and Nostalgia

5613:"Soviet Legislature Ratifies German Reunification Treaty" 4102: 2178:—now the flag of a reunited Germany—was raised above the 1473:

as part of their tension in the world led the Soviets to

9113:

Preparing for the Possibility of a North Korean Collapse

8907: 8876: 8845: 8421: 7503:"Allies' Departure Leaves Berlin Without Foreign Troops" 7405:"Treaty on the Final Settlement with respect to Germany" 2879:

I love Germany so much that I prefer to see two of them.

2742:

Mikhail Gorbachev had initially called for a united but

109:

9 November 1989 – 15 March 1991

8675:"Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung (BPA)" 8396: 8394: 8217:

Redding, Stephen J; Sturm, Daniel M (1 November 2008).

7097:"London and Paris were shocked by German reunification" 5203:, Brill | Schöningh, pp. 158–190, 1 January 2014, 4832:

Chronik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945/49 bis 1981

4142:, annexed by Poland in 1945 and comprising the city of 3955:" and "Eastern-Communist" zones or former occupations. 2535:

regional interests. This state of mind became known as

1999:

signed for the FRG and the East German State Secretary

628:

as it had been introduced by the SED Secretary General

227:

reestablished to become states of the reunified Germany

9030:

Burchardi, Konrad B; Hassan, Tarek A (1 August 2013).

7534:"Did NATO Promise Not to Enlarge? Gorbachev Says "No"" 3066:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

3057:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

3017:

German sovereignty and withdrawal of the Allied Forces

1454:, including territories east of the Oder–Neisse line, 521:/EU) and in international organizations including the 452:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

198:

East Germany dissolves itself effective 3 October 1990

9511:

Berg, Stefan, Steffen Winter and Andreas Wassermann,

6620:. The New Europe: Revolution in East-West Relations. 6016: 6014: 6012: 6010: 6008: 5292:"Despite New Stirrings, Dream of 'One Germany' Fades" 3486:

Soviet and GDR Memorabilia for sale in Berlin in 2006

3302:

respectively. The changes effectively formalized the

2254:. This treaty was then voted into effect by both the 2194:

Fireworks at Brandenburg Gate after the reunification

1405:

between the three main Allies defeating the European

387:

in Germany since 1991. As part of the reunification,

383:), and has thereafter been celebrated each year as a 9174: 8403:

International Journal of Urban and Regional Research

8391: 6700: 6698: 6493:(1/2). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: 95–106. 4650:"Beitritt zur BRD: Vom Westen "überrannt"? | MDR.DE" 3800:, which paid large sums of money in the form of the 3400:, and, later, merged with the Western leftist party 2621:

progress that the GDR had made in regard to women's

2238:, as its existence was opposed by the Soviet Union. 602:("German unity"); this is commonly used in Germany. 180:

Reunification of Germany under the Federal Republic

9468:

Uniting Germany: documents and debates, 1944 - 1993

8296: 7056: 7054: 7052: 7050: 7048: 7046: 7044: 6696: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6684: 6682: 6680: 6678: 4934: 4728:

The US Army and the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946

4381:"War die deutsche Wiedervereinigung eine Annexion?" 4276: 4274: 3105:in Berlin. This was followed by the closure of the 2884:Giulio Andreotti, Prime Minister of Italy, quoting 2154:part of West Germany, in order to form the city of 567:

process of unification of most of the German states

9524:"An Inside Look at the Reunification Negotiations" 9090: 7152: 7127: 6978: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6970: 6707:"An Inside Look at the Reunification Negotiations" 6654: 6530:International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 6005: 5916: 5914: 5912: 5910: 4914:. Britanncia Educational Publishing. p. 193. 4197: 4195: 4193: 3219:, and the southern area of the former province of 3123:in Berlin, with the presence of Russian President 2849:unified Germany could "make more ground than even 1835:, prominently visible during protests against the 1361:On 19 December 1975, the permanent representative 9547:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 8883:Pew Research Center | Global Attitudes and Trends 8852:Pew Research Center | Global Attitudes and Trends 8430: 8177: 7012: 7010: 5982: 5980: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5362:. Die Verfassungen in Deutschland. Archived from 4887:. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 543. 3892:List of national border changes since World War I 3422:Constitutionally, the Basic Law of West Germany ( 3184:, a city of Germany which belonged to the former 2708: 2158:, which joined the Federal Republic as its third 2037:, to the President of the West German Bundestag, 1946:, on a platform of speedy reunification. Second, 1240:An East German political event on 21 April 1946: 79:Germans stand on top of the Wall in front of the 14535: 13368:List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States 9466:Jarausch, Konrad; Gransow, Volker, eds. (1994). 7188: 7186: 7090: 7088: 7041: 6858:"William Taubman. Gorbachev: His Life and Times" 6675: 6628:(1). The Academy of Political Science: 140–152. 5112:"Division 19 officers August 1989 – August 1990" 4350:"Die DDR als Zankapfel in Forschung und Politik" 4271: 1675:, and correspondingly decreased intervention in 1310:Stamp of the Deutsche Bundespost (1957) for the 429:. The border was still closely guarded, but the 11805:North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 11212:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9697:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union 9495:The Unification Treaty (Berlin, 31 August 1990) 9465: 9452:, Online Project about German reunification of 9029: 7349:"Helmut Kohl's Ten-Point Plan for German Unity" 7260:. Dublin: The European Council. 28 April 1990. 7095:Anne-Laure, Mondesert (AFP) (31 October 2009). 6967: 6765: 6759: 6622:Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 5907: 5739:"Germany Today – The German Unification Treaty" 5604: 5352: 5156:, Routledge, pp. 43–50, 27 November 2014, 4719: 4230: 4228: 4190: 2857:and would likely dominate Hungary, Poland, and 2855:former German territory lost after World War II 2616:included in the post-unification reform of the 1727:took hold in Poland. Further inspired by other 1695:" which prevent freedom of movement in Berlin. 10478:Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria 8914:Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project 8338: 8336: 8334: 7562: 7192: 7016: 7007: 5971: 5574: 4901: 4793:Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe 4235:Brait, Andrea; Gehler, Michael (6 July 2014), 3835: 3796:resulted in significant costs, especially for 2805:Thatcher, who carried in her handbag a map of 2182:, marking the moment of German reunification. 1986: 1900:Berlin Wall, October 1990, saying "Thank you, 659: 423:removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria 282:Relocation of the federal government to Berlin 13528: 10701: 9567: 8901: 8715:Postwar : a history of Europe since 1945 8001:(15 January 2009). Retrieved 19 October 2010. 7847: 7692: 7183: 7085: 6797:Watson, Geoffrey K.; Baker, James A. (1996). 6249: 6247: 5817:"The Wall Comes Down: A Punctuational Moment" 5767: 4988:Kohl Says He'd Bring ‘Sounder’ Policy in Bonn 4928: 4109:in the Winter and Summer Olympics until 1968. 3622:, which was finished in 2020, but houses the 2977:—recognized that Germany went through a long 2416:that contextualizes different points of view. 2402:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 2146:, the capital of East Germany, reunited with 1590:a constitutional amendment the following year 1289:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany 1196: 466:, though only on 31 August 1994 did the last 371:. This date has been chosen as the customary 13444:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 10995:Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council 9497:website of CVCE (Centre of European Studies) 9278:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company 8961:"Former East Germany still lags behind west" 8216: 7693:Peterson, Clarissa; Riley, Emmitt Y (2022). 7367: 7340: 7288:"Germany will 'never forget' Ireland's help" 6422: 6420: 6418: 6245: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6237: 6235: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6227: 5823:, Cornell University Press, pp. 13–25, 4963:"Basic Treaty | 1972 | Britannica" 4817:J. Robert Wegs & Robert Ladrech (1996). 4225: 3806: 3543: 3464: 3453: 3441: 3428: 3414: 3347: 3332: 3321: 2769: 2579:, unification sentiments and reemergence of 2550: 2344: 2220: 2208: 2115: 2096: 2083: 2072: 2061: 2050: 2028: 2017: 1871: 1064: 950: 623: 611: 597: 529:(UN), while relinquishing membership in the 421:) started to falter on 2 May 1989, when the 402:united into a single city, which eventually 378: 13647:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) 12305:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 9412: 9099:(2). Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.: 278–293. 8331: 8171: 7125: 6796: 6476: 6474: 6175: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6046: 6044: 4234: 1814: 1349:Flags of the two Germanies in front of the 233:East German territories reunify within the 13535: 13521: 13408:United States involvement in regime change 10963:1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 10708: 10694: 9574: 9560: 7965:(in German). 27 April 2009. Archived from 7324:. Houses of the Oireachtas. 3 March 2022. 7318:"Find a Debate – Houses of the Oireachtas" 7094: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6126: 6124: 4908:Britannica Educational Publishing (2013). 3477:Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records 1544:the international tension's period of the 1203: 1189: 83:in the days before the Wall was torn down. 73: 9055: 8440: 8302: 8275: 8107: 8089: 8058: 8040: 7896: 7878: 7657: 7375:"I Preferred To See It as an Acquisition" 7255:"Special meeting of the European Council" 6523: 6426: 6415: 6253: 6224: 5986: 5481:"Volkskammer der DDR stimmt für Beitritt" 5415: 5413: 5411: 5289: 4378: 4298: 4280: 3982:which delayed the reunification process. 3259:) were treated better by the government. 3247:The Treaty was later supplemented by the 2432:Learn how and when to remove this message 2404:. The specific problem is: See talk page. 9344: 8939:Chambers, Madeline (25 September 2019). 8938: 8786: 8718:. New York: Penguin Press. p. 638. 7841: 7060: 6704: 6657:"The Politics of Johann Wolfgang Goethe" 6608: 6606: 6480: 6471: 6366: 6256:"Introduction: The Reunification Debate" 6179: 6166: 6041: 5538: 4557:"Duma May Slam East German 'Annexation'" 4486: 4409: 4148:13 March 1938 Nazi annexation of Austria 4013: 3919: 3895: 3846:According to a 2019 survey conducted by 3787: 3629: 3609: 3586: 3563: 3515: 3489: 3481: 3374: 3267: 3164: 3146: 3080: 3044: 3020: 2997:During a NATO–Warsaw Pact conference in 2829: 2734: 2456:parties of West Germany, especially the 2448:briefly addressed this issue during the 2309: 2273: 2189: 2185: 1990: 1895: 1879: 1853: 1841: 1823: 1647: 1624: 1356: 1344: 1324: 1305: 1294: 1278: 1267: 1234: 1214: 540: 306: 291: 11534:Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) 10102:Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation 9581: 9320: 9110:Bennett, Bruce W. (19 September 2013). 9109: 8814: 8510: 7626: 6982: 6579:. 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A grand coalition was formed under 1888:wait for the official opening of the 1768:to test the reaction of the USSR and 1548:. The capital of West Germany was in 647:referred to the reunification as an ' 331:) was the process of re-establishing 13542: 13449:Soviet Union–United States relations 11800:1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China 9072:from the original on 7 December 2021 8973:from the original on 29 January 2024 8711: 8442:10.14361/transcript.9783839424780.77 7848:Solms-Laubach, Franz (20 May 2009). 7598:"Breaking Down the Wall in the Head" 7544:from the original on 1 November 2019 7501:Kinzer, Stephen (9 September 1994). 7482:from the original on 21 October 2016 7346: 7140:from the original on 11 January 2022 7017:Michael Binyon (11 September 2009). 6983:Volkery, Carsten (9 November 2009). 6618:"The Politics of German Unification" 6517: 6307: 6298: 5920: 5689:from the original on 7 December 2016 5610: 5491:from the original on 2 December 2013 4941:. 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Kennedy 11400:Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation 10918:Restatement of Policy on Germany 10675:Human rights in the Soviet Union 9634:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc 9348:Journal of Transatlantic Studies 9233: 9219: 9205: 9191: 9177: 9142: 9103: 9084: 8999: 8985: 8953: 8932: 8870: 8839: 8808: 8780: 8752: 8705: 8667: 8574: 8544: 8504: 8458: 8415:10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00533.x 8269: 8210: 8132: 8083: 8034: 8004: 7981: 7951: 7921: 7872: 7802: 7778:Joffe, Josef (8 November 2009). 7771: 7741: 7686: 7651: 7627:Cameron, Abadi (7 August 2009). 7620: 7063:"Margaret Thatcher's German war" 6995:from the original on 18 May 2012 6837:from the original on 28 May 2022 6663:from the original on 6 June 2022 5290:Schmemann, Serge (14 May 1989). 4969:from the original on 16 May 2023 4795:. The University of Luxembourg. 4713:The Nuremberg Military Tribunals 4692:from the original on 29 May 2022 4489:"Germany's reunification plunge" 4162: 4153: 3755:), as opposed to London, Paris, 3511:2017 federal election in Germany 3142: 2973:The United States—and President 2786:Margaret Thatcher, December 1989 2387: 1924:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 1862:on 10 November 1989 showing the 1785:, whether Moscow would give the 1169: 1155: 694: 415:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 367:, BRD, or West Germany) to form 141: 129: 14569:1990 in international relations 13739:German revolutions of 1848–1849 13708:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation) 13010:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 12391:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 12320:Fall of the inner German border 12220:1988 Black Sea bumping incident 11870:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 11860:Spanish transition to democracy 11820:1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency 11447:Communist insurgency in Sarawak 10953:Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 10834:Occupation of the Baltic states 10583:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 10513:Fall of the inner German border 8631:Jakob, Doreen (December 2010). 7556: 7525: 7494: 7429: 7397: 7310: 7286:Scally, Derek (29 April 2010). 7279: 7247: 7217: 7159:Knight, Ben (8 November 2009). 7126:Peter Allen (2 November 2009). 7119: 6900: 6849: 6729: 6648: 6568: 6487:Jewish Political Studies Review 6360: 6109:from the original on 5 May 2015 6091: 6071: 5808: 5761: 5731: 5701: 5665: 5635: 5473: 5443: 5378: 5322: 5283: 5236: 5189: 5142: 5104: 5058:Nonprofit Communications Report 5046: 4999: 4981: 4955: 4824: 4734: 4726:Ziemke, Earl Frederick (1990). 4704: 4674: 4642: 4609: 4579: 4561:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4549: 4511: 4480: 4450: 4283:"Die Welt aus den Angeln heben" 4249:10.7767/boehlau.9783205793236.9 4128: 4112: 4094: 4034:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 3253:few remaining Germans in Poland 2913:a country which is also divided 963:German revolutions of 1848–1849 545:1990 Day of German Unity, with 351:Deutsche Demokratische Republik 13724:Early modern period, 1500–1800 13612:List of early Germanic peoples 11790:Four Power Agreement on Berlin 11425:Mozambican War of Independence 10864:Indonesian National Revolution 10573:Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact 9712:Terrorism and the Soviet Union 8768:(in German). 21 September 2015 8016:Tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de 8012:"Facts about Germany: Society" 7815:. 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Most of the 1452:Central and Eastern Europe 968:North German Confederation 938:Confederation of the Rhine 663: 654: 573:(German Reich) led by the 547:flags of all German states 447:GDR's first free elections 365:Bundesrepublik Deutschland 341:German Democratic Republic 329:Deutsche Wiedervereinigung 94:Deutsche Wiedervereinigung 29: 14488: 14348: 14228: 14219: 14102: 14093: 13974: 13965: 13901: 13892: 13855: 13834: 13716: 13670: 13594: 13563: 13554: 13487: 13436: 13358: 13335:William Appleman Williams 13280:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. 13062: 13034: 12983: 12915: 12908: 12842: 12707: 12632: 12562: 12555: 12464: 12411: 12343: 12056: 11795:Bangladesh Liberation War 11785:1971 Sudanese coup d'état 11700: 11672:1969 Sudanese coup d'état 11660:1968 Peruvian coup d'état 11323: 11098:Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 11075: 10785: 10723: 10667: 10601: 10563:1991 protests in Belgrade 10443: 10368: 10277: 10219: 10210: 10092: 9954: 9901: 9798: 9730: 9667: 9589: 9502:"The End of East Germany" 9448:17 September 2023 at the 9390:10.1017/S0018246X99001387 8649:10.1016/j.ccs.2011.01.005 8637:City, Culture and Society 7231:. Dublin. 28 April 1990. 6925:10.1017/S0018246X99001387 6542:10.1163/15718119620907094 5950:10.1080/02665430500397329 5774:. Duke University Press. 5150:"Das Picknick The picnic" 4789:"The division of Germany" 3467:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 3233:all-German free elections 3186:Province of Lower Silesia 3059:—that had been signed in 2950:—retained authority over 2770:United Kingdom and France 2673:Nobel Prize in Literature 2551:Social groups and figures 2346:Tag der deutschen Einheit 2063:Wiedervereinigungsvertrag 1926:—was heavily defeated in 1490:, was established in the 536: 468:Russian occupation troops 380:Tag der deutschen Einheit 260:as the capital of Germany 186:opened on 9 November 1989 176: 154: 124: 105: 88: 72: 60: 13906:Administrative divisions 12110:1980 Turkish coup d'état 11945:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 11915:1978 Somali coup attempt 11875:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 11840:1973 Chilean coup d'état 11665:Revolutionary Government 11559:South African Border War 11351:1960 Turkish coup d'état 11268:Iraqi 14 July Revolution 11123:1953 Iranian coup d'état 11103:1952 Egyptian revolution 10553:January Events in Latvia 10543:Reunification of Germany 10528:1990s post-Soviet aliyah 10458:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest 10182:National Salvation Front 10167:Belarusian Popular Front 10157:Popular Front of Estonia 9926:Polish underground press 9687:List of socialist states 9426:Harvard University Press 8476:10.1787/9789264101470-en 8223:American Economic Review 7025:. London. Archived from 6907:Spohr, Kristina (2000). 6481:Erlanger, Simon (2009). 6308:Pond, Elizabeth (1990). 6140:Winkler, Heinrich August 5879:10.1787/9789264101470-en 5243:Andreas, Rödder (1967). 5162:10.4324/9781315756943-11 4883:Jessup, John E. (1998). 4655:Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk 4410:Buchholz, Erich (2009). 4069: 4059:Vietnamese reunification 2929:" and the Netherlands's 2799:Soviet General Secretary 2200:West German constitution 1815:Process of reunification 1729:images of brave defiance 1703:had referred to as the " 1689:Soviet General Secretary 1231:) in Germany (1947–1949) 502:; also on the same day, 56:Reunification of Germany 12315:Fall of the Berlin Wall 12260:People Power Revolution 12245:Central American crisis 12185:1986 Black Sea incident 11835:1973 Afghan coup d'état 11733:Western Sahara conflict 11544:1966 Syrian coup d'état 11467:1963 Syrian coup d'état 11410:Portuguese Colonial War 11373:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 11138:1954 Syrian coup d'état 11015:Annexation of Hyderabad 10958:1947–1949 Palestine war 10629:Economic liberalization 10568:1991 Belarusian strikes 10508:Fall of the Berlin Wall 10162:Public Against Violence 10152:Popular Front of Latvia 9931:Political demonstration 9780:Chinese economic reform 9692:People Power Revolution 8885:. Pew Research Center. 8854:. Pew Research Center. 8349:SSRN Electronic Journal 7809:Staab, Andreas (1998). 7699:. New York: Routledge. 7672:10.3167/gps.2019.370303 5249:(in German). C.H.Beck. 5154:Bringing German to Life 5064:(4): 7. 12 March 2019. 4004:North and South Vietnam 3925:Korean Unification Flag 3574:fall of the Berlin Wall 3534:economic reconstruction 3116:Western Group of Forces 2781:! And now they're back! 2599:(Nazis) in singing the 2487:Heinrich August Winkler 1809:fall of the Berlin Wall 1667:had led the country as 1312:political incorporation 244:Two Plus Four Agreement 169:Fall of the Berlin Wall 38: 14167:Science and technology 13868:History of Brandenburg 13759:Unification of Germany 13749:Frankfurt Constitution 12609:Neoclassical economics 12120:Gulf of Sidra incident 11677:1969 Libyan revolution 11368:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 11153:1954 Geneva Conference 10913:Turkish straits crisis 10908:Corfu Channel incident 9763:New political thinking 9378:The Historical Journal 8515:, Palgrave Macmillan, 8109:10.21825/br.v10i2.3145 8060:10.21825/br.v10i2.3145 7898:10.21825/br.v10i2.3145 6913:The Historical Journal 6314:International Security 5991:. Palgrave Macmillan. 5124:10.1037/e402342005-008 4323:"DRA: Archivnachweise" 4024:Inner German relations 4019: 3928: 3917: 3807: 3747:) or the Netherlands ( 3635: 3627: 3616:Palace of the Republic 3607: 3597:West German Chancellor 3569: 3544: 3529: 3513: 3487: 3465: 3454: 3442: 3429: 3415: 3381: 3362:Southern United States 3348: 3333: 3322: 3294:) and were settled by 3223:(they are called the " 3188: 3162: 3093: 3055:On 15 March 1991, the 3052: 3042: 2983: 2948:Four-Power Authorities 2890: 2838: 2807:Germany's 1937 borders 2792:British Prime Minister 2789: 2747: 2720:, who speculated that 2715:Israeli Prime Minister 2601:German national anthem 2369:against Jews in 1938 ( 2345: 2331: 2232:protectorate of France 2221: 2209: 2195: 2116: 2097: 2084: 2073: 2062: 2051: 2029: 2018: 2004: 1948:East Germany's economy 1905: 1893: 1877: 1872: 1851: 1839: 1691:Mikhail Gorbachev to " 1661: 1645: 1611: 1535:on 7 October 1949, it 1460:French occupation zone 1456:fled and were expelled 1395:Allied Control Council 1370: 1354: 1342: 1322: 1316:new state coat of arms 1303: 1292: 1276: 1265: 1232: 1065: 951: 820:Linear Pottery culture 624: 612: 598: 558: 411:East German government 379: 364: 350: 328: 315: 304: 50:considered for merging 32:Unification of Germany 14574:National unifications 13804:Flight and expulsions 13459:Russia–NATO relations 13340:Jonathan Reed Winkler 12624:Democratic capitalism 12619:Supply-side economics 12587:American conservatism 12386:Breakup of Yugoslavia 12275:Bougainville conflict 12190:South Yemen civil war 12125:Martial law in Poland 11988:Nicaraguan Revolution 11963:Dirty War (Argentina) 11770:1971 JVP insurrection 11584:Years of Lead (Italy) 11462:North Yemen civil war 11380:Berlin Crisis of 1961 11356:Albanian–Soviet split 11288:1959 Tibetan uprising 11253:Syrian Crisis of 1957 11108:Iraqi Intifada (1952) 10968:1948 Arab–Israeli War 10634:Post-Soviet conflicts 10588:Tajikistani Civil War 10538:Revolution on Granite 10498:Monday Demonstrations 10024:Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 9858:Mengistu Haile Mariam 9624:Eastern Bloc politics 8969:. 25 September 2019. 8521:10.1057/9780230337756 8513:After the Berlin Wall 8235:10.1257/aer.98.5.1766 7705:10.4324/9781003147473 7381:. 29 September 2010. 6803:International Journal 6433:German Studies Review 5930:Planning Perspectives 5780:10.1515/9780822395386 5487:(in German). BPD.de. 5006:Doder, Dusko (1990). 4752:29 March 2017 at the 4300:10.14512/tatup.19.2.8 4134:The territory of the 4017: 3923: 3899: 3788:Cost of reunification 3633: 3613: 3590: 3567: 3519: 3493: 3485: 3378: 3292:a Soviet member state 3268:International effects 3225:Recovered Territories 3191:On 14 November 1990, 3168: 3150: 3130:Charlottenburg Palace 3099:Russian ground forces 3084: 3048: 3024: 2979:democratic transition 2971: 2877: 2833: 2773: 2738: 2563:and strongly opposed 2410:by rewriting it in a 2313: 2274:Unification of Berlin 2193: 2186:Constitutional merger 1994: 1899: 1883: 1857: 1845: 1827: 1803:, was marked by the " 1677:Eastern Bloc politics 1651: 1628: 1597: 1479:blockaded West Berlin 1466:on 17 December 1947. 1464:a French protectorate 1360: 1348: 1328: 1309: 1298: 1282: 1271: 1238: 1218: 746:Territorial evolution 664:Further information: 605:After 1990, the term 544: 425:opened a hole in the 310: 295: 269:Germany–Poland border 18:German re-unification 14564:1990 in West Germany 14559:1990 in East Germany 14544:German reunification 14476:World Heritage Sites 14154:German states by GDP 13744:German Confederation 12880:Non-Aligned Movement 12502:Peaceful coexistence 12456:North Borneo dispute 12371:German reunification 12366:Min Ping Yu No. 5202 12064:Salvadoran Civil War 12013:Grand Mosque seizure 12008:Yemenite War of 1979 11900:Mozambican Civil War 11855:Carnation Revolution 11810:Yemenite War of 1972 11748:1970 Polish protests 11579:1967 Hong Kong riots 11554:Argentine Revolution 11504:Guatemalan Civil War 11432:Cuban Missile Crisis 11346:Bay of Pigs Invasion 11218:1956 Poznań protests 11196:Geneva Summit (1955) 10798:Hukbalahap Rebellion 10777:Non-Aligned Movement 10044:Vytautas Landsbergis 10039:Viacheslav Chornovil 9868:Denis Sassou Nguesso 9530:, 29 September 2010. 9280:. pp. 273–291. 9116:. RAND Corporation. 8558:. 26 February 2014. 8357:10.2139/ssrn.1021951 6053:Progress in Planning 5647:germanculture.com.ua 4830:Hans Georg Lehmann, 4464:. 1 September 2010. 4416:. Berlin: Homilius. 4049:Korean reunification 3830:Solidarity Surcharge 3808:Solidaritätszuschlag 3684:Oliver Marc Hartwich 3601:mayor of West Berlin 3174:Western Neisse river 3170:German-Polish border 2654:democratic socialism 2525:Dolores L. Augustine 2521:Allensbach Institute 2504:on 4 November 1989, 2172:Two Plus Four Treaty 2035:Sabine Bergmann-Pohl 1654:Monday demonstration 1632:(United States) and 1582:Peaceful coexistence 1574:German–Polish border 1082:Expulsion of Germans 1048:Contemporary Germany 946:German Confederation 637:University of Erfurt 491:Two Plus Four Treaty 319:German reunification 14584:Peaceful Revolution 14112:Automobile industry 13698:Carolingian dynasty 13632:History of the Huns 13325:Alex von Tunzelmann 13315:Vladimir Tismăneanu 13240:Thomas J. McCormick 13235:Jack F. Matlock Jr. 13135:Robert Hugh Ferrell 12998:Crusade for Freedom 12795:Illiberal democracy 12679:Ho Chi Minh Thought 12482:Eisenhower Doctrine 12335:Peaceful Revolution 12330:Romanian Revolution 12310:Revolutions of 1989 12295:1988 Polish strikes 12205:Operation INFEKTION 12200:1987 Lieyu massacre 12105:Eritrean Civil Wars 12088:Peruvian Revolution 12038:1979 Herat uprising 12028:Sino-Vietnamese War 11993:Uganda–Tanzania War 11973:Egyptian–Libyan War 11940:Third Indochina War 11935:Sino-Albanian split 11925:Ethiopian Civil War 11825:Eritrean Civil Wars 11765:Ping-pong diplomacy 11738:Cambodian Civil War 11564:Korean DMZ Conflict 11549:Cultural Revolution 11519:Dominican Civil War 11497:Tlatelolco massacre 11283:1959 Mosul uprising 11273:1958 Lebanon crisis 11000:Al-Wathbah uprising 10923:First Indochina War 10893:Iran crisis of 1946 10488:Pan-European Picnic 10463:1988 Polish strikes 9843:Wojciech Jaruzelski 9583:Revolutions of 1989 9519:, 5 September 2005. 9454:Haus der Geschichte 9199:East Germany portal 8712:Judt, Tony (2005). 8022:on 16 February 2010 7993:9 June 2009 at the 7755:. 6 November 2009. 7509:. Berlin, Germany. 7229:European Commission 7134:The Daily Telegraph 6659:. Mises Institute. 6581:New German Critique 6536:(1). Brill: 41–77. 6260:New German Critique 5942:2006PlPer..21...67L 5673:"Bundesgesetzblatt" 5520:www.bundesarchiv.de 5054:"TV Interview Tips" 4996:, August 17th, 1976 4771:16 May 2023 at the 4762:, 23 January 2013; 4715:. OUP. p. 116. 4563:. 29 January 2015. 4140:Free City of Danzig 4044:Irish reunification 4039:Chinese unification 4029:Inner German border 3848:Pew Research Center 3680:deindustrialisation 3076:Sperenberg Airfield 2846:François Mitterrand 2837:(yellow and orange) 2603:in 1933, following 2597:National Socialists 2585:Hermann L. Gremliza 2379:Domestic opposition 2363:Hitler's first coup 2336:Day of German Unity 2306:Day of German Unity 2003:signed for the GDR. 1858:Berlin Wall at the 1829:Flag of the GDR/DDR 1805:Peaceful Revolution 1746:Pan-European Picnic 1744:and Hungary at the 1733:wave of revolutions 1725:Solidarity movement 1693:tear down this wall 1644:on 19 November 1985 1506:established in the 1443:eastern territories 1411:military government 1285:Frankfurt Documents 896:Early Modern period 883:Eastward settlement 487:Revolutions of 1989 443:Revolutions of 1989 439:Peaceful Revolution 431:Pan-European Picnic 369:present-day Germany 256:to form a reunited 164:Peaceful Revolution 159:Revolutions of 1989 67:end of the Cold War 63:Revolutions of 1989 57: 14182:Telecommunications 13863:History of Prussia 13779:Revolution of 1918 13774:War guilt question 13693:Carolingian Empire 13662:Sack of Rome (410) 13571:History of Germany 13479:Russian Revolution 13275:Mary Elise Sarotte 13260:William B. Pickett 13185:Patrick J. Hearden 13165:Gabriel Gorodetsky 13160:Timothy Garton Ash 13145:Anneli Ute Gabanyi 12740:Ethnic nationalism 12492:Hallstein Doctrine 12376:Yemeni unification 12165:1985 Geneva Summit 12130:Casamance conflict 12033:New Jewel Movement 12018:Iranian Revolution 12003:Chadian–Libyan War 11950:Cambodian conflict 11930:Lebanese Civil War 11920:Western Sahara War 11895:June 1976 protests 11890:Cambodian genocide 11655:17 July Revolution 11609:Nigerian Civil War 11524:Rhodesian Bush War 11509:Colombian conflict 11452:Ramadan Revolution 11191:Bandung Conference 11067:Operation Valuable 10948:Partition of India 9848:Slobodan Milošević 9717:Vatican Opposition 9302:. Princeton, N.J: 9048:10.1093/qje/qjt009 7604:. 3 October 2004. 7569:The New York Times 7445:. 26 August 1991. 7205:on 26 October 2014 7107:on 4 November 2009 6874:10.1093/ahr/rhz834 5821:In Uncertain Times 5526:on 20 October 2015 5451:"Leben in der DDR" 5366:on 29 October 2013 5296:The New York Times 5070:10.1002/npcr.31171 4993:The New York Times 4525:. 31 August 2010. 4064:Yemeni unification 4020: 3929: 3918: 3636: 3628: 3620:Berlin City Palace 3608: 3570: 3530: 3514: 3488: 3382: 3370:American Civil War 3189: 3163: 3134:Warren Christopher 3094: 3053: 3043: 2839: 2820:self-determination 2748: 2677:National Socialism 2658:Frank Schirrmacher 2565:German nationalism 2332: 2278:In the context of 2236:disputed territory 2196: 2030:Beitrittserklärung 2005: 1932:Lothar de Maizière 1906: 1894: 1878: 1852: 1840: 1662: 1646: 1619:The New York Times 1403:Potsdam Conference 1371: 1355: 1343: 1323: 1304: 1293: 1277: 1266: 1233: 1176:History portal 1162:Germany portal 913:Kingdom of Prussia 873:Kingdom of Germany 845:Barbarian kingdoms 575:Kingdom of Prussia 559: 551:Reichstag building 496:Germany as a whole 404:became the capital 316: 305: 265:legally recognises 55: 14531: 14530: 14484: 14483: 14215: 14214: 14129:Chemical Triangle 14089: 14088: 14076:Political parties 14024:Foreign relations 13961: 13960: 13888: 13887: 13799:Allied occupation 13703:Holy Roman Empire 13510: 13509: 13497:List of conflicts 13345:Rudolph Winnacker 13290:Giles Scott-Smith 13265:Ronald E. Powaski 13220:Melvyn P. Leffler 13150:John Lewis Gaddis 13125:Robert D. English 13090:Warren H. Carroll 13080:Michael Beschloss 13049:Nuclear arms race 13030: 13029: 12936:Neues Deutschland 12838: 12837: 12820:White nationalism 12790:Liberal democracy 12527:Ulbricht Doctrine 12517:Brezhnev Doctrine 12325:Velvet Revolution 12069:Soviet–Afghan War 11885:Angolan Civil War 11682:Goulash Communism 11539:ASEAN Declaration 11492:Mexican Dirty War 11390:Annexation of Goa 11341:1960 U-2 incident 11315:Sino-Soviet split 11293:Laotian Civil War 11133:Bricker Amendment 11113:Mau Mau rebellion 11057:Malayan Emergency 11045:Chinese Civil War 11005:Tito–Stalin split 10859:Division of Korea 10683: 10682: 10609:Colour revolution 10439: 10438: 10406:Congo-Brazzaville 10127:Democratic Russia 10084:Pope John Paul II 10079:George H. W. Bush 10029:Vladimir Bukovsky 9818:Mikhail Gorbachev 9813:Nicolae Ceaușescu 9599:Era of Stagnation 9522:Wiegrefe, Klaus, 9508:, 23 August 2005. 9481:978-1-57181-011-3 9435:978-0-674-35325-1 9418:Rice, Condoleezza 9337:978-0-8129-7947-3 9313:978-0-691-00746-5 9296:Maier, Charles S. 9287:978-0-547-42306-7 9264:978-1-138-73134-9 9123:978-0-8330-8172-8 8725:978-1-59420-065-6 8467:Urban Renaissance 8452:978-3-8376-2448-9 8433:The Berlin Reader 8096:Brood & Rozen 8047:Brood & Rozen 7939:on 3 October 2010 7885:Brood & Rozen 7822:978-0-275-96177-0 7714:978-1-003-14747-3 7666:(3): 18–31, 14p. 7629:"The Berlin fall" 7442:Los Angeles Times 7322:www.oireachtas.ie 6772:Los Angeles Times 5998:978-0-333-79368-8 5870:Urban Renaissance 5838:978-0-8014-4909-3 5789:978-0-8223-9538-6 5562:on 4 October 2013 5256:978-3-406-56281-5 5201:Das Tor zur Seele 5171:978-1-315-75694-3 5116:PsycEXTRA Dataset 4948:978-0-8160-7471-6 4921:978-1-61530-991-7 4858:documentArchiv.de 4423:978-3-89706-406-5 4258:978-3-205-79496-7 4241:Grenzöffnung 1989 4136:League of Nations 4123:Werner Weidenfeld 3947:(1967–1990), and 3914:present-day Yemen 3599:Helmut Kohl, and 3217:Farther Pomerania 2987:George H. W. Bush 2975:George H. W. Bush 2795:Margaret Thatcher 2764:George H. W. Bush 2442: 2441: 2434: 2396:This article may 2252:international law 2098:Verfassungsgesetz 2086:Bundesgesetzblatt 1997:Wolfgang Schäuble 1807:" leading to the 1770:Mikhail Gorbachev 1766:Otto von Habsburg 1758:Karl von Habsburg 1754:Paneuropean Union 1709:Brezhnev Doctrine 1665:Mikhail Gorbachev 1660:, 16 October 1989 1634:Mikhail Gorbachev 1622: 1617:Helmuth Kohl for 1488:liberal democracy 1213: 1212: 1144: 1143: 1038: 1037: 878:Holy Roman Empire 755:Holy Roman Empire 645:Matthias Platzeck 641:Mikhail Gorbachev 413:dominated by the 335:as a single full 290: 289: 263:Reunited Germany 16:(Redirected from 14601: 14511: 14504: 14497: 14461:Prussian virtues 14226: 14225: 14134:Economic history 14100: 14099: 13994: 13972: 13971: 13923:Cities and towns 13899: 13898: 13879:Baden Revolution 13683:Treaty of Verdun 13652:Marcomannic Wars 13607:Migration Period 13602:Germanic peoples 13586:Military history 13561: 13560: 13537: 13530: 13523: 13514: 13513: 13255:David S. Painter 13180:John Earl Haynes 13110:Nicholas J. Cull 13095:Adrian Cioroianu 13075:Thomas A. Bailey 13022:Voice of America 12913: 12912: 12825:White separatism 12805:Social democracy 12800:Guided democracy 12780:Authoritarianism 12730:Ultranationalism 12720:Anti-imperialism 12647:Marxism–Leninism 12560: 12559: 12547:Kinmen Agreement 12512:Johnson Doctrine 12497:Kennedy Doctrine 12413:Frozen conflicts 12396:1991 August Coup 12285:Afghan Civil War 12180:Reykjavík Summit 12175:Somali Rebellion 12115:Ugandan Bush War 12093:Gdańsk Agreement 11614:Protests of 1968 11594:War of Attrition 11303:Cuban Revolution 11239:We will bury you 11206:Cyprus Emergency 11186:Kashmir Princess 11176:Jebel Akhdar War 11025:Western betrayal 10710: 10703: 10696: 10687: 10686: 10558:Transnistria War 10217: 10216: 10059:Aung San Suu Kyi 9974:Alexander Dubček 9911:Civil resistance 9768:Sinatra Doctrine 9748:Demokratizatsiya 9649:Shortage economy 9576: 9569: 9562: 9553: 9552: 9485: 9439: 9409: 9372: 9341: 9317: 9291: 9268: 9243: 9238: 9237: 9229: 9224: 9223: 9215: 9210: 9209: 9208: 9201: 9196: 9195: 9194: 9187: 9182: 9181: 9180: 9164: 9163: 9161: 9154: 9146: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9135: 9107: 9101: 9100: 9088: 9082: 9081: 9079: 9077: 9059: 9042:(3): 1219–1271. 9027: 9016: 9015: 9003: 8997: 8996: 8989: 8983: 8982: 8980: 8978: 8957: 8951: 8950: 8936: 8930: 8929: 8927: 8925: 8905: 8899: 8898: 8896: 8894: 8874: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8863: 8843: 8837: 8836: 8834: 8832: 8812: 8806: 8805: 8793: 8784: 8778: 8777: 8775: 8773: 8756: 8750: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8709: 8703: 8702: 8700: 8698: 8671: 8665: 8664: 8662: 8660: 8628: 8619: 8618: 8578: 8572: 8571: 8569: 8567: 8548: 8542: 8541: 8508: 8502: 8501: 8499: 8497: 8462: 8456: 8455: 8444: 8428: 8419: 8418: 8398: 8389: 8388: 8386: 8384: 8340: 8329: 8328: 8300: 8294: 8293: 8273: 8267: 8266: 8264: 8262: 8229:(5): 1766–1797. 8214: 8208: 8207: 8205: 8203: 8175: 8169: 8168: 8166: 8164: 8136: 8130: 8129: 8111: 8087: 8081: 8080: 8062: 8038: 8032: 8031: 8029: 8027: 8018:. 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Archived from 7092: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7078: 7069:. Archived from 7058: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7034: 7014: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7000: 6980: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6960: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6868:(4): 1419–1422. 6853: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6842: 6815:10.2307/40203129 6794: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6783: 6763: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6733: 6727: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6702: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6668: 6652: 6646: 6645: 6610: 6601: 6600: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6563: 6561: 6521: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6510: 6478: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6464: 6424: 6413: 6412: 6406: 6404: 6364: 6358: 6357: 6355: 6353: 6305: 6296: 6295: 6293: 6291: 6251: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6177: 6164: 6163: 6136: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6114: 6095: 6089: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6048: 6039: 6038: 6018: 6003: 6002: 5984: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5964: 5927: 5918: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5865: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5812: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5765: 5759: 5758: 5756: 5754: 5745:. 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Archived from 5550: 5542: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5512: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5496: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5438: 5436: 5417: 5406: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5382: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5326: 5320: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5278: 5276: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5193: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5108: 5102: 5101: 5099: 5097: 5050: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5003: 4997: 4985: 4979: 4978: 4976: 4974: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4849: 4843: 4828: 4822: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4785: 4779: 4777:Landtag-Saar.de. 4738: 4732: 4731: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4646: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4515: 4509: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4334: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4302: 4278: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4232: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4199: 4177: 4172:. The historian 4166: 4160: 4157: 4151: 4132: 4126: 4116: 4110: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4083: 4080: 3962:(1950–1953) and 3943:(1949–present), 3939:(1945–present), 3827: 3826: 3825: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3715:), Switzerland ( 3547: 3542: 3504: 3470: 3463: 3457: 3452: 3445: 3440: 3434: 3427: 3418: 3413: 3351: 3346: 3336: 3331: 3325: 3320: 3310:Domestic effects 3304:Oder–Neisse line 3213:East Brandenburg 3205:Lusatian/Western 3152:Oder–Neisse line 3086:Brandenburg Gate 2992:Oskar Lafontaine 2969:later recalled, 2967:Condoleezza Rice 2942:Final settlement 2936:François Mauriac 2923:Giulio Andreotti 2888: 2886:François Mauriac 2861:, leaving "only 2843:French President 2787: 2703:Richard J. Evans 2593:Social Democrats 2533: 2514: 2437: 2430: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2413:balanced fashion 2391: 2390: 2383: 2348: 2343: 2248:Federal Republic 2224: 2219: 2212: 2207: 2180:Brandenburg Gate 2121: 2114: 2100: 2095: 2089: 2082: 2076: 2071: 2065: 2060: 2054: 2052:Einigungsvertrag 2049: 2032: 2027: 2021: 2016: 1953:East German mark 1936:East German wing 1934:, leader of the 1890:Brandenburg Gate 1875: 1870: 1860:Brandenburg Gate 1837:Communist Regime 1685:Brandenburg Gate 1613: 1602:our Constitution 1471:occupied Germany 1439:Oder–Neisse line 1353:, September 1973 1248:(left) seal the 1205: 1198: 1191: 1178: 1174: 1173: 1172: 1164: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1070: 1053: 1052: 986: 985: 956: 840:Migration Period 835:Germanic peoples 830:Urnfield culture 698: 688: 670: 669: 627: 622: 615: 610: 601: 599:Deutsche Einheit 596: 517:(EC) (later the 483:reunited Germany 464:occupation zones 385:national holiday 382: 374:German Unity Day 362: 348: 326: 147: 145: 144: 135: 133: 132: 120: 118: 114: 101: 89:Native name 81:Brandenburg Gate 77: 58: 54: 21: 14609: 14608: 14604: 14603: 14602: 14600: 14599: 14598: 14554:1990 in Germany 14534: 14533: 14532: 14527: 14514: 14507: 14500: 14493: 14480: 14344: 14295:Life expectancy 14211: 14085: 14056:Law enforcement 13992: 13957: 13884: 13851: 13830: 13814:Divided Germany 13784:Weimar Republic 13712: 13678:Frankish Empire 13666: 13590: 13556: 13550: 13541: 13511: 13506: 13483: 13474:Second Cold War 13432: 13360: 13354: 13330:Odd Arne Westad 13320:Patrick Vaughan 13305:Athan Theoharis 13285:Ellen Schrecker 13270:Yakov M. Rabkin 13245:Timothy Naftali 13190:Tvrtko Jakovina 13175:Jussi Hanhimäki 13058: 13036: 13026: 13004:Paix et Liberté 12979: 12923:Active measures 12904: 12834: 12815:White supremacy 12775:Totalitarianism 12703: 12628: 12551: 12537:Reagan Doctrine 12532:Carter Doctrine 12472:Truman Doctrine 12460: 12407: 12339: 12234:Soviet reaction 12145:Ndogboyosoi War 12052: 12023:Saur Revolution 11850:1973 oil crisis 11815:Munich massacre 11723:Alcora Exercise 11718:Black September 11696: 11442:Sino-Indian War 11336:Simba rebellion 11319: 11163:Capture of the 11071: 11010:Berlin Blockade 10943:May 1947 crises 10933:Truman Doctrine 10898:Greek Civil War 10887:Blacklist Forty 10854:Gouzenko Affair 10841:Cursed soldiers 10793:Morgenthau Plan 10781: 10719: 10714: 10684: 10679: 10663: 10624:Democratization 10614:Decommunization 10597: 10533:Helsinki Summit 10473:April 9 tragedy 10445: 10435: 10364: 10273: 10221: 10212: 10206: 10094: 10088: 9956: 9950: 9903: 9897: 9853:Mathieu Kérékou 9800: 9794: 9726: 9702:Reagan Doctrine 9677:Active measures 9669: 9663: 9654:Totalitarianism 9591: 9585: 9580: 9491: 9482: 9463: 9461:Primary sources 9450:Wayback Machine 9436: 9414:Zelikow, Philip 9338: 9314: 9288: 9265: 9239: 9232: 9225: 9218: 9211: 9206: 9204: 9197: 9192: 9190: 9183: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171:Further reading 9168: 9167: 9159: 9152: 9148: 9147: 9143: 9133: 9131: 9124: 9108: 9104: 9089: 9085: 9075: 9073: 9028: 9019: 9004: 9000: 8991: 8990: 8986: 8976: 8974: 8959: 8958: 8954: 8937: 8933: 8923: 8921: 8906: 8902: 8892: 8890: 8875: 8871: 8861: 8859: 8844: 8840: 8830: 8828: 8813: 8809: 8791: 8785: 8781: 8771: 8769: 8758: 8757: 8753: 8743: 8741: 8726: 8710: 8706: 8696: 8694: 8673: 8672: 8668: 8658: 8656: 8629: 8622: 8579: 8575: 8565: 8563: 8550: 8549: 8545: 8531: 8509: 8505: 8495: 8493: 8486: 8464: 8463: 8459: 8453: 8429: 8422: 8399: 8392: 8382: 8380: 8341: 8332: 8301: 8297: 8274: 8270: 8260: 8258: 8215: 8211: 8201: 8199: 8192: 8176: 8172: 8162: 8160: 8137: 8133: 8088: 8084: 8039: 8035: 8025: 8023: 8010: 8009: 8005: 7995:Wayback Machine 7986: 7982: 7972: 7970: 7969:on 18 July 2011 7957: 7956: 7952: 7942: 7940: 7927: 7926: 7922: 7877: 7873: 7863: 7861: 7846: 7842: 7832: 7830: 7823: 7807: 7803: 7793: 7791: 7776: 7772: 7762: 7760: 7747: 7746: 7742: 7732: 7730: 7715: 7691: 7687: 7656: 7652: 7642: 7640: 7625: 7621: 7611: 7609: 7596: 7595: 7591: 7581: 7579: 7561: 7557: 7547: 7545: 7530: 7526: 7516: 7514: 7499: 7495: 7485: 7483: 7470: 7469: 7462: 7452: 7450: 7435: 7434: 7430: 7420: 7418: 7414: 7407: 7403: 7402: 7398: 7388: 7386: 7373: 7372: 7368: 7358: 7356: 7345: 7341: 7331: 7329: 7316: 7315: 7311: 7301: 7299: 7292:The Irish Times 7284: 7280: 7270: 7268: 7264: 7257: 7253: 7252: 7248: 7238: 7236: 7223: 7222: 7218: 7208: 7206: 7191: 7184: 7174: 7172: 7157: 7153: 7143: 7141: 7124: 7120: 7110: 7108: 7093: 7086: 7076: 7074: 7059: 7042: 7032: 7030: 7029:on 16 July 2011 7015: 7008: 6998: 6996: 6981: 6968: 6958: 6956: 6905: 6901: 6891: 6889: 6854: 6850: 6840: 6838: 6795: 6791: 6781: 6779: 6764: 6760: 6750: 6748: 6735: 6734: 6730: 6720: 6718: 6703: 6676: 6666: 6664: 6653: 6649: 6634:10.2307/1173819 6611: 6604: 6573: 6569: 6559: 6557: 6522: 6518: 6508: 6506: 6479: 6472: 6462: 6460: 6445:10.2307/4140983 6425: 6416: 6402: 6400: 6365: 6361: 6351: 6349: 6326:10.2307/2538865 6306: 6299: 6289: 6287: 6252: 6225: 6215: 6213: 6178: 6167: 6137: 6122: 6112: 6110: 6097: 6096: 6092: 6076: 6072: 6049: 6042: 6019: 6006: 5999: 5985: 5972: 5962: 5960: 5925: 5919: 5908: 5898: 5896: 5889: 5873:. 6 June 2003. 5867: 5866: 5857: 5848: 5846: 5839: 5813: 5809: 5799: 5797: 5790: 5766: 5762: 5752: 5750: 5749:on 20 July 2008 5737: 5736: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5707: 5706: 5702: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5675: 5671: 5670: 5666: 5656: 5654: 5641: 5640: 5636: 5626: 5624: 5617:AP News Archive 5609: 5605: 5595: 5593: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5563: 5559: 5548: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5529: 5527: 5514: 5513: 5504: 5494: 5492: 5479: 5478: 5474: 5464: 5462: 5449: 5448: 5444: 5434: 5432: 5425:London.diplo.de 5419: 5418: 5409: 5399: 5397: 5396:on 25 July 2011 5384: 5383: 5379: 5369: 5367: 5358: 5357: 5353: 5343: 5341: 5328: 5327: 5323: 5313: 5311: 5288: 5284: 5274: 5272: 5257: 5241: 5237: 5228: 5226: 5219: 5195: 5194: 5190: 5181: 5179: 5172: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5110: 5109: 5105: 5095: 5093: 5052: 5051: 5047: 5037: 5035: 5020: 5004: 5000: 4986: 4982: 4972: 4970: 4961: 4960: 4956: 4949: 4933: 4929: 4922: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4881: 4877: 4867: 4865: 4850: 4846: 4829: 4825: 4816: 4812: 4802: 4800: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4773:Wayback Machine 4759:Deutschlandfunk 4754:Wayback Machine 4739: 4735: 4724: 4720: 4709: 4705: 4695: 4693: 4680: 4679: 4675: 4665: 4663: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4633: 4631: 4621:Washington Post 4615: 4614: 4610: 4600: 4598: 4585: 4584: 4580: 4570: 4568: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4540: 4538: 4517: 4516: 4512: 4502: 4500: 4485: 4481: 4471: 4469: 4456: 4455: 4451: 4441: 4439: 4424: 4408: 4404: 4394: 4392: 4377: 4373: 4363: 4361: 4346: 4342: 4332: 4330: 4329:on 18 July 2011 4321: 4320: 4316: 4279: 4272: 4263: 4261: 4259: 4233: 4226: 4216: 4214: 4201: 4200: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4180: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4138:mandate of the 4133: 4129: 4117: 4113: 4099: 4095: 4090: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4012: 3894: 3888: 3844: 3838: 3821: 3820: 3812: 3801: 3798:western Germany 3794:eastern Germany 3790: 3785: 3562: 3538: 3498: 3459: 3448: 3436: 3423: 3409: 3342: 3339:Russian culture 3327: 3316: 3312: 3270: 3265: 3145: 3035:Volkswagen Golf 3019: 3011:West German GDP 3003:nuclear weapons 2944: 2909:European summit 2901:Charles Haughey 2889: 2883: 2876: 2788: 2785: 2772: 2711: 2587:, who left the 2553: 2545:Treuhandanstalt 2527: 2508: 2438: 2427: 2421: 2418: 2408:help improve it 2405: 2392: 2388: 2381: 2339: 2308: 2276: 2215: 2203: 2188: 2110: 2091: 2078: 2067: 2056: 2045: 2023: 2012: 1989: 1981:political union 1961: 1959:Economic merger 1866: 1822: 1817: 1717:(openness) and 1623: 1595: 1521:communist state 1435:its territories 1273:Berlin Blockade 1264: 1261:Avraham Pisarek 1257: 1209: 1170: 1168: 1167: 1156: 1154: 1153: 1146: 1145: 1127: 1106: 1073: 1050: 1040: 1039: 1010:Weimar Republic 983: 973: 972: 959: 928: 918: 917: 898: 888: 887: 863: 855: 854: 850:Frankish Empire 825:Únětice culture 815: 807: 806: 751:Historic states 706: 686: 679: 668: 662: 657: 618: 606: 592: 539: 525:(NATO) and the 511:successor state 470:leave Germany. 419:communist party 358: 344: 337:sovereign state 322: 142: 140: 139: 130: 128: 116: 112: 110: 92: 84: 53: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14607: 14597: 14596: 14591: 14586: 14581: 14576: 14571: 14566: 14561: 14556: 14551: 14546: 14529: 14528: 14526: 14525: 14520: 14513: 14512: 14505: 14498: 14490: 14489: 14486: 14485: 14482: 14481: 14479: 14478: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14433: 14428: 14423: 14418: 14413: 14408: 14403: 14398: 14393: 14392:Cultural icons 14390: 14385: 14380: 14375: 14370: 14365: 14360: 14354: 14352: 14346: 14345: 14343: 14342: 14337: 14332: 14327: 14322: 14317: 14312: 14307: 14302: 14297: 14292: 14287: 14282: 14277: 14272: 14271: 14270: 14265: 14255: 14250: 14245: 14240: 14235: 14229: 14223: 14217: 14216: 14213: 14212: 14210: 14209: 14204: 14199: 14194: 14189: 14184: 14179: 14174: 14172:Stock exchange 14169: 14164: 14156: 14151: 14146: 14141: 14136: 14131: 14126: 14125: 14124: 14114: 14109: 14103: 14097: 14091: 14090: 14087: 14086: 14084: 14083: 14078: 14073: 14068: 14063: 14058: 14053: 14048: 14047: 14046: 14041: 14036: 14026: 14021: 14016: 14011: 14006: 14001: 13996: 13986: 13981: 13975: 13969: 13963: 13962: 13959: 13958: 13956: 13955: 13950: 13945: 13940: 13935: 13930: 13925: 13920: 13919: 13918: 13913: 13902: 13896: 13890: 13889: 13886: 13885: 13883: 13882: 13876: 13870: 13865: 13859: 13857: 13853: 13852: 13850: 13849: 13844: 13838: 13836: 13832: 13831: 13829: 13828: 13827: 13826: 13821: 13811: 13809:Denazification 13806: 13801: 13796: 13791: 13786: 13781: 13776: 13771: 13766: 13761: 13756: 13751: 13746: 13741: 13736: 13731: 13726: 13720: 13718: 13714: 13713: 13711: 13710: 13705: 13700: 13695: 13690: 13685: 13680: 13674: 13672: 13668: 13667: 13665: 13664: 13659: 13654: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13634: 13629: 13624: 13619: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13598: 13596: 13592: 13591: 13589: 13588: 13583: 13581:Historiography 13578: 13573: 13567: 13565: 13558: 13552: 13551: 13540: 13539: 13532: 13525: 13517: 13508: 13507: 13505: 13504: 13499: 13494: 13488: 13485: 13484: 13482: 13481: 13476: 13471: 13466: 13461: 13456: 13451: 13446: 13440: 13438: 13434: 13433: 13431: 13430: 13425: 13420: 13415: 13410: 13405: 13400: 13395: 13390: 13385: 13380: 13375: 13370: 13364: 13362: 13356: 13355: 13353: 13352: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13302: 13300:Timothy Snyder 13297: 13292: 13287: 13282: 13277: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13237: 13232: 13230:Vojtech Mastny 13227: 13225:Geir Lundestad 13222: 13217: 13215:Walter Laqueur 13212: 13210:Walter LaFeber 13207: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13182: 13177: 13172: 13167: 13162: 13157: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13140:André Fontaine 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13070:Gar Alperovitz 13066: 13064: 13060: 13059: 13057: 13056: 13051: 13046: 13040: 13038: 13032: 13031: 13028: 13027: 13025: 13024: 13019: 13013: 13012: 13007: 13000: 12995: 12987: 12985: 12981: 12980: 12978: 12977: 12970: 12965: 12958: 12951: 12946: 12939: 12932: 12925: 12919: 12917: 12910: 12906: 12905: 12903: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12882: 12877: 12872: 12867: 12862: 12857: 12852: 12846: 12844: 12840: 12839: 12836: 12835: 12833: 12832: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12810:Third-Worldism 12807: 12802: 12797: 12792: 12787: 12782: 12777: 12772: 12767: 12762: 12757: 12752: 12747: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12711: 12709: 12705: 12704: 12702: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12669: 12664: 12659: 12654: 12649: 12644: 12638: 12636: 12630: 12629: 12627: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12606: 12601: 12599:Libertarianism 12596: 12591: 12590: 12589: 12579: 12577:Chicago school 12574: 12568: 12566: 12557: 12553: 12552: 12550: 12549: 12544: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12522:Nixon Doctrine 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12499: 12494: 12489: 12484: 12479: 12474: 12468: 12466: 12465:Foreign policy 12462: 12461: 12459: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12417: 12415: 12409: 12408: 12406: 12405: 12400: 12399: 12398: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12368: 12363: 12358: 12353: 12347: 12345: 12341: 12340: 12338: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12287: 12282: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12257: 12252: 12250:Operation RYAN 12247: 12242: 12237: 12227: 12222: 12217: 12212: 12207: 12202: 12197: 12192: 12187: 12182: 12177: 12172: 12167: 12162: 12157: 12155:Able Archer 83 12152: 12147: 12142: 12137: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12102: 12101: 12100: 12090: 12085: 12080: 12071: 12066: 12060: 12058: 12054: 12053: 12051: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12020: 12015: 12010: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11985: 11980: 11975: 11970: 11965: 11960: 11952: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11912: 11907: 11905:Oromo conflict 11902: 11897: 11892: 11887: 11882: 11877: 11872: 11867: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11845:Yom Kippur War 11842: 11837: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11755: 11750: 11745: 11740: 11735: 11730: 11725: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11704: 11702: 11698: 11697: 11695: 11694: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11668: 11667: 11657: 11652: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11628: 11623: 11622: 11621: 11611: 11606: 11601: 11596: 11591: 11586: 11581: 11576: 11571: 11566: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11521: 11516: 11511: 11506: 11501: 11500: 11499: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11477:Aden Emergency 11474: 11469: 11464: 11459: 11454: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11434: 11429: 11428: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11395:Papua conflict 11392: 11387: 11382: 11377: 11376: 11375: 11365: 11364: 11363: 11353: 11348: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11327: 11325: 11321: 11320: 11318: 11317: 11312: 11311: 11310: 11300: 11298:Kitchen Debate 11295: 11290: 11285: 11280: 11275: 11270: 11265: 11260: 11258:Sputnik crisis 11255: 11250: 11242: 11235: 11230: 11228:Polish October 11225: 11220: 11215: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11183: 11178: 11173: 11168: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11130: 11128:Pact of Madrid 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11083:Bamboo Curtain 11079: 11077: 11073: 11072: 11070: 11069: 11064: 11059: 11054: 11053: 11052: 11042: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11002: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10977: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10955: 10950: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10930: 10925: 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10882: 10874: 10866: 10861: 10856: 10851: 10843: 10838: 10837: 10836: 10831: 10823: 10810: 10805: 10800: 10795: 10789: 10787: 10783: 10782: 10780: 10779: 10774: 10769: 10764: 10759: 10754: 10749: 10744: 10739: 10732: 10724: 10721: 10720: 10713: 10712: 10705: 10698: 10690: 10681: 10680: 10678: 10677: 10671: 10669: 10665: 10664: 10662: 10661: 10656: 10651: 10649:Post-communism 10646: 10641: 10636: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10616: 10611: 10605: 10603: 10599: 10598: 10596: 10595: 10590: 10585: 10580: 10575: 10570: 10565: 10560: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10540: 10535: 10530: 10525: 10520: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10470: 10465: 10460: 10455: 10449: 10447: 10441: 10440: 10437: 10436: 10434: 10433: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10372: 10370: 10366: 10365: 10363: 10362: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10281: 10279: 10275: 10274: 10272: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10256: 10251: 10246: 10241: 10239:Czechoslovakia 10236: 10231: 10225: 10223: 10222:Eastern Europe 10214: 10208: 10207: 10205: 10204: 10199: 10194: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10159: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10134: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10114: 10109: 10104: 10098: 10096: 10090: 10089: 10087: 10086: 10081: 10076: 10071: 10069:Isaias Afwerki 10066: 10061: 10056: 10051: 10049:Zianon Pazniak 10046: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9996: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9966: 9960: 9958: 9952: 9951: 9949: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9907: 9905: 9899: 9898: 9896: 9895: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9870: 9865: 9860: 9855: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9830: 9828:Erich Honecker 9825: 9820: 9815: 9810: 9804: 9802: 9796: 9795: 9793: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9772: 9771: 9770: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9740: 9734: 9732: 9728: 9727: 9725: 9724: 9719: 9714: 9709: 9704: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9684: 9679: 9673: 9671: 9665: 9664: 9662: 9661: 9656: 9651: 9646: 9641: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9621: 9616: 9611: 9609:Anti-communism 9606: 9601: 9595: 9593: 9587: 9586: 9579: 9578: 9571: 9564: 9556: 9550: 9549: 9540: 9531: 9520: 9509: 9500:Hessler, Uwe, 9498: 9490: 9489:External links 9487: 9480: 9472:Berghahn Books 9462: 9459: 9458: 9457: 9443:Sites of Unity 9440: 9434: 9410: 9384:(3): 869–888. 9373: 9342: 9336: 9318: 9312: 9292: 9286: 9269: 9263: 9245: 9244: 9230: 9216: 9213:History portal 9202: 9188: 9185:Germany portal 9172: 9169: 9166: 9165: 9141: 9122: 9102: 9083: 9017: 8998: 8984: 8966:Deutsche Welle 8952: 8931: 8900: 8869: 8838: 8807: 8779: 8751: 8724: 8704: 8666: 8643:(4): 193–198. 8620: 8593:(2): 185–186. 8573: 8543: 8530:978-0230337756 8529: 8503: 8485:978-9264101463 8484: 8457: 8451: 8420: 8409:(3): 511–529. 8390: 8330: 8295: 8284:(3): 284–294. 8268: 8209: 8190: 8170: 8131: 8082: 8033: 8003: 7980: 7950: 7920: 7871: 7840: 7821: 7801: 7790:on 7 July 2011 7770: 7740: 7713: 7685: 7650: 7633:Foreign Policy 7619: 7602:Deutsche Welle 7589: 7555: 7524: 7493: 7460: 7428: 7417:on 9 July 2017 7396: 7366: 7339: 7309: 7278: 7246: 7216: 7199:Il Sole 24 Ore 7182: 7165:Deutsche Welle 7151: 7118: 7101:Calgary Herald 7084: 7073:on 27 May 2022 7040: 7006: 6966: 6919:(3): 869–888. 6899: 6848: 6809:(3): 214–216. 6789: 6758: 6728: 6674: 6647: 6602: 6589:10.2307/488195 6567: 6516: 6470: 6414: 6385:10.1086/269295 6359: 6297: 6272:10.2307/488182 6223: 6198:10.1086/269295 6165: 6154:(1): 107–127. 6120: 6090: 6070: 6040: 6029:(5): 348–357. 6004: 5997: 5970: 5906: 5888:978-9264101463 5887: 5855: 5837: 5807: 5788: 5760: 5730: 5700: 5664: 5634: 5603: 5592:on 16 May 2013 5586:Deutschland.de 5573: 5537: 5502: 5472: 5442: 5431:on 7 June 2010 5407: 5377: 5351: 5321: 5282: 5255: 5235: 5218:978-3657779352 5217: 5188: 5170: 5141: 5103: 5045: 5018: 4998: 4980: 4954: 4947: 4927: 4920: 4900: 4894:978-0313281129 4893: 4875: 4844: 4823: 4810: 4780: 4733: 4718: 4703: 4688:. 5 May 2022. 4673: 4641: 4608: 4578: 4548: 4510: 4479: 4449: 4422: 4402: 4371: 4340: 4314: 4270: 4257: 4224: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4161: 4152: 4127: 4119:Kristina Spohr 4111: 4093: 4084: 4074: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4011: 4008: 3992:Mainland China 3927:(1991–present) 3916:on 22 May 1990 3887: 3884: 3852:market economy 3837: 3834: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3777:Klaus Wowereit 3745:Washington, DC 3731:), Australia ( 3689:mass migration 3624:Humboldt Forum 3561: 3560:Unified Berlin 3558: 3494:Percentage of 3475:-Behörde, the 3366:Reconstruction 3358:Southern Italy 3311: 3308: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3180:of Poland and 3144: 3141: 3071:Supreme Soviet 3018: 3015: 2943: 2940: 2881: 2875: 2874:Rest of Europe 2872: 2859:Czechoslovakia 2783: 2771: 2768: 2762:and President 2760:James A. Baker 2753:German economy 2718:Yitzhak Shamir 2710: 2707: 2682:German culture 2671:, who won the 2642:Manfred Stolpe 2627:legal equality 2552: 2549: 2506:Elizabeth Pond 2440: 2439: 2395: 2393: 2386: 2380: 2377: 2318:and President 2307: 2304: 2280:urban planning 2275: 2272: 2187: 2184: 2001:Günther Krause 1988: 1985: 1960: 1957: 1848:Erich Honecker 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1774:Erich Honecker 1687:, challenging 1612: 1529:public economy 1419:United Kingdom 1413:of either the 1399:having Austria 1367:Hans Nimmerich 1258: 1252:, to form the 1242:Otto Grotewohl 1239: 1227:not including 1211: 1210: 1208: 1207: 1200: 1193: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1165: 1148: 1147: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1136:Modern history 1132: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1125: 1120: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1104: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1078: 1077: 1076:1945–1949/1952 1074: 1072: 1071: 1062: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1036: 1035: 1032: 1026: 1025: 1022: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1006: 1005: 1002: 996: 995: 992: 984: 979: 978: 975: 974: 971: 970: 965: 960: 958: 957: 948: 942: 940: 935: 929: 924: 923: 920: 919: 916: 915: 910: 905: 899: 894: 893: 890: 889: 886: 885: 880: 875: 870: 864: 861: 860: 857: 856: 853: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 816: 813: 812: 809: 808: 805: 804: 758: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 716:Historiography 713: 707: 704: 703: 700: 699: 691: 690: 681: 680: 673: 661: 658: 656: 653: 538: 535: 527:United Nations 519:European Union 504:modern Germany 500:3 October 1990 314:(1990–present) 288: 287: 286: 285: 284:completed 2000 279: 276: 261: 247: 241: 231: 228: 199: 196: 193: 190:Free elections 187: 178: 174: 173: 172: 171: 166: 156: 152: 151: 126: 122: 121: 107: 103: 102: 90: 86: 85: 78: 70: 69: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14606: 14595: 14592: 14590: 14587: 14585: 14582: 14580: 14577: 14575: 14572: 14570: 14567: 14565: 14562: 14560: 14557: 14555: 14552: 14550: 14547: 14545: 14542: 14541: 14539: 14524: 14521: 14519: 14516: 14515: 14510: 14506: 14503: 14499: 14496: 14492: 14491: 14487: 14477: 14474: 14472: 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14437: 14434: 14432: 14429: 14427: 14424: 14422: 14419: 14417: 14414: 14412: 14409: 14407: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14394: 14391: 14389: 14386: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14371: 14369: 14366: 14364: 14361: 14359: 14356: 14355: 14353: 14351: 14347: 14341: 14338: 14336: 14335:Social issues 14333: 14331: 14328: 14326: 14323: 14321: 14318: 14316: 14313: 14311: 14308: 14306: 14303: 14301: 14298: 14296: 14293: 14291: 14288: 14286: 14283: 14281: 14278: 14276: 14273: 14269: 14266: 14264: 14263:Ethnic groups 14261: 14260: 14259: 14256: 14254: 14251: 14249: 14246: 14244: 14241: 14239: 14236: 14234: 14231: 14230: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14218: 14208: 14205: 14203: 14200: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14190: 14188: 14185: 14183: 14180: 14178: 14175: 14173: 14170: 14168: 14165: 14163: 14161: 14157: 14155: 14152: 14150: 14147: 14145: 14142: 14140: 14137: 14135: 14132: 14130: 14127: 14123: 14120: 14119: 14118: 14115: 14113: 14110: 14108: 14105: 14104: 14101: 14098: 14096: 14092: 14082: 14079: 14077: 14074: 14072: 14069: 14067: 14064: 14062: 14059: 14057: 14054: 14052: 14049: 14045: 14042: 14040: 14037: 14035: 14032: 14031: 14030: 14027: 14025: 14022: 14020: 14017: 14015: 14012: 14010: 14007: 14005: 14002: 14000: 13997: 13995: 13991: 13987: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13977: 13976: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13964: 13954: 13951: 13949: 13946: 13944: 13941: 13939: 13936: 13934: 13931: 13929: 13926: 13924: 13921: 13917: 13914: 13912: 13909: 13908: 13907: 13904: 13903: 13900: 13897: 13895: 13891: 13880: 13877: 13874: 13871: 13869: 13866: 13864: 13861: 13860: 13858: 13854: 13848: 13845: 13843: 13842:Reunification 13840: 13839: 13837: 13833: 13825: 13822: 13820: 13817: 13816: 13815: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13797: 13795: 13792: 13790: 13787: 13785: 13782: 13780: 13777: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13765: 13764:German Empire 13762: 13760: 13757: 13755: 13752: 13750: 13747: 13745: 13742: 13740: 13737: 13735: 13732: 13730: 13727: 13725: 13722: 13721: 13719: 13715: 13709: 13706: 13704: 13701: 13699: 13696: 13694: 13691: 13689: 13686: 13684: 13681: 13679: 13676: 13675: 13673: 13669: 13663: 13660: 13658: 13655: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13638: 13635: 13633: 13630: 13628: 13625: 13623: 13620: 13618: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13600: 13599: 13597: 13593: 13587: 13584: 13582: 13579: 13577: 13574: 13572: 13569: 13568: 13566: 13562: 13559: 13553: 13549: 13545: 13538: 13533: 13531: 13526: 13524: 13519: 13518: 13515: 13503: 13500: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13489: 13486: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13470: 13467: 13465: 13464:War on terror 13462: 13460: 13457: 13455: 13452: 13450: 13447: 13445: 13442: 13441: 13439: 13435: 13429: 13426: 13424: 13421: 13419: 13416: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13399: 13396: 13394: 13391: 13389: 13386: 13384: 13381: 13379: 13376: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13366: 13365: 13363: 13359:Espionage and 13357: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13310:Andrew Thorpe 13308: 13306: 13303: 13301: 13298: 13296: 13293: 13291: 13288: 13286: 13283: 13281: 13278: 13276: 13273: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13205:Gabriel Kolko 13203: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13181: 13178: 13176: 13173: 13171: 13170:Fred Halliday 13168: 13166: 13163: 13161: 13158: 13156: 13155:Lloyd Gardner 13153: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13115:Norman Davies 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13101: 13100:John Costello 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13073: 13071: 13068: 13067: 13065: 13061: 13055: 13052: 13050: 13047: 13045: 13042: 13041: 13039: 13035:Technological 13033: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13014: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13005: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12993: 12989: 12988: 12986: 12982: 12976: 12975: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12963: 12959: 12957: 12956: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12944: 12940: 12938: 12937: 12933: 12931: 12930: 12926: 12924: 12921: 12920: 12918: 12916:Pro-communist 12914: 12911: 12907: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12873: 12871: 12868: 12866: 12863: 12861: 12858: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12847: 12845: 12843:Organizations 12841: 12831: 12828: 12826: 12823: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12791: 12788: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12773: 12771: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12756: 12753: 12751: 12748: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12713: 12712: 12710: 12706: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12674: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12663: 12660: 12658: 12657:Eurocommunism 12655: 12653: 12650: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12639: 12637: 12635: 12631: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12617: 12615: 12612: 12610: 12607: 12605: 12602: 12600: 12597: 12595: 12592: 12588: 12585: 12584: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12570: 12569: 12567: 12565: 12561: 12558: 12554: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12538: 12535: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12487:Domino theory 12485: 12483: 12480: 12478: 12475: 12473: 12470: 12469: 12467: 12463: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12441:South Ossetia 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12418: 12416: 12414: 12410: 12404: 12401: 12397: 12394: 12393: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12359: 12357: 12354: 12352: 12349: 12348: 12346: 12342: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12293: 12291: 12288: 12286: 12283: 12281: 12278: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12241: 12238: 12235: 12231: 12228: 12226: 12225:8888 Uprising 12223: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12206: 12203: 12201: 12198: 12196: 12193: 12191: 12188: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12178: 12176: 12173: 12171: 12170:Iran–Iraq War 12168: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12158: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12146: 12143: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12135:Falklands War 12133: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12103: 12099: 12096: 12095: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12086: 12084: 12081: 12079: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12061: 12059: 12055: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12019: 12016: 12014: 12011: 12009: 12006: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11998:NDF Rebellion 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11978:German Autumn 11976: 11974: 11971: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11958: 11953: 11951: 11948: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11908: 11906: 11903: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11893: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11865:Metapolitefsi 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11841: 11838: 11836: 11833: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11760: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11749: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11736: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11705: 11703: 11699: 11693: 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11666: 11663: 11662: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11634: 11629: 11627: 11626:Prague Spring 11624: 11620: 11617: 11616: 11615: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11605: 11604:Al-Wadiah War 11602: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11569:12-3 incident 11567: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11515: 11512: 11510: 11507: 11505: 11502: 11498: 11495: 11494: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11445: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11412: 11411: 11408: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11386: 11383: 11381: 11378: 11374: 11371: 11370: 11369: 11366: 11362: 11359: 11358: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11328: 11326: 11322: 11316: 11313: 11309: 11306: 11305: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11266: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11248: 11243: 11240: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11213: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11166: 11161: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11148:Domino theory 11146: 11144: 11143:Petrov Affair 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11080: 11078: 11074: 11068: 11065: 11063: 11060: 11058: 11055: 11051: 11048: 11047: 11046: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11023: 11021: 11020:Madiun Affair 11018: 11016: 11013: 11011: 11008: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10980:Marshall Plan 10978: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10960: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10888: 10883: 10881: 10880: 10875: 10873: 10872: 10867: 10865: 10862: 10860: 10857: 10855: 10852: 10850: 10849: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10829: 10824: 10822: 10821: 10816: 10815: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10806: 10804: 10801: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10791: 10790: 10788: 10784: 10778: 10775: 10773: 10770: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10753: 10750: 10748: 10745: 10743: 10740: 10738: 10737: 10733: 10731: 10730: 10729:United States 10726: 10725: 10722: 10718: 10711: 10706: 10704: 10699: 10697: 10692: 10691: 10688: 10676: 10673: 10672: 10670: 10666: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10654:Yugoslav Wars 10652: 10650: 10647: 10645: 10644:Neo-Stalinism 10642: 10640: 10639:Neo-Sovietism 10637: 10635: 10632: 10630: 10627: 10625: 10622: 10620: 10617: 10615: 10612: 10610: 10607: 10606: 10604: 10600: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10579: 10576: 10574: 10571: 10569: 10566: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10529: 10526: 10524: 10523:Black January 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10450: 10448: 10442: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10373: 10371: 10367: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10282: 10280: 10276: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10235: 10232: 10230: 10227: 10226: 10224: 10218: 10215: 10209: 10203: 10200: 10198: 10195: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10148: 10145: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10099: 10097: 10091: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10074:Ronald Reagan 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10054:Zhelyu Zhelev 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10034:Boris Yeltsin 10032: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10014:Joachim Gauck 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9961: 9959: 9953: 9947: 9946:Strike action 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9908: 9906: 9900: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9888:Todor Zhivkov 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9878:Deng Xiaoping 9876: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9834: 9831: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9805: 9803: 9797: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9745: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9735: 9733: 9729: 9723: 9720: 9718: 9715: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9707:Soviet Empire 9705: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9678: 9675: 9674: 9672: 9668:International 9666: 9660: 9657: 9655: 9652: 9650: 9647: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9594: 9588: 9584: 9577: 9572: 9570: 9565: 9563: 9558: 9557: 9554: 9548: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9537: 9532: 9529: 9525: 9521: 9518: 9514: 9510: 9507: 9503: 9499: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9486: 9483: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9455: 9451: 9447: 9444: 9441: 9437: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9387: 9383: 9379: 9374: 9370: 9366: 9362: 9358: 9354: 9350: 9349: 9343: 9339: 9333: 9329: 9328: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9309: 9305: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9289: 9283: 9279: 9275: 9270: 9266: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9247: 9246: 9242: 9236: 9231: 9228: 9222: 9217: 9214: 9203: 9200: 9189: 9186: 9175: 9158: 9151: 9145: 9129: 9125: 9119: 9115: 9114: 9106: 9098: 9094: 9087: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9049: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9026: 9024: 9022: 9013: 9009: 9002: 8994: 8988: 8972: 8968: 8967: 8962: 8956: 8948: 8947: 8942: 8935: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8904: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8873: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8842: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8811: 8803: 8799: 8798: 8790: 8783: 8767: 8766: 8761: 8755: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8721: 8717: 8716: 8708: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8676: 8670: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8627: 8625: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8584: 8577: 8561: 8557: 8553: 8547: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8507: 8491: 8487: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8468: 8461: 8454: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8434: 8427: 8425: 8416: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8397: 8395: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8339: 8337: 8335: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8299: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8272: 8256: 8252: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8213: 8197: 8193: 8191:0-415-14124-9 8187: 8183: 8182: 8174: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8135: 8127: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8110: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8086: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8037: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8007: 8000: 7996: 7992: 7989: 7984: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7954: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7924: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7882: 7875: 7859: 7856:(in German). 7855: 7851: 7844: 7828: 7824: 7818: 7814: 7813: 7805: 7789: 7785: 7784:Anniston Star 7781: 7774: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7744: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7716: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7697: 7689: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7654: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7623: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7593: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7559: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7528: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7497: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7467: 7465: 7448: 7444: 7443: 7438: 7432: 7413: 7406: 7400: 7384: 7380: 7376: 7370: 7354: 7350: 7343: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7313: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7282: 7263: 7256: 7250: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7220: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7189: 7187: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7155: 7139: 7135: 7130: 7122: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7091: 7089: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7057: 7055: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7047: 7045: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7013: 7011: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6979: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6971: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6903: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6852: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6793: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6762: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6732: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6701: 6699: 6697: 6695: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6687: 6685: 6683: 6681: 6679: 6662: 6658: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6609: 6607: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6571: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6520: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6477: 6475: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6423: 6421: 6419: 6411: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6363: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6304: 6302: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6244: 6242: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6176: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6135: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6125: 6108: 6104: 6102: 6094: 6088: 6084: 6081:. pp. 9–10. 6080: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6047: 6045: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6011: 6009: 6000: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5924: 5917: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5894: 5890: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5871: 5864: 5862: 5860: 5844: 5840: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5811: 5795: 5791: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5772: 5764: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5734: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5685: 5681: 5674: 5668: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5558: 5554: 5547: 5541: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5460: 5457:(in German). 5456: 5452: 5446: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5416: 5414: 5412: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5381: 5365: 5361: 5355: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5325: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5286: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5247: 5239: 5224: 5220: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5192: 5177: 5173: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5145: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5107: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5049: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5019:0-356-19760-3 5015: 5011: 5010: 5002: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4968: 4964: 4958: 4950: 4944: 4940: 4939: 4931: 4923: 4917: 4913: 4912: 4904: 4896: 4890: 4886: 4879: 4863: 4860:(in German). 4859: 4855: 4848: 4841: 4840:3-406-06035-8 4837: 4833: 4827: 4820: 4814: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4761: 4760: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4707: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4677: 4661: 4658:(in German). 4657: 4656: 4651: 4645: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4612: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4552: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4453: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4415: 4414: 4406: 4390: 4387:(in German). 4386: 4382: 4375: 4359: 4356:(in German). 4355: 4351: 4344: 4328: 4324: 4318: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4277: 4275: 4260: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4229: 4212: 4209:(in German). 4208: 4204: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4189: 4175: 4171: 4165: 4156: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4131: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4108: 4104: 4097: 4088: 4079: 4075: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4021: 4016: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3972:North Vietnam 3967: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3883: 3879: 3876: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3860: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3843: 3833: 3831: 3824: 3818: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3780: 3778: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3741:New York City 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3640: 3632: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3605: 3604:Walter Momper 3602: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3566: 3557: 3553: 3551: 3550:privatization 3546: 3541: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3518: 3512: 3508: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3451: 3444: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3388: 3387:Angela Merkel 3377: 3373: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3324: 3323:Mauer im Kopf 3319: 3307: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3280: 3275: 3260: 3258: 3257:Upper Silesia 3254: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3143:Polish border 3140: 3137: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2988: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2927:pan-Germanism 2924: 2920: 2919: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2887: 2880: 2871: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2800: 2796: 2793: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2756: 2754: 2745: 2741: 2740:Soviet leader 2737: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2726:Jewish people 2723: 2719: 2716: 2706: 2704: 2699: 2698:Heiner Müller 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2631:Günter Kunert 2628: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2581:pan-Germanism 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2537:Mauer im Kopf 2531: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2494: 2488: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2436: 2433: 2425: 2415: 2414: 2409: 2403: 2401: 2394: 2385: 2384: 2376: 2374: 2373: 2372:Kristallnacht 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2320:Joachim Gauck 2317: 2316:Angela Merkel 2312: 2303: 2301: 2295: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2284:redevelopment 2281: 2271: 2268: 2264: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2243: 2239: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2223: 2218: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2192: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2136:Saxony-Anhalt 2133: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2119: 2113: 2108: 2102: 2099: 2094: 2088: 2087: 2081: 2075: 2070: 2064: 2059: 2053: 2048: 2042: 2040: 2039:Rita Süssmuth 2036: 2031: 2026: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1972:Deutsche Mark 1969: 1968: 1956: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1903: 1898: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1849: 1844: 1838: 1834: 1831:with cut-out 1830: 1826: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1801: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1787:Soviet troops 1784: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1681:Ronald Reagan 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1659: 1655: 1650: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1630:Ronald Reagan 1627: 1620: 1616: 1610: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1447:former Poland 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1415:United States 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1352: 1347: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1327: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1301: 1297: 1291:; 1 July 1948 1290: 1286: 1281: 1274: 1270: 1263: 1262: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1246:Wilhelm Pieck 1243: 1237: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1194: 1192: 1187: 1186: 1184: 1183: 1177: 1166: 1163: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1118:Reunification 1116: 1115: 1113: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1075: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1055: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1043: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1007: 1003: 1001: 998: 997: 993: 991: 990:German Empire 988: 987: 982: 977: 976: 969: 966: 964: 961: 955: 954: 949: 947: 944: 943: 941: 939: 936: 934: 933:Mediatisation 931: 930: 927: 922: 921: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 900: 897: 892: 891: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 859: 858: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 817: 814:Early history 811: 810: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 759: 756: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 708: 702: 701: 697: 693: 692: 689: 683: 682: 677: 672: 671: 667: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 633: 631: 626: 621: 614: 609: 603: 600: 595: 590: 589: 584: 583:reunification 580: 576: 572: 571:German Empire 568: 564: 556: 552: 548: 543: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 507: 505: 501: 497: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 471: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 407: 405: 401: 397: 394: 390: 386: 381: 376: 375: 370: 366: 361: 356: 352: 347: 342: 338: 334: 330: 325: 320: 313: 309: 302: 298: 294: 283: 280: 277: 274: 270: 266: 262: 259: 255: 251: 248: 245: 242: 240: 236: 232: 229: 226: 222: 221:Saxony-Anhalt 218: 214: 210: 206: 205: 200: 197: 194: 191: 188: 185: 182: 181: 179: 175: 170: 167: 165: 162: 161: 160: 157: 153: 150: 138: 127: 123: 108: 104: 100: 99: 95: 91: 87: 82: 76: 71: 68: 64: 59: 51: 47: 46: 45:Infobox event 42: 37: 33: 19: 14509:Bibliography 14383:Coat of arms 14363:Architecture 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New York. 4666:13 December 4634:18 November 4601:13 December 4571:18 November 4541:18 November 4523:Der Spiegel 4503:18 November 4472:18 November 4395:14 December 4364:14 December 4293:(2): 8–17. 4107:single team 3990:as well as 3988:South Korea 3964:Vietnam War 3910:South Yemen 3906:North Yemen 3902:unification 3870:social ties 3739:), the US ( 3723:), Canada ( 3593:Hans Modrow 3582:West Berlin 3578:East Berlin 3499: [ 3496:party votes 3443:Grundgesetz 3431:Grundgesetz 3274:great power 3237:Helmut Kohl 3199:signed the 3033:, 1990). 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London. 7111:9 November 7033:8 November 6741:www.dw.com 6087:1136250646 5849:19 October 5753:19 October 5455:www.mdr.de 5435:19 October 5400:19 October 4741:Tonia Koch 4333:5 November 4184:References 3960:Korean War 3953:Capitalist 3890:See also: 3886:Comparison 3840:See also: 3783:Assessment 3673:Düsseldorf 3572:While the 3507:Left Party 3406:Left Party 3368:after the 3172:along the 3039:Volkswagen 2816:Strasbourg 2814:summit in 2686:philosophy 2324:Bürgerfest 2162:alongside 2160:city-state 1910:Chancellor 1615:CDU Leader 1417:(US), the 1341:on 17 June 1140:since 1990 1123:New states 1067:Ostgebiete 1060:Occupation 953:Zollverein 801:Mediatised 711:Chronology 630:Egon Krenz 473:After the 462:status as 398:were also 117:1991-03-15 113:1989-11-09 14426:Libraries 14406:Festivals 14253:Education 14197:Transport 14162:companies 14081:President 14019:Elections 13984:Bundesrat 13979:Bundestag 13948:Mountains 13916:Districts 13894:Geography 13627:Visigoths 13564:Overviews 13350:Ken Young 13195:Tony Judt 13044:Arms race 13017:Red Scare 12885:NN States 12830:Apartheid 12785:Autocracy 12694:Stalinism 12662:Guevarism 12652:Castroism 12642:Communism 12634:Socialism 12160:Star Wars 11753:Koza riot 10879:Beleaguer 10871:Masterdom 10659:Pink tide 10453:Jeltoqsan 10369:Elsewhere 10320:Lithuania 10172:Rastokhez 10112:New Forum 10095:movements 9994:Chai Ling 9604:Communism 9545:from the 9398:0018-246X 9369:1479-4012 9255:Routledge 9066:0033-5533 8615:153436467 8607:0969-7764 8539:183674585 8365:1556-5068 8325:144040097 8243:0002-8282 8153:2195-1349 8126:184882749 8118:1370-7477 8077:184882749 8069:1370-7477 7915:184882749 7907:1370-7477 7723:247068186 7680:218888433 7577:0362-4331 7538:Brookings 7486:9 October 7389:7 October 7077:5 October 7067:The Times 7023:The Times 6999:5 October 6933:0018-246X 6882:0002-8762 6823:0020-7020 6721:4 October 6342:153877446 5958:108646113 5693:9 October 5553:NBC Learn 5304:0362-4331 5265:317287167 5086:242693987 5078:1549-778X 4629:0190-8286 4531:2195-1349 4432:427322273 4385:Telepolis 4309:2199-9201 3980:civil war 3866:household 3803:‹See Tfd› 3753:The Hague 3749:Amsterdam 3705:Frankfurt 3669:Stuttgart 3648:socialist 3540:‹See Tfd› 3526:far-right 3461:‹See Tfd› 3450:‹See Tfd› 3438:‹See Tfd› 3425:‹See Tfd› 3416:Die Linke 3411:‹See Tfd› 3344:‹See Tfd› 3329:‹See Tfd› 3318:‹See Tfd› 3178:Zgorzelec 2897:Taoiseach 2730:Holocaust 2728:" in the 2722:a country 2646:Anschluss 2618:Basic Law 2454:left-wing 2341:‹See Tfd› 2260:Bundestag 2217:‹See Tfd› 2205:‹See Tfd› 2140:Thuringia 2112:‹See Tfd› 2093:‹See Tfd› 2080:‹See Tfd› 2069:‹See Tfd› 2058:‹See Tfd› 2047:‹See Tfd› 2025:‹See Tfd› 2014:‹See Tfd› 1868:‹See Tfd› 1800:Die Wende 1701:Churchill 1425:, or the 1331:IS-2 tank 1109:1949–1990 1086:1944–1950 1034:1939–1945 1024:1933–1945 1014:1918–1933 1004:1914–1918 994:1871–1918 769:Empresses 649:anschluss 620:‹See Tfd› 613:die Wende 608:‹See Tfd› 594:‹See Tfd› 588:Die Wende 569:into the 557:, Germany 417:(SED) (a 360:‹See Tfd› 346:‹See Tfd› 324:‹See Tfd› 225:Thuringia 98:Die Wende 48:is being 14589:Ostalgie 14518:Category 14436:Internet 14421:Language 14411:Folklore 14330:Religion 14305:Pensions 14300:Naturism 14177:Taxation 14061:Lobbying 14034:Intersex 13967:Politics 13576:Timeline 13555:General 13548:articles 13502:Timeline 13492:Category 13437:See also 12929:Izvestia 12770:Islamism 12667:Hoxhaism 12542:Rollback 12421:Abkhazia 12361:Gulf War 12265:Glasnost 11635:incident 11405:Sand War 11263:Ifni War 10772:Rio Pact 10717:Cold War 10416:Mongolia 10411:Ethiopia 10396:Cambodia 10300:Chechnya 10234:Bulgaria 10009:Tank Man 9999:Wang Dan 9984:Liu Gang 9941:Samizdat 9936:Protests 9775:Glasnost 9758:500 Days 9682:Cold War 9590:Internal 9446:Archived 9420:(2002). 9324:(2016). 9298:(1999). 9157:Archived 9128:Archived 9070:Archived 8971:Archived 8918:Archived 8887:Archived 8856:Archived 8825:Archived 8738:Archived 8734:61303516 8691:Archived 8681:. 2017. 8653:Archived 8560:Archived 8490:Archived 8377:Archived 8373:18564127 8255:Archived 8251:59469739 8196:Archived 8157:Archived 7991:Archived 7858:Archived 7854:Die Welt 7827:Archived 7757:Archived 7727:Archived 7606:Archived 7542:Archived 7511:Archived 7480:Archived 7478:. 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